GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR ACADEMIC WRITING

At Macro level:
- Designing well-structured text layout
- Developing well-structured paragraphs
At Micro level:
- Using academic sentences
- Using academic vocabulary

Unit 1 Academic Verbs and Adverbs in English

Many of the most common English verbs also tend to be replaced by Latinate verbs having a more precise
meaning. As can be seen from the list below, these common Anglo-Saxon verbs can have many meanings.
In addition, phrasal verbs should be avoided in formal English because they are of various meanings.
1. Academic Verbs
1.1 Latinate and Anglo-Saxon verbs
Change the following informal sentences into formal ones:
Informal: - In a company, each staff must do/ perform their own duties and tasks given/ assigned to them.
Formal:_ .
Informal : - If Force Majeure events happen/ occur, the related/ concerned parties will not be at
faults.
Formal: - _

The principle: To make a sentence more academic, avoid the use of informal verbs (Anglo-saxon origin)
1.2 List of common Latinate and Anglo-Saxon verbs in business English
Anglo-Saxon verbs Latinate verbs
(Informal) (Formal)
amaze, stun
answer
ask, beseech
be
be going to
bring, bear
buy
consider, judge
do
end
follow
forgive
get
give
go
happen
have
have to, have got to
help, bestand, bestead
make

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 mean
put
start
try
wonder

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1.3. Phrasal and Latin Verbs
Change the following informal sentences into the formal ones:
Informal: - Because the prices are going up and down/ fluctuate, we cannot give you a firm offer after
this date. Formal: _
Informal: If a staff frequently violates/ in breach the company’s regulations, he/she will be laid off./
dismiss
Formal: _

The principle: To make a sentence more academic, avoid the use of Phrasal verbs

1.3 List of phrasal verbs and their Latinate equivalents

Phrasal verb Latin verb Phrasal verb Latin verb
branch out expand go up and down _
break into hold on _
bring about join in _
bring up keep up with _

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build up lay off _
call off look forward to _
carry on look into _
carry out Perform, execute, conduct, look at _
close down process, release meet with _
come up with note down _

come up pick up _
cut down put back _
deal with put across _
do again run out of _
drop in set up _
fill out sort out _
find out step down _
get on take off _
get rid of take on _
go up take up _
go through weigh up _

2. Formal and informal Adverbs

Change the following informal sentence into the formal one:
Informal:There is enough coal in the US to power America's electrical plants for another 250 years. But /

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However burning coal releases greenhouse gases that cause global warming.
Formal: _

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 List of informal and formal adverbs
often
sometimes
always
nowadays
a little bit
a lot
more and more
fast
in the end
at once
at first
on and off
again and again
so
mainly
next

Practice 1. Choose the most appropriate verb(s) in brackets below to replace the informal verb in bold.
1. These methods have been used to do a variety of batch control and monitoring issues.
(deal with, verify, address, tackle, handle)
=> These methods have been used to handle a variety of batch control and monitoring issues
2. Wireless mobile networks that work without the need of a fixed infrastructure are widely known as ad hoc
networks. (execute, operate, run, function, implement)
Wireles mobile networks that operate/function without the need of a fixed infrastructure are wide known ad ad hoc networks

3. In this paper, we give a detailed description of the tasks done in order to get sufficient path variation
data. (present, provide, direct, tell, constitute)

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In this paper, we present/provide a detailed description of the tasks done in order to get sufficient path variation data

4. In this paper, we present a detailed description of the tasks done in order to get sufficient path variation
data. (made, performed, achieved, carried out, finished, completed)
performed

5. In this paper, we present a detailed description of the tasks performed in order to get sufficient path
variation data. (receive, achieve, obtain, have, attain, acquire)
receive

6. The data transfer rate is critical in applications in which long data streams must be stored or gotten back
(retrieved/recovered) such as in image storage or back-up applications. (taken back, recovered, salvaged,
retrieved, assembled)

7. The aim of this report is to take a look at different generalization algorithms that are commonly used
with vector-formed data. (investigate, check up, examine, consider, view)
investigate

8. Vector data is usually made from raster formats, such as aerial photographs. (constructed, put together,
performed, assembled, created)
assembled

9. Smith (2002) was the first to come up with (present/ introduce) a communication model for push
systems. He also talked about the security aspects of a push system. (introduce, initiate, invent, present,
work out, devise, develop)

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 10. Smith (2002) was the first to present a communication model for push systems. He also talked about
(described) the security aspects of a push system. (mentioned, discussed, described, told about,
investigated)

11. In the United States, a hybrid vehicle is being developed that has (utilizes) both a battery and a fuel cell.
Such vehicles are typically called 'fuel-cell hybrid' vehicles. (uses, exploits, employs, utilizes, drawson)

12. In the United States, a hybrid vehicle is being developed that uses both a battery and a fuel cell. Such
vehicles are typically called (known as/labelled) 'fuel-cell hybrid' vehicles. (named, known as, referred to
as, labelled, entitled)

13. Fuel cells use electrochemical reactions to change (convert) chemical energy, which is given off by an
oxidizing material, into electric energy. (revise, turn, convert, switch, translate, transform)

14. Fuel cells use electrochemical reactions to convert chemical energy, which is given off (released) by an
oxidizing material, into electric energy. (let go of, let loose, transmitted, fabricated, released)

15. One problem with a fuel cell hybrid vehicle is the danger that the electromotive force made (generated)
from a motor during shut-down of the vehicle could flow into the fuel cell. (produced, designated,
constructed, generated, fabricated)
generated

16. One problem with a fuel cell hybrid vehicle is the danger that the electromotive force generated from a
motor during shut-down of the vehicle could flow into the fuel cell. To avoid this from taking place
(occurring), conventional fuel cell hybrid vehicles use a simple contactor as a safety device between the
fuel cell and the vehicle controller. (resolving, happening, coming about, going on, occurring)
occurring

17. The parameter S stands for (represents) the ratio of the area of the inner electrode. (means, denotes,
signifies, symbolizes, designates, represents)

18. Earlier studies have shown how these techniques could be used in an industrial fermentation study to
notice (detect) sensor failure and provide a real-time estimate of product quality and the final productivity of
the batch. (detect, spot, reveal, find out, identify)

19. This report goes through (examines) different types of algorithms, provides some examples of them, and
compares them in order to find the most suitable algorithm for these purposes. (reviews, covers, looks at,
evaluates, examines, studies, describes)

20. This report examines different types of algorithms, provides some examples of them, and compares
them in order to find (discover) the most suitable algorithm for these purposes. (arrive at, determine,
uncover, turn up, identify, discover, pinpoint)

Practice 2. Choose more formal verbs in the following sentences

Choose more formal verbs given in the box to replace the italic words in the following sentences

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(change the words choosen into appropriate forms where necessary)
achieve deem examine quantify

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 assemble consume convert detect determine employ ignite increase perform remain retrieve utilise
decline ensure proposed drop

1. This approach is extensively used in environmental studies associated with peat regeneration. Smith and
Meyers used employ it for measuring _ quantify regeneration in various peat bogs in
Ireland.
2. Segments based on household characteristics can be looked at examined _ to find out
determine _ whether they differ in terms of preferences and purchase behaviours.
3. A sensor is considered deemed _dead if its residual energy goes drops below E = tc.
4. The S-band tunable resonators are put together _ assembled using conductive epoxy, although solder
joints can also be used utilised .
5. As the cost of production falls _ declines and efficiency goes up_ increases , fuel cells are
expected to find many more applications.
6. A fuel cell is a device that turns converts _hydrogen and oxygen into electricity.
7. Phosphoric acid fuel cells bring about achieve very high conversion efficiencies (40%).
Efficiencies are even higher when the waste heat is used for heating water or living spaces.
8. Fuel cell vehicles are the least polluting of all vehicles that use up consumes _ fuel directly.
9. Scientists plan to do perform _ tests with methanol-like fuels during the next stage of research.
10. Hydrogen is a combustible fuel, and even a very small quantity catches fire ignites _ very easily
with sparks or heat. It burns with a close flame that is almost invisible, thus making it difficult to find
detect _ fires.
11. A network application is one that fetches retrieves needed data from servers over the network.
12. The objective of the suggested proposed project is to make sure _ ensure that ethanol stays
remains _ among the most desirable fuels for fuel-cell vehicles.

Practice 3 Reduce the informality of the following sentences by replacing the italicised part with one verb:
E.g:
- Researchers looked at the way strain builds up around a fault.
=> Researchers observed the way strain accumulates around a fault.
1. It is often said that leadership is a dynamic process. This means putting across ( conveying )
a range of leadership styles is preferable to any one 'best style'.
2. Incentive schemes are often set up ( built ) in companies to improve employee morale.
3. Expenditure on global advertising has gone up ( increased ) dramatically in the past decade.
4. The implementation of JIT production often cuts down ( reduces ) unnecessary waste within
businesses.
5. Researchers have found out ( discovered _) that branding is a powerful tool which has a
significant impact on both consumer buying patterns and company profits.
6. Outsourcing will not completely get rid of ( remove ) the problem of costly overheads within
companies.
7. Accountants have long been looking into (_ investigating _) ways of reducing corporate taxation.
8. This issue was brought up ( addressed ) during the meeting.
9. Consultants are often hired to come up with (_ propose )recommendations that are feasible in
both the long and short term to address company problems.

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10. The company's profit figures have been going up and down (_ fluctuate ) for two years.
11. The implementation of computer-integrated-manufacturing (CIM) has brought about
(_ caused _) some serious problems.
12. The process should be done again (_ repeat ) until the desired results are achieved.
13. Plans are being made to come up with ( produce ) a database containing detailed
information of the annual figures for the small business.
14. Subtle changes, which compromised the quality of the product, were picked up (_ acquired )
by these new devices.
15. Proposals to increase working hours have met with (_ occured ) great resistance from
employees.

Practice 4 Use more formal adverbs to replace the informal ones in the following sentences.
1. This approach is widely generally_ used in environmental studies associated with peat
regeneration.
2. A "top-down" approach has usually frequently been used to fabricate nanoscale materials.
3. The concept of hydrogen power has become more and more _ increasingly attractive in recent
years.
4. Molecular magnetism has lately recently _received much attention with the development of
a variety of synthesis techniques largely extensively adapted from biology and chemistry.
5. Manual testing is many times frequently a labor-intensive and error-prone practice.
6. A peer-to-peer network is an overlay network built on top of the internet. It consists of decentralized,
autonomous peers. Each peer can randomly join or leave the network, thus causing the network topology to
change every now and then_ ocassionally . Nowadays_ currently , the peer-to-peer
network has become widely_ generally used for file sharing, instant messaging, and distributed
computing.
7. Nowadays, presently/currently , vehicles account for about two-thirds of annual fuel use in the United
States — twice the consumption rate in Europe.
8. Currently, MEMS are being integrated in car airbags, as they are a lot more
sensitive and precise than their predecessor – the accelerometers.
9. The European Union (EU) nowadays currently _ consists of 27 member states, but this
number is expected to grow.
10. Fuel cells are up to three times as efficient as conventional vehicles and emit nearly
almost no pollutants.
11. The Mars Exploration Program seeks to understand if provided that Mars was, is, or can ever be
an abode for life.
12. Two requirements are needed to render an object invisible. First of all initially _, no light
should reflect off the object. The second requirement is that the light must bend around the object, allowing
viewers to see only the background and not the cloaked object itself.
13. Optical tomography can provide functional information besides therewithnal anatomical
knowledge.
14. The advantage of our solution is that the shear centre is placed closer to the centre of gravity, so that
intentionally reducing the stresses caused by torsion.
15. It is also widely acknowledged that fuel consumption is affected by vehicle weight. In spite of that,
notwithstanding the weight of passenger vehicles has dramatically increased over the last twenty
years.

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 16. Safety improvements have increased weight, at the same time_ simultaneously _ as
developments in engine technology have improved fuel efficiency so that _with the aim that overall
consumption has remained.
17. The Finnish language derives its unique sound from vowel harmony and its agglutinative morphology ,
which is why therefore , some of the words can become exhaustingly long.
18. Though_albeit the languages of Finland’s neighboring countries are not similar,
been borrowed.
19. No other energy generation technology offers the combination of benefits as do fuel cells.
Besides Futhermore low or zero emissions, benefits include high efficiency and reliability,
siting flexibility, durability, and ease of maintenance.
20. The final price will be clarified after negotiations between the two companies. Anyway
regardless , the total price should still be lower than that of our competitor.

Practice 5 Use the adverbs in the box to fill the gaps of the following sentences
Time Relating ideas
recently clearly
increasingly obviously
originally (not) surprisingly
presently alternatively
currently similarly
traditionally (more) importantly

1. Most houses do not have electricity._ obviously , then, there is little chance of improving
living standards.
2 recently , the internet was mainly used for academic purposes.
3. Some courses are assessed purely by exams. similarly , coursework may be employed.
4. currently , there has been growing concern about financing the health service.
5 Many birds use bright colours to attract a mate. _ alternatively , flowers advertise their position to
fertilising insects.
6. _ more importantly ,the development should be acceptable environmentally.
Practice 6 Use a suitable adverb indicating a change in the box to complete the following sentences.
Small Medium Large

gradually substantially quickly

slightly significantly sharply
marginally steadily dramatically
slowly considerably rapidly

1. Last year inflation increased slightly _ from 2% to 2.3%.

2. Life expectancy has risen steadily _ in the last 20 years, by
about 15%.
3. The price was reduced dramatically , so that a £12 book was offered for £6.

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4. Sales rose significantly while he was chairman, averaging 14% per year.
5. The numbers of people voting has declined sharply , from 80%
to 65%.
6. The crime rate climbed _ considerably in the early 1990s, by 20–25% a year.
7. In the last four years unemployment has fallen_substantially , from 5% to 2.5%.
8. In the first two years of the war the suicide rate dropped dramatically _, by over 30% each
year.

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