1.

0 MATTER
1.1 Atoms and molecules
At the end of the lesson, student should be
able to :
a) Write isotopic notation. (C1)

b) Interpret mass spectrum. (C2, C3)

c) Calculate the average atomic

mass of an element given the
relative abundances of isotopes or
a mass spectrum. (C3,C4)

CHEMISTRY 1
SK015
SESSION 2022/2023
 SK015 2022/2023

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
An atom made up of:
Proton (p)
Neutron (n)
Electron (e–)

An atomic nucleus consists of

protons and neutrons

1
 SK015 2022/2023

ISOTOPE NOTATION

Nucleon
number
 
Atomic
symbol

Proton
number EXAMPLE:
 

2
 SK015 2022/2023
? EXAMPLE 1
How many protons, neutrons and electrons
are in the chromium isotope ?
52
24 Cr
ANSWER
Number of proton (p) = Z = 24
Number of neutron (n) = Nucleon number (A) ―
Proton number (Z)
= 52 ― 24 = 28
Number of electrons (e−) = p = 24
3
 SK015 2022/2023

MASS SPECTRUM
A mass spectrum is a histogram plot of intensity
vs. mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) in a chemical
sample, usually acquired using an instrument
called a mass spectrometer.

r ates
ene
g
Mass Spectrum

Mass Spectrometer
4
 SK015 2022/2023

INTERPRETATION OF MASS SPECTRUM

Example: Mass spectrum of naturally occurring chlorine
 

5
 SK015 2022/2023

AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS

The average of mass of its naturally occurring isotope
weighted according to their abundances

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (Ar)

The mass of one atom of an element compared to
one twelfth the mass of one atom of carbon-12

6
 SK015 2022/2023
? EXAMPLE 2
Naturally occurring chlorine is a mixture of
two isotopes. In every sample of this element,
75.77 % of the atoms are 35Cl and 24.23 % are
atoms of 37Cl. The accurately measured atomic
mass of 35Cl is 34.9689 amu and that of 37Cl is
36.9659 amu.
From these data, calculate
i) Average atomic mass of chlorine.
ii) Relative atomic mass of chlorine

7
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

i) Average atomic mass of chlorine:

= % of 35Cl x atomic mass of 35Cl
+ % of 37Cl x atomic mass of 37Cl

75.77 24.23
= x 34.9689 amu + x 36.9659 amu
100 100

= 35.45 amu

8
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

ii) Relative atomic mass of chlorine:

= mass of one atom of chlorine (amu)

1 x mass of one 12C atom (amu)
12
= 35.45 amu
1 x 12 amu
12
= 35.45

9
 SK015 2022/2023
?
EXAMPLE 3
Nitrogen (N, Z = 7) has two naturally occurring
isotopes. Calculate the percentage abundances
for 14N and 15N from the following:

atomic mass (average) of N = 14.0067 amu;

isotopic mass of 14N = 14.0031 amu;
isotopic mass of 15N = 15.0001 amu.

10
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

Let x = % of 14N , and

y = % of 15N
So,
x + y = 100 ①

Average atomic mass of nitrogen:

= ( % of 14N x isotopic mass of 14N )
+ (% of 15N x isotopic mass of 15N )

x y
x 14.0031 amu + x 15.0001 amu
100 100
= 14.0067 amu
11
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

x y
x 14.0031 amu + x 15.0001 amu
100 100

= 14.0067 amu

0.140031x + 0.150001 y = 14.0067 ②

Solve ① and ②:
x + y = 100 ①
0.140031x + 0.150001 y = 14.0067 ②

x = 99.64 y = 0.36
So, % of 14N = 99.64 %
% of 15N = 0.36 %

12
 SK015 2022/2023
?
EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the average atomic mass of Mg.
Relative Intensity / abundance

63.0

8.10 9.10

23 24 25 26
Atomic mass (amu)
13
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

Average atomic mass of magnesium:

= 24.3 amu

14
 SK015 2022/2023
?
EXAMPLE 5
The ratio of relative abundance of naturally
occurring X isotopes is as below:
21
X
= 1.555
22
X

The atomic mass of 21X = 20.9989 amu and

22
X = 22.0005 amu.
Calculate the average atomic mass of X.

15
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

21
X 21
X = 1.555
Given : = 1.555 Therefore,
22
X 22
X =1

Average atomic mass of X:

= (1.555 x 20.9989 amu) + (1 x 22.0005 amu)

1.555 + 1

= 21.4 amu

16
 1.0 MATTER
1.2 Mole concept
At the end of the lesson, student should be
able to :
a) Define the terms empirical and
molecular formulae. (C1)

b) Determine empirical and

molecular formulae from mass
composition or combustion
data. (C3)

c) Determine the empirical

formula (formula unit) from
CHEMISTRY 1 experiment. (Experiment 1:
SK015 Determination of a formula unit
SESSION 2022/2023 of a compound). (C3)
 1.0 MATTER
1.2 Mole concept
At the end of the lesson, student should be
able to :
d) Define Molarity (M),
Molality (m), mole fraction (X),
Percentage by mass (%w/w),
Percentage by volume (%v/v).
(C1)

e) Calculate Molarity (M),

Molality (m), mole fraction (X),
Percentage by mass (%w/w),
Percentage by volume (%v/v).
CHEMISTRY 1 (C3, C4)
SK015
SESSION 2022/2023
 SK015 2022/2023

MOLE
Amount of substances that contains the
same number of particles (atoms, molecules,
or ions) as there are atoms in exactly in
12 g of Carbon –12 atom

1 mol = 6.02 x 1023 particles

Avogadro’s number (NA)

1
 SK015 2022/2023

EXAMPLE:

1 mol of H2O :

• contains 6.02 x 1023 H2O molecules

• contains 6.02 x 1023 oxygen, O atoms

• contains 2 x 6.02 x 1023 hydrogen, H atoms

• contains 3 x 6.02 x 1023 atoms

2
 SK015 2022/2023

EXAMPLE:

1 mol of NaCl :

• contains 6.02 x 1023 NaCl formula units

• contains 6.02 x 1023 Na+ ions

• contains 6.02 x 1023 Cl- ions

3
 SK015 2022/2023

INTERCONVERSION
Mass (g)

÷ Molar Mass × Molar Mass

Number of mole

× NA ÷ NA

Number of particles
(atoms, molecules, ions, formula unit)

4
 SK015 2022/2023

CHEMICAL FORMULA
CHEMICAL
FORMULA
Empirical Structural
formula formula
Molecular
formula

EXAMPLE: hydrogen peroxide

Empirical formula  HO

Molecular formula  H2O2

Structural formula  H–O–O–H
5
 SK015 2022/2023

EMPIRICAL FORMULA

Shows the relative number of atoms of

each element in the compound

The simplest whole number ratio of all

element in a molecule.

EXAMPLE: hydrogen peroxide

empirical formula  HO

6
 SK015 2022/2023

MOLECULAR FORMULA

Shows the actual number of atoms of each

element of a molecule in the compound

EXAMPLE: hydrogen peroxide

molecular formula  H2O2

7
 SK015 2022/2023

STRUCTURAL FORMULA

Shows the number of atoms and the

bonds between them; that is, the
relative placement and connections of
atoms in the molecule.

EXAMPLE: hydrogen peroxide

H-O-O-H ; each H is bonded
to an O and the O’s are
bonded to each other.

8
 SK015 2022/2023
?
EXAMPLE 1

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy and

may help prevent the common cold. It is
composed of 40.92% carbon, 4.58%
hydrogen and 54.50% oxygen by mass. The
molar mass of ascorbic acid is 176 g mol1.
Determine its empirical formula and
molecular formula.

9
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER
Assume mass of the compound = 100g
Element C H O
Mass/g 40.92 4.58 54.50
Amount/mol      

     
Mole ration

Simplest 1X3 1.34 X 3 1X3

mole ratio
3 4.02 ≈ 4 3
Empirical formula = C3H4O3
10
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER
molar mass
n
empirical formula mass
176 Empirical formula ; C3H4O3
2 So empirical formula mass =
88.0 (12.0 X 3) + (1.0 X 4) + (16.0 X 3)
= 88.0

Molecular formula = (C3H4O3)n

= (C3H4O3)2
= C6H8O6

11
 SK015 2022/2023

NOTE

You must NEVER round off values close to

whole number in order to get a simple ratio,
but multiply the value by a factor until we get
a whole number.

However, if the value is very close to whole

number (0.01), it is allowed to round off the
value.

12
 SK015 2022/2023
?
EXAMPLE 2

Combustion of a hydrocarbon, produces

1.83 g of carbon dioxide, CO2 and 0.901 g of
H2O. Determine the empirical formula of the
hydrocarbon.

13
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

Hydrocarbon : compound containing C and H only

Step 1 : Determine the mass of C and H

 
Mass of C = 1.83 g CO2

= 0.499 g C
 
Mass of H = 0.901 g H

= 0.100 g H

14
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER
Step 2 : Determine the number of moles of each elements
and determine the empirical formula of the
compound
Element C H
Mass/g 0.499 0.100
   
Amount/mol

   

Mole ratio

Simplest 1X5 2.4 X 5

mole ratio
5 12
Empirical formula = C5H12
15
 SK015 2022/2023

SOLUTION

SOLUTION Homogenous mixture

of two or more sub-
1 stances
Terms
2 SOLUTE Substance present in
3 the smaller
amount

SOLVENT Substance present in the

larger
amount

16
 SK015 2022/2023

SOLUTION
solvent + solute = solution

When you dissolve a solid, it might look

like it disappears, but mass tells you its
still there.

17
 SK015 2022/2023

CONCENTRATION
Amount of solute present in a given
quantity of solution or solvent

Molarity (M)
Molality (m)

TR ATION Mole fraction (X)

EN
CONC S
TERM

Percentage by mass (% w/w)

Percentage by volume (% v/v)

18
 SK015 2022/2023

MOLARITY
 Number of moles of solute in 1 L
of solution

 
Molarity (M) =

 Unit = M or mol/ L or mol/ dm3

19
 SK015 2022/2023

PREPARING OF A SOLUTION

20
 SK015 2022/2023
?
EXAMPLE 3

A student prepared a solution of NaCl by

dissolving 1.461 g of NaCl in a 250 mL
volumetric flask.
What is the molarity of this solution ?

21
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

 
Molarity (M) =

 
Moles of solute =

 
=

= 0.025 mol

22
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

 
Molarity (M) =

 
=

= 0.1 mol L-1 @ M

23
 SK015 2022/2023

MOLALITY
 The number of moles of solute dissolved
in 1 kg of solvent

 
Molality (m) =

 Unit = m or molal or mol kg-1

24
 SK015 2022/2023
?
EXAMPLE 4

A solution containing 8.89 g glycerol

(C3H8O3) in 75.0 g of ethanol (C2H6O).

What is the molality of the solution?

25
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

 
Molality (m) =

 
Mole of glycerol, =
C3H8O3
 
=

= 0.0966 mol

26
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

 
Molality (m) =

 
=

= 1.29 molal

27
 SK015 2022/2023

MOLE FRACTION
Definition
The ratio of the number of moles of one component
to the total number of moles present in the solution

Mole Fraction A (X) =

 

 no unit
 maximum (100%) : 1.000
28
 SK015 2022/2023
?
EXAMPLE 5

A sample of rubbing alcohol contains 142 g of

isopropyl alcohol (C3H7OH) and 58.0 g of
water.
What is the mole fractions of alcohol and water?

29
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

Mole Fraction of isopropyl alcohol =

 

 
 

= 2.367 mol

 
 

= 3.222 mol
30
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

Mole Fraction of isopropyl alcohol =

 

 
 

= 0.424

31
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

Mole Fraction of water =

 

 
 

= 0.576
OR

= 0.576
32
 SK015 2022/2023

PERCENTAGE BY MASS
 The ratio of the mass of a solute to the

mass of the solution, multiplied by 100

percent
 
% w/w =

 
% w/w =

33
 SK015 2022/2023
?
EXAMPLE 6

A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride (KCl)

was dissolved in 54.6 g of water.

What is the percentage by mass of KCl in this

solution?

34
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

 
% w/w of KCl

35
 SK015 2022/2023

PERCENTAGE BY VOLUME
Definition
The ratio of the volume of a solute to the
volume of the solution, multiplied by 100 percent

 
% v/v =

 Most often used for liquids and gas

36
 SK015 2022/2023
?
EXAMPLE 7

A 200 mL of perfume contains 28 mL of alcohol.

What is the percentage by volume of the alcohol
in this solution ?

37
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

 
% v/v =

 
% v/v =

38
 SK015 2022/2023
For question that give concentration and density,
assumptions can be made based on concentration.
Example:

Unit Formula Assumption

Concentration ( Suggestion )

Molarity Mole solute Volume solution = 1L

V solution (L)

Molality Mole solute Solvent = 1 Kg = 1000g

Kg solvent

% w/w Mass solute x 100% Mass solution = 100g

Mass solution

% v/v Volume solute x 100% Volume solution = 100 ml

Volume solution

39
 SK015 2022/2023
?
EXAMPLE 8

A sample of commercial concentrated

hydrochloric acid is 11.8 M HCl and has a
density of 1.190 g/mL.

Calculate the % by mass, molality, and

mole fraction of HCl.

40
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER
A sample of commercial concentrated
hydrochloric acid is 11.8 M HCl and has a
density of 1.190 g/mL.

STEP 1: HOW TO MAKE AN ASSUMPTION?

Molarity  
( 11.8 M) =

From the given concentration value, (Molarity)

Assume the volume of solution = 1 L
So, mole of solute = 11.8 mol

41
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER
STEP 2: SOLVE PROBLEMS USING THE ASSUMPTION
Q1: Calculate the % by mass of HCl?
So what we need? – refer the formula

 
% w/w =

Mass of HCl = Mole of HCl x Molar mass of HCl

= 11.8 mol x 36.5 g/mol
= 430.7 g HCl (solute)

42
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

Mass of solution
Density of solution =
Volume of solution

Mass of solution = 1.190 g/mL x 1000 mL

= 1190 g solution

43
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

 
% w/w =

 
% w/w =

= 36.2%

44
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER
STEP 2: SOLVE PROBLEMS USING THE ASSUMPTION
Q2: Calculate the molality of HCl?
So what we need? – refer the formula

 
Molality (m) =

Mass of solvent (H2O) = Mass of solution – mass of solute

 

= 759.3 g = 0.7593 kg

45
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

 
Molality (m) =

 
=

= 15.5 molal

46
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER
STEP 2: SOLVE PROBLEMS USING THE ASSUMPTION
Q3: Calculate the mole fraction of
HCl?
So what we need? – refer the formula
Mole fraction of HCl =
 

 
 

= 42.18 mol
47
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

Mole fraction of HCl =

 

= 0.219

48
 SK015 2022/2023

DILUTION

Procedure for preparing less concentrated

solution from a more concentrated solution

dilution
add solvent

stock solution
dilute solution
(concentrated)

49
 SK015 2022/2023

DILUTION PROCESS

50
 SK015 2022/2023
?
EXAMPLE 9

A 15.0 mL sample of 0.450 M K2CrO4 is diluted

to 100 mL. What is the concentration of the
new solution?

51
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

Number of moles contain in 15.0 mL 0.450 M K2Cr2O7

solution (stock solution)
= MV
= 0.450 mol / L x 0.015 L

= 6.75 x 10-3 mol

After dilution, the number of moles of K2Cr2O7 in the

solution does not change.

52
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

Therefore, the number of moles of K2C2rO7 in 100 mL of

the diluted solution is 6.75 x 10-3 mol

Concentration of 100 mL diluted K2Cr2O7 solution

Moles of K2Cr2O7
Molarity =
Volume of solution (in L)

= 6.75 x 10-3 mol

0.100 L
= 0.0675 M
53
 SK015 2022/2023

KEEP IN
MIND
The number of moles of solute does not change
when more solvent is added to the solution.
Concentration, however, does change with the
added amount of solvent

dilution
add solvent

stock solution
(concentrated) dilute solution
ni = nf
MiVi = MfVf
54
 SK015 2022/2023
ANSWER

ni = nf

MiVi = MfVf

Mi = 0.450 M Mf = ?

Vi = 15.0 mL Vf = 100 mL

Mi x Vi 0.450 M x 15.0 mL
Mf = =
Vf 100 mL
= 0.0675 M K2CrO4 solution

55
 SK015 2022/2023

THE END