Many-Sorted First-Order Model Theory

Lecture 2

29th May, 2020

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Conservative signature morphisms

Definition 1 (Conservative signature morphism)

A signature morphism χ : Σ → Σ0 is conservative iff each Σ-model has a
χ-expansion.

Problem 2
I A signature morphism χ : Σ → Σ0 is conservative iff it is injective.
I For any conservative signature morphism χ : Σ → Σ and any sets of
Σ-sentences Γ1 and Γ2 we have Γ1 |=Σ Γ2 iff χ(Γ1 ) |=Σ0 χ(Γ2 ).
I Show that χ(Γ1 ) |=Σ0 χ(Γ2 ) implies Γ1 |=Σ Γ2 doesn’t hold if χ is not
conservative.

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Term models

Definition 3 (Non-void signatures)

A signature Σ is non-void if all sorts are inhabited by some terms, i.e.
TΣ,s 6= ∅ for all s ∈ S.

Fact 4 (Term models)

If Σ is non-void then the set of Σ-terms TΣ can be regarded as a Σ-model:

I the carrier set for each sort s ∈ S is TΣ,s (which is not empty);
I for each σ : s1 . . . sn → s ∈ F , the function
σ TΣ : TΣ,s1 × · · · × TΣ,sn → TΣ,s is defined by
σ TΣ (t1 , . . . , tn ) = σ(t1 , . . . , tn ) for all i ∈ {1, . . . , n} and ti ∈ TΣ,si ;
I TΣ interprets each relation symbol as the empty set,
i.e. π TΣ = ∅ for all (π : w ) ∈ P.

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More on term models

Theorem 5 (Initiality)
Given any non-void signature Σ and any Σ-model A, there is a unique
homomorphism h : TΣ → A defined by the interpretation of each term into
the model A, i.e. h(t) = t A for all sorts s ∈ S and terms t ∈ TΣ,s .

Proof.
Assume there exists another homomorphism g : TΣ → A.
We prove that g (t) = h(t) for all sorts s ∈ S and terms t ∈ TΣ,s .
We proceed by induction on the structure of terms:
I h(σ(t1 , . . . , tn )) = σ A (h(t1 ), . . . , h(tn )) IH=
σ A (g (t1 ), . . . , g (tn )) = g (σ(t1 , . . . , tn )).

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More on term models
Notation
Let Σ be a signature and X a set of vari- Σ[X ] TΣ[X ]
O
ables for Σ such that Σ[X ] is non-void. ιX ιX
We let TΣ (X ) denote TΣ[X ] Σ , the free ? 
model of terms with variables from X . Σ TΣ (X ) = TΣ[X ] Σ

Problem 6 (Freeness)
Assume
v# /A
I a signature Σ and a set of variables X TΣ (X ) ?
b
for Σ such that Σ[X ] is non-void, and
u v
I a Σ-model A and an evaluation 1 QX
v : X → |A|.
Then there exists a unique homomorphism v # : TΣ (X ) → A such that
v = u; v # , where TΣ (X ) = TΣ[X ] Σ and u : X ,→ TΣ (X ).

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Substructures

Definition 7 (Substructure/submodel)
Let Σ be a signature and A and B two Σ-models. A is a substructure of B, in
symbols A ⊆ B, iff there exists an inclusion homomorphism h : A → B.

Problem 8
1. |A| ⊆ |B|,
A ⊆ B iff 2. σ B (a) ∈ As for all (σ : w → s) ∈ F and a ∈ Aw ,
3. π A ⊆ π B .

Problem 9
Let Σ be a signature and h : A → B a Σ-homomorphism.
Then h(A) is a submodel of B.
Note that π h(A) = {h(a) | a ∈ π A }.

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Congruence
Definition 10 (Congruence)
Let Σ be a signature and A be a Σ-model. A congruence ≡= {≡s }s∈S on A is
1. an equivalence on |A|, i.e. an S-sorted relation ≡s ⊆ As × As for all s ∈ S satisfying the
following properties:
I (Reflexivity ) for all s ∈ S and a ∈ As
a ≡s a
a ≡ a
I (Symmetry ) 1 s 2 for all s ∈ S and a1 , a2 ∈ As
a2 ≡ s a1
a1 ≡s a2 a2 ≡s a3
I (Transitivity ) for all s ∈ S and a1 , a2 , a3 ∈ As
a1 ≡ s a3

2. compatible with the function symbols in Σ

a1 ≡s1 a10 . . . an ≡sn an0
I (Congruence)
σ (a1 , . . . , an ) ≡s σ A (a10 , . . . , an0 )
A

for all (σ : s1 . . . sn → s) ∈ F and ai , ai0 ∈ Asi for all i ∈ {1, . . . , n}.

We will drop the subscript s from ≡s whenever it is clear from the context.

Convention
Let ≡ be a congruence on a model A. If (a) w = s1 . . . sn ∈ S ∗ (b) a = a1 . . . an ∈ Aw , and
(c) a0 = a10 . . . an0 ∈ Aw then a ≡w a0 iff ai ≡si ai0 for all i ∈ {1, . . . , n}.
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Examples of congruences
Example 12 (INT)
Example 11 (NAT) spec INT is
spec NAT is sort Int .
sort Nat . op 0 : -> Int .
op 0 : -> Nat . op s_ : Int -> Int .
op s_ : Nat -> Nat . op p_ : Int -> Int .
end end

We define the congruence ≡ on N as follows: Let ≡ be the congruence on T(ΣINT )

generated by the following two sets of pairs
of terms:
I n1 ≡ n2 iff (n1 mod 2) = (n2 mod 2)
for all n1 , n2 ∈ N. I {p s t ≡ t | t ∈ T(ΣINT ) }, and
I {s p t ≡ t | t ∈ T(ΣINT ) }.

Problem 13 Problem 14
Prove that ≡ defined on N above is a Prove that the intersection of two
congruence. congruences is again a congruence.

Problem 15
Let E be a set of equations over a non-void signature Σ. Prove that ≡E :=
{(t1 , t2 ) | E |= t1 = t2 } is the least congr. on TΣ generated by {(t1 , t2 ) | (t1 = t2 ) ∈ E }.
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Kernel
Lemma 16
Let Σ be a signature and h : A → B a Σ-homomorphism.
We define the congruence ker(h) = {ker(h)s }s∈S on A as follows:
I ker(h)s = {(a, b) | hs (a) = hs (b)} for all s ∈ S
The relation ker(h) is a congruence on A.

Proof.
I (Reflexivity ): Obviously, h(a) = h(a), which implies (a, a) ∈ ker(h)
I (Symmetry ): We assume (a, b) ∈ ker(h) and we show that (b, a) ∈ ker(h).
We have: a ker(h)b iff h(a) = h(b) iff h(b) = h(a) iff b ker(h) a.
I (Transitivity ): We assume (a, b) ker(h) and (b, c) ∈ ker(h), and we show that
(a, c) ∈ ker(h).
Since (a, b) ∈ ker(h) and (b, c) ∈ ker(h), we have h(a) = h(b) and h(b) = h(c).
We obtain h(a) = h(c). Hence, (a, c) ∈ ker(h).
I (Congruence): Let (σ : w → s) ∈ F .
We assume that (a, b) ∈ ker(h)w and we prove that (σ A (a), σ A (b)) ∈ ker(h)s .
Since (a, b) ∈ ker(h)w , we have hw (a) = hw (b). It follows that
hs (σ A (a)) = σ B (hw (a)) = σ B (hw (b)) = hs (σ A (b)). Hence, (σ A (a), σ A (b)) ∈ ker(h)s .

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Quotient

Notation
Let ≡ be a congruence on a Σ-model A. Let s ∈ S and a ∈ As .
The class of a is ab := {a0 ∈ As | a ≡ a0 } sometimes denoted also by a/≡ .

As
Fact 17
ab
Note that ab ⊆ As for all s ∈ S and a ∈ As .
This means that ≡ determines a partition of the universe |A|.

Example 18
Consider the congruence defined
in Example 11. We have:
I b
0 = {0, 2, 4, 6, . . . }
I b
1 = {1, 3, 5, 7, . . . }
Example 19
Consider the congruence defined in Example 12.
We have:
I b0 = {0, p s 0, s p 0, p s p s 0, . . . }
I pc0 = {p 0, p s p 0, s p p 0, p s p s p 0 . . . }

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Convention
If w = s1 . . . sn and a = (a1 , . . . , an ) ∈ Aw then we let ab denote the tuple (ab1 , . . . , abn ).

Definition 20 (Quotient substructures)

Let ≡ be a congruence on a Σ-model A.
The quotient structure of A modulo ≡ is the Σ-structure A
b (also denoted A/≡ ) defined below:
I Ab s = {b
a | a ∈ As } for all sorts s ∈ S,
I for all function symbols (σ : w → s) ∈ F ,
the function σ A : A A a) = σ\
w → As is defined by σ (b
A (a) for all a ∈ A ;
b b b
w
b
I for all relation symbols (π : w ) ∈ P,
a | a0 ∈ π A for some a0 ∈ ab} .
the relation π A is defined by π A = {b
b b

Lemma 21
b is well-defined.
A

Proof.
σA : Aw → As is a function: if a
b= bb then a ≡ b, which implies σ A (a) ≡ σ A (b), and we get
b b b
A
σ (b
b \ \ A
a) = σ A (a) = σ A (b) = σ (b).
b b

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First isomorphism theorem
Fact 22
The quotient map q : A → A
b defined by q(a) = ab for all s ∈ S and a ∈ As is a
homomorphism.

Theorem 23 (First isomorphism theorem) ∃!g

/B
A _ ?
b
Let h : A → B be a Σ-homomorphism and let ≡ be a 
congruence on A such that ≡⊆ ker(h). There exists a q h
unique homomorphism g : A b → B such that q; g = h,
A
where q is the quotient homomorphism q : A → A.
b

Proof.
b → B by g (b
We define g : A a) = h(a) for all s ∈ S and a ∈ As .
We show that g is well-defined:
I if ab = ab0 then a ≡ a0 ; since ≡⊆ ker(h), h(a) = h(a0 );
I since h is compatible with the function and relation symbols,
g is compatible with the function and relation symbols too.
b → B such that q; f = q; g .
For the uniqueness part, let f : A
For all s ∈ S and a ∈ As , f (b
a) = f (q(a)) = g (q(a)) = g (b
a).
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Second isomorphism theorem/homomorphic image theorem
∃!g
A / im (h)
Theorem 24 (Second isomorphism theorem) ^ <
b

Let h : A → B be a Σ-homomorphism. q h
Then A/ker(h) ∼
= im (h). A

Proof.
By a slightly abuse of notation we denote by h the co-restriction of
h : A → B to im (h). Let q : A → A b by the quotient map from Fact 22.
We apply Theorem 23 with ≡= ker(h). There exists a unique
homomorphism g : A b → im (h) such that q; g = h. Clearly g is surjective.
We need to show that g is injective:
Assume that g (b a) = g (ab0 ) = h(a0 ).
a) = g (ab0 ). We have h(a) = g (b
Since ≡= ker(h), we get ab = ab0 .

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Basic set of sentences
Definition 25 (Basic set of sentences)
A set of Σ-sentences E is basic if there exists a Σ-model AE such that for all Σ-models A,
A |= E iff there exists a homomorphism AE → A.
We say that AE is a basic model of E . If in addition the homomorphism AE → A is unique then
the set E is called epi-basic.

Theorem 26
Any set of atomic Σ-sentences E is basic. If Σ is non-void then E is epi-basic.

Proof.
Firstly, we prove that E is epi basic assuming that Σ is non-void. Let
≡E := {(t1 , t2 ) | E |= t1 = t2 } be the congruence on TΣ . The basic model AE is obtained from
TΣ /≡E by interpreting each (π : w ) ∈ P as follows: π AE := {tb | E |= π(t)}. We show that
A |= E iff there exists a unique arrow AE → A:
“⇒”
By Theorem 5, there exists a unique arrow h : TΣ → A.
∃!g 0
We show that ≡E ⊆ ker h: t1 ≡E t2 iff E |= t1 = t2 ; since TΣ /≡E /? A
A |= E , A |= t1 = t2 ; we have t1A = t2A iff h(t1 ) = h(t2 ) iff c
(t1 , t2 ) ∈ ker(h). By Theorem 23, there exists a unique arrow 
g 0 : TΣ /≡E → A such that q; g 0 = h. Since A |= E , there q h
exists a unique arrow g : AE → A such that q; g = h, defined T Σ
by g (tb) = g 0 (tb) for all t ∈ TΣ .
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Proof of Theorem 26.
“⇐”
Assuming a homomorphism g : AE → A we prove A |= E .
By Theorem 5, h = q; g and h(t) = t A for all t ∈ |TΣ |.
1. Let t1 = t2 ∈ E . We have t1 ≡E t2 , which implies g
/A
g (tb1 ) = g (tb2 ). It follows that t1A = h(t1 ) =
AE a >

g (q(t1 )) = g (tb1 ) = g (tb2 ) = g (q(t1 )) = h(t2 ) =
q h
t2A . Hence, A |= t1 = t2 .
TΣ
2. Let π(t) ∈ E . By the definition of AE , tb ∈ π AE .
Since g is a homomorphism, g (tb) = g (q(t)) =
h(t) = t A ∈ π A . Hence, A |= π(t).
Secondly, we show that each set of atomic sentences E over any signature Σ if basic.
Let C be the S-sorted set which consists of a new constant for each sort s ∈ S that in
not inhabited by the Σ-terms. It follows that Σ[C ] is non-void. Let Aχ(E ) be the basic
model of χ(E ). We show that Aχ(E ) Σ = AE is a basic model of E , i.e. for all Σ-models
A we have: A |=Σ E iff there exists a Σ-homomorphism AE → A.
“⇒”
Assume that A |= E . There exists an ιC -expansion B of Σ[C ] Aχ(E )
h0
/B
O
A. By the satisfaction condition B |= E . Since E is epi- ιC Σ Σ
basic, there exists a unique homomorphism h0 : Aχ(E ) →
?  
B. Hence, we get h = h0 Σ : AE → A. Σ AE /A
h

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Proof of Theorem 26.
“⇐”
Assume a homomorphism h : AE → A and show
that A |= E . Note that Aχ(E ) = (AE , f : C →
|AE |). Let B = (A, (f ; h) : C → |A|) be the ιC - AE `
h /A
?
expansion of A, which interprets each constant c ∈
C as h(c Aχ(E ) ). Let h0 : Aχ(E ) → B be the ιC - f f ;h
expansion of h such that h0 (a) = h(a) for all s ∈ S C
and a ∈ Aχ(E ),s . Since χ(E ) is epi-basic B |= E .
By the satisfaction condition A |= E .

Problem 27
Any set of existentially quantified atomic sentences ∃X · ρ (ρ is an
equation or a relation) is basic but not necessarily epi-basic.
V
Hint: Firstly, prove that any sentence of the form ∃X · E , where E is a
finite set of atomic sentences, is basic.

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Substitutions
Definition 28 (Substitution)
Let Σ be a signature and X , Y two sets of variables for Σ.
A Σ-substitution between Σ[X ] and Σ[Y ] is a function θ : X → TΣ[Y ] .

(
(z, s, Σ[X ]) (z, s, Σ[Y ])

Sen(Σ[X ])
θ
/ Sen(Σ[Y ])
A substitution θ : X → TΣ[Y ] determines
1. a sentence translation θSen : Sen(Σ[X ]) → Sen(Σ[Y ]) which is
I the identity on the symbols in Σ, and
I maps every variable x ∈ X to θ(x) ∈ TΣ[Y ] ;
2. a model reduct θ : |Mod(Σ[Y ])| → |Mod(Σ[X ])| defined by
I (B θ )s = Bs for all sorts s ∈ S,
I σ (Bθ ) = σ B for all function symbols σ ∈ F ,
I π (Bθ ) = π B for all relation symbols σ ∈ F ,
I x (Bθ ) = θ(x)B for all x ∈ X .
for all models B ∈ |Mod(Σ[Y ])|.
We drop the superscript Sen from θSen when there is no danger of confusion.
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Theorem 29 (Satisfaction condition for substitutions)
Let θ : X → TΣ[Y ] be a substitution. Then for all Σ[Y ]-models B and all
Σ[X ]-sentences γ,

B |=Σ[Y ] θSen (γ) iff B θ |=Σ[X ] γ.

Similarly to the case of satisfaction condition for signature morphisms, we need two
lemmas in order to prove Theorem 29.

Lemma 30
For all substitutions θ : X → TΣ[Y ] , all Σ[X ]-terms t and all Σ[Y ]-models B, we have
t Bθ = θ(t)B .

Proof.
We proceed by induction on the structure of terms:
I x Bθ = θ(x)B for all variables x ∈ X ;
IH
I σ(t1 , . . . , tn )Bθ = σ Bθ (t1Bθ , . . . , tnBθ ) = σ B (θ(t1 )B , . . . , θ(tn )B ) =
θ(σ(t1 , . . . , tn ))B .

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 θ 0

w θ0
/ Σ[Y , Z 0 ]
A Σ[X , Z ] ∃!C
O O
ιZ ιZ ιZ 0 ι 0
Z
" ? ? z
A ιZ = B θ Σ[X ] / Σ[Y ] B
h θ

θ

Lemma 31
Let θ : X → TΣ[Y ] be a Σ-substitution and Z a set of variables for Σ[X ]. For all Σ[X , Z ]-models
A and all Σ[Y ]-models B such that A ιZ = B θ there exists a unique Σ[Y , Z 0 ]-model C such
that C θ0 = A and C ιZ 0 = B, where
I ιZ : Σ[X ] ,→ Σ[X , Z ] is an inclusion,
I Z 0 = {(z, s, Σ[Y ]) | (z, s, Σ[X ]) ∈ Z } is the translation of Z along θ,
I ιZ 0 : Σ[Y ] ,→ Σ[Y , Z 0 ] is an inclusion,
I θ0 (x, s, Σ) = θ(x, s, Σ) for all (x, s, Σ) ∈ X ,
I θ0 : X ∪ Z → TΣ[Y ,Z ] is def. by
I θ(z, s, Σ[X ]) = (z, s, Σ[Y ]) for all (z, s, Σ[X ]) ∈ Z .

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 θ 0

w θ0
/ Σ[Y , Z 0 ]
A Σ[X , Z ] ∃!C
O O
ιZ ιZ ιZ 0 ι 0
Z
" ? ? z
A ιZ = B θ Σ[X ] / Σ[Y ] B
h θ

θ

Proof of Lemma 31.

We define C as follows:
(1) C interprets all symbols in Σ[Y ] as B;
(2) C interprets Z as A, that is (z, s, Σ[Y ])C = (z, s, Σ[X ])A for all (z, s, Σ[Y ]) ∈ Z 0 .
By (1), C ιZ 0 = B. Since θ0 extends θ, by (2), C θ0 = A.
For the uniqueness part, assume another Σ[Y , Z ]-model D such that D θ0 = A and D ιZ 0 = B.
(a) Since D Σ[Y ] = B = C Σ[Y ] , that is D interprets all symbols in Σ[Y ] as B, and in
particular, as the model C;
(b) for all (z, s, Σ[Y ]) ∈ Z 0 , since D θ0 = A, we have (z, s, Σ[Y ])D = θ0 (z, s, Σ[X ])D =
(z, s, Σ[X ])A = θ0 (z, s, Σ[X ])C = (z, s, Σ[Y ])C .
By (a) and (b), we get C = D.
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Reachable models
Definition 32 (Reachable models)
Let Σ be a signature and A be a Σ-model. A is reachable iff each element of |A| is the
denotation of some term, i.e. the unique mapping f : TΣ → |A| defined by f (t) = t A for all
t ∈ TΣ , is surjective.

Theorem 33
Let Σ be a signature, and X a set of variables for Σ. Then A a reachable model iff each
expansion B of A to the signature Σ[X ] (i.e. a valuation v : X → |A|) generates a substitution
θ : X → TΣ such that A θ = B.

Proof.
“⇒”
Let v : X → |A| be a valuation. Since f : TΣ → |A| defined
by f (t) = t A for all t ∈ TΣ , is surjective, there exists TΣ
f
/ |A|
` >
θ : X → TΣ such that θ; f = v . We show that A θ =
(A, v ) = B. It suffices to show that x(Aθ ) = x(A,v ) for all θ v
x ∈ X . For all x ∈ X , we have x(Aθ ) = θ(x)A = f (θ(x)) =
v (x) = x(A,v ) . X

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Proof of Theorem 33.
“⇐”
We show that each element in |A| is the denotation
of some term. Let s ∈ S and a ∈ As . Let x = Σ[x] Bc
O
(x, s, Σ) and B the ιx -expansion of A interpreting x
ιx θ ιx θ
as a, that is xB = a. By our assumptions, there exists ? z 
a substitution θ : {x} → TΣ such that A θ = B. Σ A
Hence, θ(x)A = xAθ = xB = a.

Problem 34
If A is reachable and B ⊆ A then |A| = |B|.

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