Engineering Geology 88 (2006) 110 – 120

www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Geotechnical properties of tire-cohesive clayey soil mixtures

as a fill material
Hasan Cetin a,⁎, Mustafa Fener b , Osman Gunaydin b
a
Department of Geology, Çukurova University, Adana, 01330, Turkey
b
Department of Geology, Nigde University, Nigde, 51100, Turkey
Received 20 October 2005; received in revised form 1 August 2006; accepted 6 September 2006
Available online 20 October 2006

Abstract

Geotechnical properties of pure fine and coarse grained tire-chips and their mixtures (10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%) with a cohesive
clayey soil were investigated through a series of soil mechanical tests in order to investigate possibilities of their usage as a
lightweight fill material. Grain size and Atterberg limits analysis, permeability, direct shear and compaction tests were performed
on the clayey soil, tire chips (both fine and coarse) alone and their mixtures.
The results indicate that the use of used tire-chips mixed with clayey soils as a fill material is possible. The mixtures up to 20%
coarse grained tire-chips and 30% fine grained tire-chips can be used above ground water tables where low weight, low
permeability and high strength are needed in fills such as highway embankments, bridge abutments and backfills behind retaining
structures especially when they are to be built on weak foundation soils with low bearing capacity and high settlement problems.
They should not be used where drainage is needed to prevent the development of pore pressures during loading of fills under
saturated conditions. In these cases, they may, however, be used by mixing with high permeability material such as sand and gravel.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Rubber tire-chips; Clayey soil; Lightweight fill; Embankment; Abutments; Backfills

1. Introduction
The volume of used rubber auto tires in the world is
increasing every year and their disposal have, therefore,
become a major environmental problem worldwide.
Every year, millions of scrap tires are either discarded in
huge piles across the landscape or dumped in landfills in
large volumes. These tire piles not only cause
environmental pollution but also pose fire and health
hazards. Generally, weighing between 10 and 50 kg,
tires are very bulky, and difficult to manage. They are
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 322 3386084 / 2079; fax: +90
322-3386126.
E-mail address: cetinh@mail.cu.edu.tr (H. Cetin).
0013-7952/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2006.09.002
less dense than other waste items, so they occupy large
volumes in landfills. Rainwater tends to collect in
stockpiled tires, which then become a breeding ground
for mosquitoes that carry dangerous diseases such as
encephalitis. Producing toxic smoke and oils, stockpiled
tires are also a fire hazard. Several states in the United
States have, therefore, banned the disposal of used tires
in the land (Masad et al., 1996).
Some of the current uses of scrap tires include rubber
modified asphalt (RMA) for road construction and
running track, Tire-Derived Fuel (TDF) which is a low-
sulfur, high heating-value fuel, remanufactured tires,
highway crash barriers, alternative playground bases and
playground equipment, fashion accessories such as ties,
shoes, notebook covers, and purses. However, these uses
 H. Cetin et al. / Engineering Geology 88 (2006) 110–120
Table 1
Some properties of the clayey soil
Properties
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Shrikage limit (%)
Plasticity index (%)
Specific gravity
Grain sizes (%)
Gravel
Sand
Silt
Clay
Soil type (USCS)
Description
are still not enough to consume the large quantities of scrap
tires generated every year. The majority of scrap tires
especially in developing countries are, therefore, either
stockpiled, landfilled or dumped in the country illegally.
Lately, several researchers have been undertaken in
order to study possibilities of using tire-chips in civil
engineering applications such as highway embankments
and backfills behind retaining structures over weak or
compressible soils. According to Humphrey (1999),
using tire-chips in civil engineering applications are
advantageous because of their low density, high
durability, high thermal insulation and in many cases
least cost compared to other fill materials. Previous
studies have mainly concentrated on determining
engineering properties of pure tire-chips and/or various
mixtures of tire-chips with sand as a lightweight fill
material (Ahmed, 1993; Edil and Bosscher, 1994;
University, 1995; Foose et al., 1996; Masad et al.,
1996; Wu et al., 1997; Lee et al., 1999; Yang et al.,
2002; Youwai and Bergado, 2004). They concluded that
tire-chips and sand mixtures can be used as a lightweight
Fig. 1. Particle size distribution curves for the clayey soil, fine and coarse grained tire-chips.
111
fill material behind retaining structures and highway
embankments over weak or high compressibility soils
Clayey Soil and further studies are needed to investigate the use of
41.6 different tire-chips sizes and percentages with various
25.7 types of soils.
21.3 Conventional highway embankment and retaining
15.9
wall fill materials in practice may, however, include con-
2.72
siderable amount of fines. The aim of this study is, there-
0.0 fore, to determine geotechnical properties of pure fine and
7.8 coarse grained tire-chips and their various mixtures with a
31.5 clayey (cohesive) soil as a lightweight fill material in
60.7
highway embankments, bridge abutments and backfills
CL
Silty clay behind retaining structures. Usage of tire-chips espe-
cially in highway embankments will have a positive
impact on the environment since large quantities can be
consumed in these voluminous structures.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sample preparation and index property testing
Samples were prepared by mixing a cohesive clayey
(CL type) soil with 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50% coarse and
fine grained tire-chips free of steel belts by weight
(Table 1 and Fig. 1). Percentages of mixtures by volume
are shown in Table 2. Fine tire-chips were under
0.425 mm (No. 40 sieve) and coarse tire-chips were
between 2 mm (No. 10 sieve) and 4.75 mm (No. 4 sieve)
in size (Fig. 1). This is needed to study effect of fine and
coarse tire-chips separately since, similar to fine and
coarse grained soils, they may behave differently. The
clayey soil was locally obtained from the Guvenc
formation of Miocene age (Schmidt, 1961) outcropping
in the Adana basin in southern Turkey. The tire-chips
were obtained from a local tire manufacturing plant.
Effects of tire-chips on the geotechnical properties of
112 H. Cetin et al. / Engineering Geology 88 (2006) 110–120

Table 2 materials used (Cedergren, 1989). Therefore, using falling

Compositions of mixtures by weight and volume head method, permeability tests were conducted on the
By weight (%) By volume (%) clayey soil and mixtures in a consolidation test apparatus
Pure clay (0% fine tire-chips) Pure clay setup. The samples were cylindrical in 2.85 cm height and
10% fine tire-chips 18% fine tire-chips 6.35 cm diameter, and were saturated prior to measuring
20% fine tire-chips 33% fine tire-chips permeability by applying headwater pressure in a
30% fine tire-chips 46% fine tire-chips
graduated glass burette connected to the bottom portion
40% fine tire-chips 57% fine tire chips
50% fine tire-chips 66% fine tire-chips of the consolidometer. The permeability values were
100% fine tire-chips 100% fine tire-chips determined at normal pressures of 46, 93, 185, 287 and
10% coarse tire-chips 25% coarse tire-chips 370 kPa simulating various possible overburden pressures.
20% coarse tire-chips 42% coarse tire-chips
30% coarse tire-chips 55% coarse tire-chips
2.3. Shear and deformation testing
40% coarse tire-chips 66% coarse tire-chips
50% coarse tire-chips 74% coarse tire-chips
100% coarse tire-chips 100% coarse tire-chips The behavior of fills also depends on the strength and
deformation characteristics of the fill materials used.
Consolidated undrained direct shear tests (or consoli-
this cohesive clayey soil were investigated through a dated quick, Qc, tests) were performed to determine the
series of soil mechanical tests. shear strength and vertical or volumetric strain char-
Grain size analysis and Atterberg limits tests were acteristics of the clayey soil and the mixtures under
performed in order to classify both the clayey soil and the various normal pressures. Smaller additional normal
mixtures according to the Unified Soil Classification pressures were used in order to secure the shapes of the
System (USCS). Atterberg limits tests were performed failure envelopes at lower normal pressures for both the
only on the clayey soil and the fine tire-chip mixtures fine and coarse grained tire-chip mixtures alone.
since they are performed only on soil fraction passing The tests were performed under saturated conditions
No:40 (0.425 mm) sieve and the coarse grained tire-chips as described in Lambe (1951) and Liu and Evett (1984)
used in this study would be retained on this sieve. The or similar to the consolidated drained tests (or slow, S,
tests were performed following the American Society of tests) of the ASTM D 3080-98 (2003) except that a
Testing Materials (ASTM) D 422-63, D 4318-00 and faster shear rate (1 mm/minute) was used so that the
D 427-98 (2003), respectively. drainage is non or minimal. Complete prevention of
drainage in direct shear tests is very difficult. Therefore,
2.2. Permeability testing the great majority of so-called undrained tests in direct
shear test machines are not completely undrained; the
The behavior of fills under saturated conditions is larger the applied normal load, the greater the tendency
greatly influenced by the drainage characteristics of the fill for drainage (Lambe, 1951).

Fig. 2. Changes of liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index and clay content as the % tire-chips increases.
 H. Cetin et al. / Engineering Geology 88 (2006) 110–120 113

Fig. 3. Relationship between coefficient of permeability and normal pressure for (a) fine-grained, (b) coarse-grained tire-chip mixtures and the clayey
soil alone.

Fig. 4. Relationship between coefficient of permeability and normal pressure for pure fine-grained and pure coarse-grained tire-chips.
114 H. Cetin et al. / Engineering Geology 88 (2006) 110–120

Fig. 5. Shear stress versus horizontal displacement and vertical deformation curves for (a) the clayey soil and (b–f ) fine-grained tire-chip mixtures.
 H. Cetin et al. / Engineering Geology 88 (2006) 110–120 115

Fig. 6. Shear stress versus horizontal displacement and vertical deformation curves for (a) the clayey soil and (b–f ) coarse-grained tire-chip mixtures.
116 H. Cetin et al. / Engineering Geology 88 (2006) 110–120
The tests were performed on a direct-shear device
(ELE D-300) with a 6 cm x 6 cm square and 3.5 cm
height shear box seated in a pan which was filled with
water and kept full during the tests.
2.4. Compaction testing
Stability and settlement of an earth-fill structure such
as an highway embankment and bridge abutment depends
on how well the fill material is compacted. If the fill
material, for example, is dumped or otherwise placed at
random in a fill, the result will be an embankment with
low stability and high settlement (Holtz and Kovacs,
1981). Therefore, following ASTM D 698-00a (2003),
standard proctor (compaction) tests were run to determine
first the compaction characteristics of the clayey soil
alone, then, for comparison, for both the fine and coarse
tire-chip mixtures. The optimum moisture contents (Wopt)
at which the dry unit weights or densities (γdry), therefore,
compactions, are greatest were determined.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Index property analysis
The soil indices and grain size curve of the clayey
soil are given in Table 1 and Fig. 1, respectively. Accor-
ding to the USCS, the clayey soil classifies as a CL type
soil, with medium plasticity. The majority of the clay
minerals are smectites and the remainder are palygors-
kites and kaolinites (Sayarslan et al., 1997). The clayey
soil alone has 60.70% clay content which decrease
gradually as the tire-chips are added. It, for example,
Fig. 7. Shear stress versus fine-grained and coarse-grained % tire-chips.
becomes 30.35% at the 50% fine tire-chip mixture by
weight. Accordingly, the Atterberg limits are expected
to decrease. Interestingly, the liquid limit (41.55%) stays
about the same up to 30% then it starts to decrease while
the plastic limit (25.67%) stays about the same up to
10% from which point on it shows some amount of
decrease up to 20% then stays about the same (Fig. 2).
These results are similar to those of typical fine grained
cohesive soils with medium plasticity.
3.2. Permeability tests
The behavior of an embankment under saturated
conditions is greatly influenced by the drainage
characteristics of the fill material used (Cedergren,
1989). A well-drained material will prevent the develop-
ment of excess pore pressures during loading of fills and
also accelerates consolidation of underlying low per-
meability foundation soils by providing a drainage path,
thereby enhancing the stability of structures (Cedergren,
1989; Ahmed, 1993).
The permeability tests were conducted on the pure
clayey soil, fine and coarse tire-chips and the mixtures
under different loading conditions in a consolidation test
apparatus setup. The samples were saturated prior to
measuring permeability. The permeability values were
determined at normal pressures of 46, 93, 185, 287 and
370 kPa simulating various possible overburden pres-
sures and the results are shown in Fig. 3. The per-
meabilities of the clayey soil alone and all the mixtures
are low (x10− 7 – 10− 8 cm/s) which are consistent with
typical low permeability clayey soils. Effects of both the
fine and coarse-grained tire-chips and the normal
 H. Cetin et al. / Engineering Geology 88 (2006) 110–120 117

pressures on the permeability are similar. The perme-
abilities increase as the % tire-chips increases and the
normal pressure decreases. The higher the % tire-chips
and the lower the normal pressure the higher the dif-
ference in the increase is.
These results indicate that the mixtures can be used
where low permeability and density (or loading) are
needed in fills on weak foundation material such as
alluvium. They should not be used where drainage is
needed to prevent the development of pore pressures
during loading of fills under saturated conditions. They
may, however, be used by mixing with high permeabil-
ity material such as sand and gravel. They may also be
used in unsaturated conditions where drainage is not
needed, for example, in highway embankments and
backfills behind retaining structures when they are to be
built above ground water tables.
The permeabilities of both the fine and coarse-
grained tire-chips alone are high (x10− 3–10− 4 cm/s)
which are typical of sands (Fig. 4). Masad et al. (1996)
found similar results and suggested that such high
values of permeability render the use of tire-chips alone
or in combination with sand as a useful fill material in
embankments.
3.3. Direct shear tests
Consolidated undrained direct shear tests were
performed to determine the shear strengths and vertical
or volumetric strain characteristics of the clayey soil,
tire-chips (both fine and coarse) alone and the mixtures
under different normal pressures. The shear stress versus
horizontal displacement curves are shown in Figs. 5
and 6. As seen here, almost all the samples showed a

Fig. 8. Failure envelopes of (a) fine-grained, (b) coarse-grained tire-chip mixtures as well as pure clayey soil and tire-chips alone.
118 H. Cetin et al. / Engineering Geology 88 (2006) 110–120

stress-hardening behavior, in other words, there were no negative vertical strains for the clayey soil alone under
clear drops, therefore, no pronounced peaks (failure higher normal pressures such as 327 kPa either decrease
points) on the slopes of the curves. In these cases, it is considerably for the fine tire-chip mixtures or become
suggested that 10–20% shear deformation should be slightly above zero or positive for the coarse tire-chips
taken as the failure point (Liu and Evett, 1984; ASTM mixtures as the percent tire-chips increases up to 50%.
D 3080-98, 2003). Studying soil structure changes In general, the addition of both fine and coarse tire-chips
during drained and undrained shear of a cohesive sandy seem to decrease vertical strains especially under higher
silt–clay soil showing a stress-hardening behavior, Cetin normal pressures. As the % tire-chips increase, the fine
and Söylemez (2004) showed that the failure of such grained tire-chip mixtures seem to behave like fine
soils occur at 15% shear deformation. The shear grained clayey soils while the coarse grained tire-chip
strengths were found by taking the 15% shear deforma- mixtures seem to behave similar to coarse-grained soils
tion (in our case 9 mm) as the failure point. The shear such as sands.
stresses at failure versus % tire-chips (fine and coarse) The direct shear test results indicate that the mixtures
under different normal pressures are shown in Fig. 7. As up to 20% coarse grained tire-chips and 30% fine
seen here, there is a clear increase in the shear strengths grained tire-chips have high shear strength character-
up to at least 30% for fine and 20% for coarse tire chip istics (higher than the clayey soil alone) in terms of shear
mixtures. For example, 110 kPa shear strength of the strengths, cohesion and angle of internal friction;
pure (0% mixture) clayey soil under the normal pressure therefore, can be used as fill material.
of 327 kPa increases to 181 kPa for the coarse and
140 kPa for the fine tire-chip mixtures at 20% and 30%, 3.4. Compaction tests
respectively. Also, the shear strengths increase as the
normal pressures increase. Standard proctor (compaction) tests were run to de-
The failure envelopes, the cohesion and angle of termine the compaction characteristics of the clayey soil
internal friction versus % fine and coarse tire-chip
mixtures are shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Cohesion increases
as the % of tire-chips increase up to 40% for both fine
and coarse mixtures while the angle of internal friction
decrease. In other words, the more chips are added, the
more cohesion and the less angle of internal friction are
achieved until 40% tire-chips content. For example,
19 kPa cohesion of the pure clayey soil (0% mixture)
increases to 54 kPa for the fine and 56 kPa for the coarse
tire-chip mixtures at 40%. The 21 ° angle of internal
friction of the clayey soil (0% mixture), on the other
hand, decreases to 10 ° for the fine and 15 ° for the
coarse tire-chip mixtures at 40%. From 40% on,
however, while the cohesion decreases, the angle of
internal friction increases. The failure envelope first
rotates clockwise until 40% tire-chip mixtures, then it
rotates anticlockwise for both type of mixtures.
Figs. 5 and 6 also show the volumetric (vertical)
strain versus horizontal shear strain characteristics. The
vertical strain values under the selected normal pres-
sures for the clayey soil alone are all negative or com-
pression is taking place which is consistent with typical
normally consolidated clayey soils (Figs. 5a and 6a).
The fine and coarse tire-chips mixtures under the
normal pressure of 54 kPa does not show considerable
vertical strains or volume change during shear; slightly
negative vertical strain (compression) for the clayey soil
alone becomes nearly zero or slightly positive (dilation) Fig. 9. Change of (a) cohesion, (b) angle of internal friction as % tire-
(Figs. 5b–f and 6b–f ). However, originally high chips (fine and coarse) increase.
 H. Cetin et al. / Engineering Geology 88 (2006) 110–120
alone as well as the fine and coarse tire-chip mixtures.
Optimum moisture contents (Wopt ) at which the dry unit
weights or densities (γdry) are highest were determined
first for the clayey soil alone, then, for comparison, for
both the fine and coarse tire-chip mixtures. The results
are shown in Fig. 10. For the clayey soil alone, the
Fig. 10. Standard proctor test curve for the clayey soil alone and for
fine (a) and coarse (b) grained tire-chips mixtures. The curve for the
clayey soil alone was plotted on both a and b for comparison.
119
maximum dry unit weight (γdry) of 15.79 kN/m3 is
obtained at the optimum moisture content (Wopt) of
19%. The dry unit weights for both the fine and coarse
tire-chip mixtures decrease as the percent tire-chips
increase. They, for example, become 13.43 kN/m3 and
12.50 kN/m3 for the suggested upper limit mixtures of
20% coarse grained tire-chips and 30% fine grained tire-
chips, respectively. The results indicate that the dry
densities of the tire-chip mixtures are less than the dry
density of typical soils including the clayey soil used in
this study. Such values show a good potential for using
the tire-chips as lightweight fill material.
4. Conclusions
The results indicate that the shear strengths increase
up to 30% for fine and 20% for coarse tire chip mixtures.
The higher the normal pressure the higher the shear
strength. Cohesion increases as the % of tire-chips
increase up to 40% for both fine and coarse mixtures
while the angle of internal friction decrease. After 40%,
however, while the cohesion decreases, the angle of
internal friction increases.
As the percent tire-chips increases, the fine and
coarse tire-chips mixtures under lower normal pressures
do not show considerable vertical strains or volume
change during shear. However, under higher normal
pressures, originally high negative vertical strains for
the clayey soil alone decrease considerably for the fine
tire-chip mixtures or become slightly above zero or
positive for the coarse tire-chips mixtures up to 50%.
Especially under higher normal pressures, the addition
of both fine and coarse tire-chips seem to decrease
vertical strains.
The permeabilities of the clayey soil and the mixtures
are consistent with typical low permeability clayey soils.
The permeabilities increase as the normal pressure
decreases and the % tire-chips increases. The permeabil-
ities of both the fine and coarse-grained tire-chips alone
are typical of sands which renders the use of tire-chips
alone or in combination with sand as a useful fill material
in embankments.
The compaction test results indicate that the dry
density of the tire-chip mixtures are less than the dry
density of typical soils including the clayey soil used in
this study. Such values show a good potential for using
the tire-chips as lightweight fill material.
Finally, the results indicate that the mixtures up to
20% coarse grained tire-chips and 30% fine grained
tire-chips can be used above ground water tables where
low weight, low permeability and high strength are
needed in fills such as highway embankments, bridge
120 H. Cetin et al. / Engineering Geology 88 (2006) 110–120
abutments and backfills behind retaining structures
especially when they are to be built on weak foundation
soils with low bearing capacity and high settlement
problems. They should not be used where drainage is
required to prevent the development of pore pressures
during loading of fills under saturated conditions. In
these cases, they may, however, be used by mixing with
high permeability material such as sand and gravel. As
also suggested by Masad et al. (1996), proper soil cover
is needed on top and sides of embankments for safety
against fire. Usage of tire-chips in this way will have a
positive impact on the environment since large quantities
can be consumed in these voluminous structures.
Acknowledgement
Part of this study was financially supported by the
Çukurova University Research Foundation (Project No:
FBE.97YL.96). The authors thank two anonymous
Engineering Geology reviewers for their critical review
of the manuscript. Their invaluable comments improved
the manuscript considerably. We would also like to
thank Aysun Serin and Hikmet Senbayrak for their help
in soil mechanics tests and Mustafa Laman for pro-
viding unlimited access to the soil mechanics laboratory
of the Civil Engineering Deparment at Çukurova
University.
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