INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

The world consists of very tiny particles interacting with each other that form into bigger
or larger substances which are invisible to our naked eyes. However, these particles
behave according to their inherent structures and properties, yet the characteristics of
these unseen substances are governed by specific laws of chemistry.

Chemistry is the study of matter: its properties, compositions, structures, as well as the
changes that matter undergoes. Chemistry deals with the study of atoms, molecules, and
ions which are so minute that they cannot be seen by an ordinary observer. In order to
fully understand and study these tiny particles chemists have designed special devices
and techniques to observe their behavior.

Branches of Chemistry

Analytical Chemistry. It is a branch of chemistry that identifies what are the components
present in a substance and the quantity of those components.

Organic Chemistry. It is defined as the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of
substances that contain carbon.

Physical Chemistry. It is the branch of chemistry that is concerned with the laws
governing the behavior of matter.

Biochemistry. It is a branch of chemistry that studies the compositions, structures,

properties, behavior and processes that occur in living organisms.

Inorganic Chemistry. It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of substances
that do not contain carbon.

Industrial Chemistry. It is branch of chemistry that studies the physical and chemical
processes of different substances which are used in the manufacturing industries.

1
 CHAPTER 1

MATTER

Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has weight. Matters are classified
as mixtures or pure substances. Mixtures can be homogeneous or heterogeneous while
pure substances are elements or compounds.

Kinds of Matter

1.Pure Substances. It is defined as the substances that are free elements or compounds.

2.Mixtures. They are kinds of matter that are made up of two or more different kinds of
molecules, each various part having different properties.

States of Matter

1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
4. Plasma

Solid is an object that has a definite volume and a definite shape. Examples of solid
objects are chair, pencil, table, book, etc.

Liquid is a substance that has definite volume but no definite shape. Examples of liquid
are water, kerosene, vinegar, wine, etc.

Gas is a kind of matter that has no definite volume and shape. Gas is compressible.
Examples of gases are SO2 (sulfur dioxide), smoke, NO2 (nitrous oxides), water vapor,
etc.

Plasma is a resultant matter of ionized substance which is the result of the breaking of
loosely bound electrons. Examples of plasma are excited particles of fluorescent lamp,
lightning, welding arc, and neon signs.

2
Changes in Matter

Physical Change. A change that does not involve a formation of a new substance. Boiling
is an example of physical change because steam which is the result of boiling is still
composed of H2O which is the same molecular component that we find in water.

Chemical Change. A change in chemical composition and constitution of the substance.

Burning of wood is one example of chemical change because wood consisting of carbon
becomes carbon dioxide after it is burned.

Properties of Matter

Matter has physical and chemical properties. Physical properties include the melting
point, boiling point, and temperature. Some of the chemical properties of matter are the
transfer of electrons and the gaining of electrons.

QUANTITY OF MEASUREMENT

Our daily activities always involve measurements. It is one of the most vital undertakings
that we do. Chemistry also uses measurements to qualify and quantify its processes in
any scientific observation or study. Measurement involves devices as tools in performing
the necessary calculations or estimates being done in the course of any study. Numbers
and units indicate the precise or approximate measurement of qualifying and quantifying
a substance.

Units of Measurement

There are two popular systems of units of measurement. They are the metric system
(sometimes called the cgs system) and the English or the British system.

The metric system is now part of International Systems Units (SI). It is easier to
remember because it uses prefixes that can easily be memorized. Hence, it is widely used
and adopted by many countries at present. However, there are still some countries that
still use the English system. Both metric and English units, although different in the units,
express the same quantity.

3
The metric system uses prefixes to describe the value of the measurements as shown in
the table below.

Prefix Symbol Power of 10 Prefix Symbol Power of 10

Exa E 1018 deci d 10-1
Peta P 1015 centi c 10-2
Tera T 1012 milli m 10-3
Giga G 109 micro m 10-6
Mega M 106 nano n 10-9
Kilo K 103 pico p 10-12
Hecto H 102 femto f 10-15
Deka Da 101 atto a 10-18

Examples of Metric Units

1. Hectare Ha 6. Joules, J 11. Metric Ton, t

2. Calorie, cal 7. Kilogram, kg 12. Milliliter, mL
3. Centimeter, cm 8. Kilometer, km 13. Millimeter, mm
4. Deciliter, dL 9. Liter, L 14. Newton, N
5. Dyne, dyne 10. Meter, m 15. Pascal, Pa

Examples of English Units

1. British Thermal Unit, BTU 7. Ounce, oz

2. Feet, ft 8. Pint, pt
3. Gallon, gal 9. Pound, lb
4. Inch, in 10.pound force, lbf
5. Mil, mil 11. Quart, qt
6. Mile, mi 12. Yard, yd

In order to have a precise result of measurements, it is advisable to convert from one

system of measurement to another. Care must be taken to express calculations of
measurement, to have similar units, for accuracy of results. Like for instance, a kilogram
of a substance is equivalent to 2.2 pounds in metric and English system respectively.

Conversion factors are used to convert the units from one system to another. These
factors shall determine the methods of application to arrive at equivalent results of
computations.

4
English-Metric Equivalent Units

Area

1 hectare = 10,000 m2
1 hectare = 2.471 acres
Force

1 gf = 981 dynes
1 lbf = 4.448 N
1 kgf = 9.807 N
1 N = 105 dynes
Energy

1 J = 107 ergs
1 cal = 4.186 J
1 BTU = 1054.3 J
1 Cal = 1 kcal = 1000 cal
Length

1 in = 2.54 cm
1 ft = 12 in = 30.48 cm
1 yard = 3 ft
1 mi = 5280 ft
1 angstrom = 10-10 m = 10-8 cm
1 mil = 0.0254 mm
Mass

1 kg = 2.2 lb
1 t (ton) = 1000 kg = 2200 lb
1 short ton = 907 kg = 2000 lb
1 long ton = 1008 kg = 2240 lb
1 oz = 28.35 g
1 lb = 16 oz = 453.6 g
Pressure

1 atm = 14.7 lbf/in2 (psi)

1 atm = 2117 lbf/ft2

5
 1 atm = 10,333 kgf/m2
1 atm = 760 mm-Hg
1 atm = 33.93 ft-H2O
1 atm = 101,325 Pa or N/m2
Volume
1 gal = 3.7854 L
1 L = 1.0567 qt
1 L = 2.1134 pt
1 oz = 30 ml
1 L =1000 cm3 = 1000 ml
1 spoon = 15 ml
1 teaspoon = 5 ml
1 cup = 240 ml
1 ml = 15 – 20 drops
Time
1 min = 60 s
1 hour = 60 min = 3600 s

Significant Figures

Uncertainties are always present when doing any kind of measurement. Precision or accuracy in
measurement can only be realized if the devices, being used in measurement, are being
standardized or calibrated and the skills of the operator/s of the instruments are reliable. Hence,
instruments, used in any type of measurement, should be calibrated according to acceptable set
standards.

Resulting numbers and figures in the measurements should also have significant digits to achieve
reliable calculations. Relative error or precision in computation is determined by reliable data
that usually involve significant figures. For example, a graduated cylinder is used to measure the
volume of certain substance. It reads to be 30.6 mL and we can say that the volume of the
substance is uncertain to within +0.1 mL. Of which, we can assume that the actual volume lies
between 30.5 mL to 30.7 mL. If a zero digit is added to 30.6 to make it 30.60, this implies that
the uncertainty of the reading is +0.01 mL.

Significant digits in calculation is based on the accuracy of the values of the given figures or
numbers. The answer to any process of measurement shall be reported as the term on the data
having the acceptable significant figures. For example in addition of the following figures:
15.321; 9.3225; and 3.02, the sum should be reported in two decimal places because 3.02 has the
lowest decimal places. Therefore, the answer should be 27.66 rather than 27.6635. The same
shall be done in subtraction, multiplication, or division.

6
Density and Specific Gravity

The physical attribute of any substance can also be expressed in term of density. Density
is defined as the mass of the substance per unit volume of the same substance. The
density of a certain substance does not change if the same conditions are being
maintained. Say for instance, the density of water is always 1 g/cc at 4˚C.
Relatively, density denotes how heavy a substance is. It is expressed in formula below,
W
p= V

Where:
p = density of the substance
W = mass of the substance
V = volume of the substance
Another way of describing the physical property of a substance is the term specific
gravity. It is the actual ratio of the density of the substance to the density of a standard
substance as reference. The specific gravity of the substance can be computed using the
equation:

Ps
Sp. Gr. = Psrs

where:
Sp. Gr. = specific gravity of the substance
Ps = density of the substance
Psrs = density of standard reference substance

Water is one of the examples of standard reference substance. In metric system specific
gravity is equivalent to density numerically.

Sample Problem:

A substance has a specific gravity of 1.912 at 25˚C. Calculate the density of the
substance at 25˚C.

Solution:

The substance is 1.921 heavier than water at 25˚C. It is a standard given that 1.0 cc
of water weighs 0.997 gram. So the density of the substance is:

7
 Density (of the substance) = 1.192 x 0.997 g/cc = 1.1884 g/cc

Examples of densities of common substances in g/cc:

Solid
Aluminum, Al =2.7
Copper, Cu=8.9
Glass, SiO2=2.6
Granite=2.7
Ice=0.92
Silver, Ag=10.5
Steel=7.8
Sand=2.32
Liquid
Alcohol, ethyl =0.79
Diesel oil=0.84
Gasoline=0.74
Kerosene=0.82
Mercury=13.6
Sea water=1.03
Water =1.00
Gases
Air = 0.0013
Carbon dioxide = 0.00198
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)= 0.550
Methane Gas = 0.000665

Temperature

Measurement of temperature is also applied in the study of substances. It is measured in

degrees Celsius or in degrees Fahrenheit. Temperature is another physical property of a
substance that can be observed in order to predict the direction of the flow of heat.
Sometimes it is necessary to convert Celsius (centigrade) to Kelvin (absolute
temperature) in order to solve problems involving gases or to degrees Fahrenheit if the
English units are required in the calculations. To convert degrees centigrade to Fahrenheit
or to Kelvin the following equations are used:
T in ˚C = 5/9(T in ˚F - 32)
T in ˚F = 1.8(˚C) + 32

8
 T (Kelvin) = T (C) + 273
T (Rankine) = T in ˚F + 460

Specific Heat

Specific heat is another measurement used by chemists in understanding, observing, and

studying the behavior of substances. Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat (in
calories) required to raise the temperature of a gram of a substance per one degree of
Celsius. In English system, it is expressed in BTU (British Thermal Unit) that indicates
the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one pound of a substance per one
degree Fahrenheit. The amount of heat of a substance can be calculated by using the
equation:

Q = m x Cp x ΔT = m x Cp x (Tf- Ti)

where:

Q= quantity of heat of a substance

m = mass of the substance
Cp = specific heat of the substance
ΔT = change in temperature
Tf = Final temperature
Ti= Initial temperature

The unit of Cp is dependent on the system of units being used in the measurement.

Sample Problem:

Determine the amount of heat needed to boil water from 30˚C to 100˚C if it
weighs 200 grams. Assume the Cp of water is equal to 1.0 cal/g-˚C.

Solution:

Given: m = 200 g
Ti = 30˚C
Tf = 100˚C
Cp = 1.0 cal/g-˚C

Q = 200(100-30) (1.0) = 14,000 cal

9
EXERCISE PROBLEMS

1.Express your answer to the correct significant digits

0.00000612 + 0.000143 - 0.0000364

Solution:

It is better to convert the above terms into terms having the power of base 10, to wit;

6.12 x 10-6 + 143 x 10-6 - 36.4 x 10-6

= 103 x 10-6

= 1.03 x 10-4

2.Convert the following:

a) 600 mL to liter
b) 26 g to mg
c) 60 micrometers to angstroms

Solutions:

1L
a) 600 mL x = 0.6 L
1000 ml
1000 mg
b) 26 g x = 26,000 mg
1g
10−6 m 1A
c) 60 μm x x −10 = 60 x 104 A or 6.0 x 105
1 μm 10 m

Solve the following:

1. Express 60 micrometers to meters

2. Convert 5.8 angstroms to nanometers
3. What is 44 pound in kilograms
4. Convert 36 grams to ounces
5. Express 65.6˚C to ˚F
6. Convert 340 acres to hectares
7. 56 pounds per square inch to kilograms-Pascal

10
11
8. 6 feet and 5 inches to centimeters
9. Covert 400 quarts to gallons
10. Express 160 mmHg to ft H2o
11. From 300.5 ℉ to Rankine
12. From 315 Rankine to Kelvin
13. From 210 ℉ to ℃
14. A substance weighs 600 grams and occupies a volume of 721 cc. what is the
density of the substance?
15. A substance has a volume of 325 cubic inches and weighs 1200 grams. Find the
density of the substance in grams per cc.
16. What is the weight of a substance if the density of the substance is twice than the
volume of a substance if its volume is 245 mL?
17. What is the weight of the substance if its volume in grams if the density of the
substance is 1.5 g/cc and occupies a volume of 35 cubic inches?
18. Find the heat required to heat a substance from 10℃ if it weighs 1.2 kg. assume
the Cp of a substance to be 1.4 cal/g-℃ .

12
 CHAPTER II

ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Atoms

Presently, there are more than one hundred elements listed in the Periodic Table of
Elements. These various known elements are composed of very tiny particles called
atoms. An-atom is defined as the smallest particle present in an element. The word atom
comes the Greek word atomos which means indivisible or uncuttable as first coined by
Greek Philosopher Democritus.

Atom is the smallest particle of an element involved in the process of chemical change. It
has the nucleus at the center and its electrons are revolving around the nucleus. Inside the
nucleus are the protons which have positive charges and the neutrons which are neutral or
do not have any charges. The electrons have negative charges and move around the
nucleus.

Molecules

Molecule is the smallest part of a substance that can exist separately and still this particle
retains its properties and composition. It consists of at least two atoms arranged in a
definite pattern which are bound together through chemical forces.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

John Dalton was the first scientist to visualize the forms and structures of atoms. He
proposed some spherical figures to represent how an atom looks like. In his research and
studies he found out that a certain measurable proportion reacted with definite amounts of
proportions of other elements as they inter-reacted with each other. With these findings,
he advanced his atomic theory. His theory constitutes the following:

1. The elements are composed of very minute particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of the element contain identical properties.
3. During chemical reactions, atoms are not destroyed nor created but only
transformed or reacted.

13
The Law of Definite Proportion

Antoine Lavoiser, a French chemist, found out that mass remains constant in all his
conducted tests of reactions in a closed system. He proposed that matter cannot be
destroyed nor created in ordinary chemical reactions. His findings led to the Law of
Definite Proportion through the work of Joseph Proust.

It is proven in various experiments that substances have the same definite proportion
when analyzed in every pure sample subjected to several controlled reactions. Elements
still comprise the same definite proportion by weight. For example, table salt (NaCI),
contains the same amount of sodium and chlorine whether the samples of table salt are
taken from China or from Alaska.

The Atomic Structure

After the discovery of electrons by Joseph John Thomson and Julius Placker, of protons
by Ernest Rutherford, and of neutrons by Joseph Chadwick; Neils Bhor, a Danish
physicist, proposed his atomic structure. He visualized an atomic structure akin to that of
the solar system. The core of which was the nucleus surrounded by revolving electrons
around the nucleus. Within the nucleus are the protons and the neutrons.

Electron

Nucleas

Orbital
(shell)

Bhor’s Atomic Model

14
15
Neils Bhor described the structure as the different energy levels containing specific
numbers of electrons in every energy level which he called an orbital.

Arnold Sommerfield added another energy level to what had been proposed by Bohr.
Sommerfield believed that the electrons traveled in an elliptical manner. He proposed and
introduced different quantum numbers of each additional energy level.

Following the models of Bohr and Sommerfield, Werner Heisenberg, found out that the
momentum and position of the electrons could not be exactly located. However, there
were possibilities to determine the position of the electrons.

The Wave Model

Continuing the works of his predecessors in 1926, Eozim Schrodinger created a

mathematical expression that could probably describe the location of the electrons. He
developed a system which he called region of electron orbitals where the electrons could
be possibly located. He named this as Region of High Density. His conceptualization
was that, electrons moved in a Wave Like Pattern bearing four different quantum
numbers. These quantum numbers were used to predict the condition and position of an
electron. No two electrons have had the same four quantum numbers as further verified
by Wolfgang Pauli when he developed his popular Pauli's Exclusion Principle.

Rutherford's Atomic Model

Through various experiments, it was concluded that an electron has a relative mass of
0.00055 atomic mass unit (amu). This was also followed by the findings of a proton's
relative mass determination. A proton weighs more than an electron and has a relative
weight of 1.00728 amu. Likewise, a neutron weighs a little bit more compared to a
proton. It weighs about 1.00867 amu. Hence, it can be concluded that a proton and a
neutron influence more the total weight of an atom. Therefore, the atomic weight of an
element is the sum of the mass of protons and neutrons.
16
The atomic number of an element indicates the number of protons or electrons found in
an element. Some books use the letter Z as the symbol of the atomic number of an
element while the atomic weight is designated by the letter A. This also indicates the total
weights of neutrons and protons present in an element. Say for instance, if X is an
element, the symbol of the element is written in this manner:

Z X

with the subscript as the atomic number and the superscript as the atomic weight which
also indicates the total weight of protons and neutrons of an element.

Electrons Distribution

Hydrogen is the sole element that contains one electron. The rest of the elements have
more than one electron in each of the element's energy levels. Since not all electrons in a
certain energy level contain the same energy there is a tendency that these electrons may
move within the sublevels of the principal energy level.

The main energy level as well as the sublevel energy are determined when locating the
electrons. They are known as the s (sharp), p (principal), d (diffuse), and f (fundamental)
sublevels or subshells.

The first energy level contains only one type of sublevel the s subshell while there are
two types of subshells in the second energy level: the s and p sublevels. In the third
energy level, there are three types of subshells the s, p, and d sublevels. The fourth and
the fifth energy levels contain the s, p, d, and f subshells.

The maximum electrons that can be accommodated by s subshell are two. The p sublevel
can only accommodate six electrons. The d subshell can hold only ten electrons and the f
sublevel the maximum is only 14 electrons.

17
Ions

In exchanges of charges, as atoms interact with other atoms, gaining or losing ofelectrons
eventually happens. This phenomenon is called the ionization process. This leads to the
formation of ions. The positively charged ions are called cations while the negatively
charged particles are called anions.
An ion is the consequence of the electrolytic dissociation of dissolved molecules in
another substance called a solvent.

Atomic and Molecular Mass

Although an atom is a very tiny particle, it can still be measured with respect to their
atomic mass. Particularly, atomic mass is defined as the weighted average mass of an
atom expressed atomic mass unit (amu) indicating how heavy an element is in
comparison with the weight of a standard substance. Usually, C 12 is used as the standard
element.

On the other hand, Molecular Mass of a substance is equal to the sum of the masses of
the atoms present in a substance. A molecule, which is considered as the smallest part of
a substance, is composed of at least two or more atoms which dictates the molecular mass
of the substance.

As described above, a molecule can exist separately and still retain its properties.
Consider table salt that contains an atom of sodium and one atom of chlorine, the total
molecular mass of table salt or sodium chloride, is the sum of atomic masses of sodium
and chlorine atoms. The atomic weight of sodium is 23 amu while the atomic weight of
chlorine is 35.45 amu therefore the molecular mass of table salt is 58.45 amu. This
implies that sodium chloride is 58.45 times as heavy as one-twelfth the mass of C12 atom.

Isotopes

Isotopes are elements that have the same protons and electrons but having different
number of neutrons. Examples of isotopes are:

a) C12 C13 C14

b) Na23 Na24

The first example indicates that carbon isotopes exist having 12, 13, an 14 neutrons
respectively. The same is true of the second example. Sodium isotopes do have 23, and
24 neutrons respectively.

18
19
Mole

Mole is the amount of substance containing the same number of molecules as C 12

contains. Usually it indicates the amount that the Avogadro’s number of atoms or
molecules of a substance. (Avogadro’s No= 6.022 x 10 23). It is the relative mass of a
substance in every moral weight of a substance which is expressed in a formula:

Wt
η=
MW

where:

η= mole
Wt = weight of the substance
MW = molecular weight or atomic weight of the substance

Example 1:

The total weight of water in a container is 18 grams. Find the moles of water.

Solution:

Given: wt of water = 18 grams

Formula of water is H2O
Atomic weight of H = 1 ? 2= 2 g-atom
Atomic weight of O = 16 x 1 = 16 g-atom
Total MW of water = 2 + 16 = 18 grams/ g-mole

Wt
η=
MW
8g
=
18 g ¿−mol
= 1 g-mole or one mole

20
Example 2:

A compound contains 60% carbon per 100 grams. What is the mole of the
compound?

Solution:

Given:

C of a compound = 60% of 100 grams = 100 x 60/100 = 60 grams

Wt
η=
MW

60 g
= = 5 g-mol or 5 mols
12 g ¿−mol

EXERCISES:

Give the formula weight of the following:

1. Sand, SiO2
2. Epsom Salt, MgSO4
3. Dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2
4. Dry Ice, CO2
5. Freon 22, CHCIF2
6. Galena, PbS
7. Corundum, Al2O3
8. Cream of Tartar, KHC4H4O6
9. Sugar, C12H22O11
10. Rust, Fe2O3
11. Sapphire, Al2O3
12. Dynamite, C6H2(CH3)(NO2)3
13. Alcohol, C2H5OH
14. Phosphate Rock, Ca3(PO4)2
15. Quick Lime, CaO
16. Read Lead, PbO4
17. Kaolin, Al2O3.4H2O
18. Limestone, CaCO3
19. Litharge, PbO

21
20. Table Salt, NaCl
21. The formula of the compound is Ca3(PO4)2, calculate the following:
a) the mass proportion of Ca to P
b) The mass proportion oc Ca to O
c) The mass of compound, ontaining 40 g of P
d) The mass of compound, if it contains 80 g of O
e) The masses of Ca and P (each) in 650 g of compound.
f) The weights of Ca and O in 720 g of compound
g) The weights of P and O in 860 g of compound.
h) The mole of the compound if it weighs 26 pounds in gram-mole

22. The chemical formula of a compound is C3H5(OH)x . The representative

sample of this compound contains 16.2 % of C by weight. Find the value of x.

23. Calculate the number of moles of the following:

a) 45.6 g of CaCO3
b) 16.45 g of NaNO2
c) 18 lb of FeSO4
d) 680 mg of HgCl2
e) 32.5 g of CrO3

24. Give 5 examples of elements with isotopes.

22
 PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

The Periodic table is an irreplaceable and very important guide chart for students who are
studying chemistry. In this very useful table, the elements are arranged according to their
atomic numbers.

In 1869, Dimitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, proposed the form of the Periodic Table. He
found out that by arranging the known elements according to their atomic weights, similar
properties reshowed. This recurring properties exhibited by known elements led to the birth
of what is now known as the Periodic Table. As this table evolved, the arrangement of the
elements was based on the increasing number of atomic numbers. The Periodic table is the
arrangement of various elements according to their properties.

In this very useful table the elements are divided into three classes. They are the metals,
nonmetals and metalloids. Metals are a good conductor of electricity and heat because their
outermost electrons are free to move. The nonmetals are considered a poor conductor of heat
and electricity. This is due to the fact that electrons of these elements are bound so closely
that these electrons are not mobile. Metalloids are group of elements that are the transitory
elements because they possess the properties between the known properties of metals and
nonmetals.

The vertical columns are known as families or groups while the horizontals are called
periods. The verticals are arranged from IA to VIIIA and from 1B to VIIIB. The column of
1A is called the alkali group or family. Column 11A is known to b alkaline earth group.
Vertical group to VIIA is called the halogen family. The group of elements in columns 1A to
VIIIA are known to be the main group of elements. Groupings in this manner indicates the
presence of number of electrons that are found in the outermost shell of each element. For
instance, in column 1A, elements in this group contain only a single electron in their
outermost shells.

The inner transition elements are grouped differently, they are known to be the lanthanides
and the actinides. The 4f and 5f subshells of lanthanides and actinides contain electrons.

With the periodic groupings of known elements, the valence of each element can easily be
known. Additionally, properties and behavior can easily be determined because elements
belonging to the same group do have similar chemical properties. In order to know the
behavior of the elements, all you have to learn are the properties of one of the elements
belonging to the same column. In the alkali group found in the first column, you only need to
know the properties of Li (Lithium) in order to have a vivid knowledge of the rest of the
elements listed in the same group. The same is done to the other groupings in the periodic
table such as the inert family, alkaline earth metals, early transition metals, boron group,

23
carbon column, nitrogen group, chalcogens family, halogens, lanthanide metals, as well as
the actinide metals.

Note: the arrow indicates that the blanks should be used for the lanthanide
and the actinide metals groups.

Also found in the modern Periodic Table are the lists of the anions and the cations with
their corresponding valences or charges.

Electronic Configurations of Elements

The electronic configurations of elements are the simple illustrations of the distributions
of electrons in each energy level described and explained in the previous topics. Oxygen,
for instance, has 8 electrons. The electronic configuration of oxygen is 1s22s22p4 . This
shows the distributions of oxygen's electrons as well as it illustrates that the electrons
only occupy up to the second energy level indicative of the coefficients of two subshells
(s and p) which is two (2). Below is the sequence of how to use the electronic
configuration process:

1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s
2p 3p 4p 5p 6p 7p
3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
4f 5f 6f 7f

Just follow the arrows directions. Like for instance in the first row only Is is found, go to
the next row and so and so forth.

24
Examples:

What is the electronic configurations of the following:

1. Sodium
2. Chlorine

Solutions:

1. The atomic number of sodium (Na) is 11. Therefore, the total number of
electrons is 11 which means the sum of the subscripts of the configuration must be
equal to 11.

The electronic configuration of Na is

1s22s22p63s1

So, 2 + 2 + 6 + 1=11

2. The atomic number of chlorine is 17. Hence, the sum of the electrons of
chlorine is 17, thereby, the total of the subscripts of the configuration shall be 17.

The electronic configuration of Cl is

1s22s22p63s23p5

2+2+6+2+5 = 17

25
EXERCISES

Write the Electronic Configurations of the following:

1. Boron
2. Lithium
3. Gold
4. Silver
5. Cesium
6. Palladium
7. Uranium
8. Niobium
9. Xenon
10. Radon

26
 CHEMICAL BONDS AND IONIZATION ENERGY

Chemical Bonds

of Chemical these atoms bond to is the donate association or accept of electron an atoms
from in a substance. or to their neighboring Thisbondingatoms. isthetendencyThey are
classified as the Ionic Bond, the Covalent Bond, and the Metallic Bond.

Ionic bond is the result of electron transfer from one atom to another. It is the attraction
of two opposite charged ions. Usually, the taking of an electron results into the formation
of an ionic compound. One good example of this is the reaction of the positively charged
Na+ ion with the negatively charged CI- ion which will result in the formation of an ionic
compound of sodium chloride.

Na+ + Cl- NaCl

The covalent bond is the tendency of the atoms to share their electrons to another atoms.
It is the sharing of electron valence between two adjacent atoms. A typical example is the
bonding of hydrogen and oxygen resulting to water. The valence electrons are shared by
both hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

Metallic bonding is the holding of atoms together by a common force called electrostatic
attraction of the positive ions for the electrons. The electrons at the outermost shell are
free to circulate in higher energy levels which indicates that these electrons are not shared
nor transferred.

Molecular Geometric Arrangement

As substances interact and combine themselves, the molecules form among themselves
stable patterns. The geometry of the patterns is the consequence of the orientation and
symmetry with respect to the axes of the molecules. The most common geometric
arrangements ate the linear, angular, triangular, pyramidal, tethahedral, tetragonal,
and octahedral planes.

The arrangements of carbon dioxide and acetylene are the common examples of linear
geometric arrangement. Water and sulfur dioxide patterns belong to the angular form. In
the triangular plane, sulfur tioxide and boron trichloride are some of the common
eaxamples. The arrangements of the molecules of ammonia is an example of pyramidal
pattern. Methane form belongs to the tetrahedral pattern. Sulfur hexafluoride is a good
examples of octahedral geometric arrangement.
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Ionization Energy

Ionization energy is the amount of force necessary to remove an electron which is determined by
the charge, the distance, and the sublevel of the electrons.

EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE

Formula is the shortcut of writing the various compounds or mixtures of different substances. It
tells the composition of atoms of elements present in a substance.

Examples

1. Water composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. The symbol of
hydrogen is H and oxygen is O, we can write the formula as:

H+ O H2O

1. Table salt is composed of an atom of Na and one atom of Cl. The formula of table salt
is:

Na + Cl Na Cl

2. Find the empirical of a compound having this composition:

Ca = 40%
C = 12%
O2 = 48%

Solution:

Assume 100 g of compound

Hence : ca = 100g x 40/100 = 40g

CI = 100g x 12/100 =12g
O2 = 100g x 48/100 =48g

Divide each by the atomic weights of the elements:

40 g/40 g/g-atom = 1 g-atom of Ca

12 g/12g/g-atm = 1 g-atom of C
48 g/16g/g-atm = 3 g-atoms of O
Therefore, the empirical of the substance is CaCO3

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EXERCISES

Write the formula of the following:

1. Table Salt
2. Iron Sulfate
3. Sodium Carbonate
4. Potasium Chloride
5. Hydrogen Chloride
6. Hydrogen Sulfate
7. Potassium Permanganate
8. Ammonium Molybdate
9. Sodium Sulfate
10. Sodium Dichromate

Write the empirical formula of the following:

1. Cl = 15.02 %
Hg = 84.98 %

2. Br = 81.63 %
H = 4.08 %
N = 14.29 %

3. P = 31.63 %
H = 3.06 %
O = 65.31 %

4. S = 39.02 %
O = 58.55 %
H = 2.43 %

5. Na = 21.61 %
Cl = 33.30 %
O = 45.09 %

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 NAMING OF COMPOUNDS

Compound substances are named with the positive ions first followed by the anions
where the last syllable is changed into ate, ide, or ite. Considering the previous example
table salt. Table salt is composed of sodium cation and chlorine anion. The positive ion is
mentioned first as a whole word (sodium) and chlorine to chlor + ide which eventually
reads sodium chloride.

Examples:

1. Calcium + sulfur = calcium + sul + ide ----- calcium Sulfide

2. Ferrous + chlorine = Ferric Chloride
3. Cu+ + SO4= Copper + Sulf + ate Copper Sulfate

For acids, the hydrogen is changed to hydro as the prefix and the ending syllable is added
with the suffix of ic and the word acid is added. HCI, is read or written as Hydrochloric
Acid. HF, is written as Hydrofluoric Acid.

EXERCISES

Name the following compounds.

1. PbCl2
2. H3PO4
3. H2SO3
4. FeC13
5. MnO2
6. NH3
7. C4H10
8. C2H2
9. Cu 2S
10. CH4

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