(Unit 86) Prefixes: creating new meanings

Common prefixes
Prefix Meaning Example
in- im- can make a word
 inappropriate, incapable, inaccuracy, inability and imperfect.
il-, ir- negative
means wrongly or  misbehave and misuse [use in the wrong way or for the wrong
mis- badly purpose]
greater or better than  outnumber [to be larger in number than another group]
out- something  outweigh. [be greater or more important than something else]
 Reconsider [think again about a decision or opinion]
re- ‘do again’  redevelop and rethink [change what you think about something or
what you plan to do]
 e-commerce [buying and selling goods online]
e- ‘electronic’  e-reader [an electronic device for reading books]
 e-cigarettes. [cigarettes that use water vapour rather than tobacco]
 eco-friendly cleaning products, an eco-city [using energy efficiently
good for the and producing very little pollution]
eco- environment  eco-warrior. [an informal word for someone who campaigns to protect
the environment]
Preposition-based prefixes
1) over- may indicate (a) an excess of something, (b) being above something, or (c) going across
something.
That film was overrated in my view. [people said it was better than it really was]
(a) excess
It was a bad restaurant, with an overpriced menu. [too high prices]
Several of our neighbour’s large trees overhang our garden. [their branches go over our
garden]
Our garden is overshadowed by the block of flats next door . [the flats cast a shadow over our
(b) above
garden]
She always felt overshadowed by her older, more successful, sister. [metaphorical use, felt less
important than]
He overstepped the mark when he said that. [crossed a barrier into offensive/ unacceptable
(c) across behaviour]
Will you be staying overnight? [cross from one day to the next]
2) under- may indicate (a) less than the desired amount, (b) something below another thing, or (c) some
kind of negative behaviour.
Don’t underestimate the time it will take. [think it will be less than it really is]
(a) less
The company is seriously understaffed. [lacking staff]
It’s quite wet underfoot. Did it rain last night? [on the ground, beneath your feet]
(b) below
The underlying question is a very difficult one. [the deeper question]
I wish you would not undermine everything I do. [attack, weaken]
(c) negative
He did it in a very underhand way. [secretly and possibly dishonestly]
3) up- can suggest a change of some kind, often positive.
 The airline upgraded me to business class. [changed my ticket to a better class]
 There has been an upturn in the economy. [change for the better]
 Less frequent prefixes
 Converse
 Commiserate
con- often suggests mixing things together (often in verbs
 Condolences
com- of communication).
 Congeal
 contaminate
 Promote,
 proliferate ,
pro- suggest pushing something forward or increasing it.
 procrastinate,
 procreate
can give the idea of something coming out of something
e-  They were ejected from the restaurant for bad behaviour. [thrown out; formal]
 The machine emitted a loud noise and then stopped working. [gave out; formal]
Exercises
Choose a word from A opposite to complete each sentence.
1. They are planning to ____redevelop_____ the area around the old bus station.
2. It is ____inappropriate_____ to use informal language in a formal essay.
3. The yes votes __outnumber/outnumbered_______ the no votes by two to one.
4. Ivan’s English is excellent but he still tends to ____misuse____ idioms occasionally.
5. We all hope you will ____reconsider_____ your decision to turn down our offer of a job.
6. I’m afraid I only have an ____imperfect_____ understanding of the situation myself.
7. These pupils do not usually _____misbehave____ in class.
8. An ___inability______ to drive is a serious problem for anyone in this line of business.
9. Lance seems to be ____incapable_____ of understanding even the simplest instructions.
10. Paula lost marks in her science test because ____inaccuracy_____ of the of her measurements.
11. More and more businesses use the internet in order to sell their products, so ____e-commerce_____ is
becoming more and more important to the economy.
12. More farmers are now choosing to use ____eco-friendly_____ fertilisers that don’t harm the
environment or wildlife.
Decide which of the meanings of over- and under- are most obvious in the words in bold. Use the labels
(a), (b) or (c), as in B opposite. Circle the correct letter. Use a dictionary if necessary.
1. I really think she overstated her case, and lost a lot of sympathy. (a)
2. The plane’s undercarriage failed to open and it crashed. (b)
3. A detailed list of awards is given overleaf. (c)
4. He has a very overbearing personality. (b)
5. The project was underfunded from the outset. (a)
6. During the cruise, a child fell overboard and drowned. (c)
7. Priya’s contribution to the project has sometimes been underrated. (a)
8. Phil always gets an underling to do the tasks he doesn’t enjoy. (b)
Rewrite these sentences using words from the opposite page.
1. There are more women than men on my course.
 Women outnumber men on my course.
2. The hotel gave me a luxury room instead of the ordinary one I’d booked.
 The hotel upgraded me to a luxury room instead of the ordinary one I’d booked.
3. Would you like to spend the night there or come back the same day?
 Would you like to stay there overnight or come back the same day?
4. The problem that lies under the surface is a very serious one.
 The underlying problem is a very serious one.
5. For me, the advantages of air travel are more significant than the disadvantages.
 For me, the advantages of air travel outweigh the disadvantages.
6. I think this hotel charges too much.
 I think this hotel is overpriced.
7. It’s slippery walking just here. Be careful.
 It’s slippery underfoot just here. Be careful.
8. The company experienced a rise in popularity after it changed its name.
 The company experienced an upturn in popularity after it changed its name.
9. I felt that what she said was critical of my position and weakened it somewhat.
 I felt that what she said undermined my position and weakened it somewhat.
10. It would be a mistake to think Frances was less intelligent than she really is.
 It would be a mistake to underestimate how intelligent Frances is / to underestimate Frances’s
intelligence.
Match these definitions to a word in C opposite. Use a dictionary if necessary.
1. to keep delaying something that must be done ______procrastinate_____
2. to make something poisonous or less pure ______contaminate_____
3. to throw out with force _____eject______
4. suddenly to increase a lot in number ______proliferate_____
5. to sympathise with someone’s unhappiness ____commiserate_______
6. to change from a liquid or soft state to a solid or hard state _____congeal______
7. to produce young (formal) _____procreate______
8. to chat (formal) ____converse_______
9. to send out (a beam, noise, smell or gas) _____emit______
10. to encourage people to buy or use something ______promote_____
(Unit 87) Suffixes: forming new words
 a washable jacket [one that can be
washed]
-able means ‘can be’  disposable nappies
-ible It combines with verbs to form adjectives.  predictable results
 avoidable problems
 a manageable situation
Combines with nouns to form adjectives that  health-conscious person
 class-conscious society
-conscious describe people who consider one aspect of their
 safety-conscious company
lives especially important  time-conscious workforce
combines with nouns describing something  stress-free life
-free undesirable to form adjectives to describe nouns  tax-free shop
without that undesirable aspect  additive-free food
combines with nouns (often chemical or organic
 fibre-rich diet
-rich substances) to form adjectives to describe nouns  calcium-rich foods
with a lot of that substance
combines with nouns and nationality adjectives to
 community-led initiative
form adjectives describing things that are
-led controlled or influenced by the original noun or
 student-led protest
 worker-led uprising
nationality:
combines with adjectives or nouns to form new  like-minded friends [with similar interests]
 career-minded young women
-minded adjectives describing people with particular
 money-minded managers high-minded
characters, opinions or attitudes [having high moral standards]
 combines with nouns to form adjectives  ovenproof dish
 waterproof jacket
-proof describing things that can resist the damage or
 soundproof room
difficulty caused by that noun  idiotproof instructions
combines with nouns to form adjectives to  stress-related absence from work
-related describe one thing as connected with another.  age-related illness

combines with nouns to form adjectives  guilt-ridden person

 crime-ridden city
-ridden describing people or things with a lot of that
 bedridden [a person who has to stay in bed
noun: because they are ill]
combines with nouns to form adjectives that  newsworthy incident [worth reporting in
-worthy describe people or things that merit whatever the the news]
original noun refers to:  praiseworthy action [deserving praise]

Suffixes in different word classes

 lively children [full of energy]
not only an adverb ending, it also forms quite a few  costly holiday [expensive]
-ly adjectives  leisurely walk [relaxed]
 miserly man [mean with money]
 an applicant for
 a job an insurance claimant
-ant it can make nouns from verbs to describe a person  a police informant
 a quiz contestant
 an occupant of a house
 to moisten your lips
 to sweeten tea
-en makes verbs from adjectives:
 a situation worsens
 a face reddens
Exercises
suffix new example in phrase meaning
-able  a debatable issue an issue that can be debated
-conscious  money-conscious employers employers who are very aware of money
-free  car-free city centre a city centre without any cars
-rich  energy-rich drink a drink which provides a lot of energy
-led  French-led fashion fashion that is dictated by the French
-minded  sport(s)-minded friends friends who are very focused on sports
-proof  bullet-proof car a car with protection against bullets
-related  drug(s)-related crime crime that is connected in some way with drugs
-ridden  poverty-ridden society a society where there is a lot of poverty
-worthy  trustworthy person a person who deserves others’ trust
Match each adjective with the two nouns it best collocates with in the box.
1) Additive free → drinks / foods
2) Avoidable → delay/problems
3) Disposable → knives and forks/glove
4) Guilt-ridden → expression/speech/personality
5) High-minded → speech/principles
6) Newsworthy → story/speech/mistake
7) Oil-rich → country/economy
8) Ovenproof → glove/dish
9) Soundproof → room/booth
10) Stress-related → illness/problems
Which of the suffixes in A opposite could combine with the words in the box below to make new words?
Note that there is more than one possibility for each word.
Child - dust - calorie – work
 child-led, child-minded, childproof, child-related
 dust-free, dustproof, dust-related
 calorie-conscious, calorie-rich, calorie-related
 workable, work-conscious, work-free, work-rich, work-led, work-minded, work-related
Rewrite the sentences using the suffix given in brackets.
1. The weather can’t be predicted. (-able)
 The weather is unpredictable.
2. Poisonous mushrooms can be easily identified. (-able)
 Poisonous mushrooms are easily identifiable.
3. He thinks so much about his career that he has no time for his family. (-minded)
 He is so career-minded that he has no time for his family.
4. The new speed cameras are supposed to be indestructible by vandals. (-proof)
 The new speed cameras are supposed to be vandal-proof.
5. During the Civil War, the country was totally overcome by terror. (-ridden)
 During the Civil War, the country was terror-ridden.
6. The soil on that farm contains a lot of nutrients. (-rich)
 The soil on that farm is nutrient-rich.
7. The bank decided that he did not have enough income to allow him credit. (-worthy)
 The bank decided that he was not creditworthy.
Using a suffix from A, make up words with the following meanings.
1. food for vegetarians must be this  meat-free
2. connected with class  class-related
3. containing a lot of vitamins  vitamin-rich
4. can be dry-cleaned  dry-cleanable
5. very aware of people’s clothes  clothes-conscious
6. initiated by the government  government-led
Are the following words adverbs, adjectives or verbs? Use a dictionary if necessary.
1. Dampen  verb
2. Friendly  adjective
3. Dearly  adverb
4. Silken  adjective
5. Roughen  verb
6. Masterly  adjective
7. Kindly  adverb and adjective
8. Darken  verb
(Unit 88) Word-building and word blending
Word-Building
 Word-building is the act of building a word using suffix and prefix.
Word Part Meaning Example
auto- self an autonomous region [self-ruling]
bio- life, living things biodegradable packaging [able to decay naturally]
relating to computers
cyber- a cybercafé [café where customers can use computers and the internet]
and robots
demotivate [make someone feel less interested and enthusiastic
de- opposite action
about something]
 mono- single, one monocycle [cycle with just one wheel]
a monograph [long article or short book on a single subject that the
-graph- writing
writer has studied for a long time]
-gress- step, walk, go a congress [a conference, i.e. a meeting where people come together]
an area of study or
-ics obstetrics [the study of pregnancy and childbirth]
knowledge
-phon- sound phonetics [the study of human speech sounds]
-ology study criminology [the study of crime and criminals]
pre- before prepaid tickets [tickets paid for in advance]
retro- back, backwards retroactive law [taking effect from a date in the past]
relating to advanced
techno- technophobia [fear of using technology such as computers]
machines
tele- over a distance telepathic experience [feeling something from a distance]

Word-blending
brunch a meal that is a combination of breakfast and lunch.
heliport a place where helicopters can land and take off (helicopter + airport)
smog polluted fog (smoke + fog)
Motel a roadside hotel for people travelling by car (motor + hotel)
webinar a seminar delivered over the internet via a designated website (web + seminar)
guesstimate an approximate calculation (guess + estimate; verb = to guesstimate)
docudrama TV programme that dramatises real historical events (documentary + drama)
breathalyser a device to find out how much alcohol a person has drunk (breath + analyse)
Exercise
Using information from the table in A, explain the basic meanings of these words.
1. biography  writing about a life
2. monologue  a long speech by one person (e.g. in a film or play)
3. telephone  sound carried from a distance
4. autobiography  something written by yourself about your own life
5. phonology  study of sound
6. to retrogress  to go back to an earlier, worse state
7. graphology  study of writing
8. to destabilise  to make something unstable
9. autograph  something written to represent yourself
Look at the following word parts. Use a dictionary to find two new words beginning with these and write
them in your vocabulary notebook. Choose only words that use the meanings studied in this unit.
Postman, for example, clearly has not been formed using the prefix post- meaning ‘after’.
1. mono  monotonous, mono-culture
2. techno  technocrat, technology
3. retro  retrograde, retroactive
4. tele  telescope, telecommunications
5. auto  automatic, automobile
6. pre  pre-war, pre-flight
7. post  postnatal, postpone
8. bio  biological, biodiversity
Rewrite these sentences, replacing the underlined words with a word that includes the word part given.
Use a dictionary if necessary.
1. I had to put off my trip to Japan. (post)
 I had to postpone my trip to Japan.
2. She asked the singer for his signature on the back of her table napkin. (graph)
 She asked the singer for his autograph on the back of her table napkin.
3. She took a degree in the science of crime at Stockholm University. (ology)
 She took a degree in criminology at Stockholm University
4. The novel is largely based on the writer’s own life. (bio)
 The novel is largely autobiographical.
5. It’s an exhibition looking back at the painter’s life and work. (retro)
 It’s a retrospective exhibition of the painter’s life and work.
6. He believes in the idea that you can cure yourself by suggesting to yourself that you are cured. (auto)
 He believes in auto-suggestion to cure yourself.
7. Working at home and keeping in contact with the office by phone, text-messaging and email is now
quite common. (tele)
 Teleworking is now quite common.
8. Some English philosophers in the 19th century believed in the abolition of industry. (de)
 Some English philosophers in the 19th century believed in de-industrialisation.
9. Crime committed through the internet is a huge cause for concern. (cyber)
 Cybercrime is a huge cause for concern.
Rewrite these sentences, replacing the underlined word with an explanatory phrase.
1. Most of the time, planes fly on autopilot.
 Most of the time planes fly automatically, controlled by a computer rather than the pilot.
2. The firm makes job applicants do a graphology test.
 The firm makes job applicants do a test that analyses their handwriting for what it reveals about
their personality.
3. The school always takes very seriously any case of cyberbullying.
 The school always takes very seriously any case of bullying carried out over the internet or by phone.
4. Matt’s a bit of a technophobe.
 Matt has a fear of anything technical.
5. He’s giving a paper at a pre-conference event in Spain.
 He’s giving a paper at a special event taking place just before a conference in Spain.
6. She did a course in informatics.
 She did a course in information science.
What words have been combined to make these blends? What do you think they mean?
1. Infomercial
 information + commercial, i.e. a television advert that gives information instead of selling something
(e.g. explaining new social welfare regulations)
2. Podcast
 iPod + broadcast, i.e. radio programmes that you can download after they are broadcast and listen
to on a personal audio player such as an iPod or smartphone.
3. Camcorder
 camera + recorder, usually a small, portable video camera
4. Veggieburger
 vegetable + hamburger, i.e. a vegetarian hamburger
5. Swimathon
 swimming + marathon, i.e. an event in which people attempt to swim a very long distance (probably
done in order to raise money for charity)
6. Freeware
 free + software, i.e. software you can download without charge from the internet
 (Unit 90) Easily confused words
Words similar in form and close in meaning
 The United Nations should intervene to stop the civil war. [step in; neutral in meaning]
 She shouldn’t interfere in things that don’t concern her. [involve herself; negative and critical]
 The phone’s been ringing continually. It’s driving me crazy. [very frequently; often negative]
 Stir the mixture continuously until it boils. [without stopping; from a recipe]
 There’s a new series on TV about space exploration. [set of related programmes]
 I don’t want to miss this week’s episode of Oliver Twist. It’s a serial – if I miss one, I’ll lose track of the story.
[set of programmes where the story continues over different episodes]
 We sat in the shade of a big oak tree. [out of the sun; pleasant connotation]
 The evening sun cast long shadows. [dark areas or shapes]
 They lived in the shadow of a chemical factory. [in a place dominated by; negative connotation]
 She complimented me on my performance at the concert. [praised, expressed admiration for]
 I took a course in programming to complement my other IT skills. [make them seem better, more complete
or more attractive in combination]
Words of different form but from the same area of meaning
 The cake mixture should be moist but not sticky. [slightly wet; from a recipe]
 The climate in the north is damp and rather cold. [slightly wet in an unpleasant way]
 The theme of the festival was ‘1,000 years of culture’. [the main idea that everything followed]
 The topic of conversation soon changed to the news. [what the people talked about]
 The security officer noticed a broken window. [concerned with protection of property, etc.]
 The safety officer told him that he must wear a helmet. [concerned with prevention of accidents, etc.]
 We took a smaller road in order to avoid the roadworks on the motorway. [stay away from]
 The escaped prisoner evaded capture for three months. [escaped from; more formal]
Phrasal combinations
 Phrasal verbs may have noun forms with different meanings.
verb noun
Six men broke out of the prison. There was a breakout at the prison.
The disease has broken out in several villages in There has been an outbreak of the disease in several
the north of the country. villages in the north of the country.
Economists are looking out for signs of an end to The outlook is not good. The economy seems to be
the recession. stagnant.
He stood at the corner, looking out for police cars. He was the lookout while the others robbed the bank.
The Swimming Club decided to set up a committee The company setup is quite complex, with branches in 30
to look into the club rules. different countries.
 In some cases, two verb forms have the same words in a different order and different meanings.
verb 1: particle first verb 2: particle second
upend [move into a vertical position] end up [finish]
uphold [confirm, support] hold up [delay]
outdo [do better than] do out [decorate]
outrun [run faster than] run out [use something so there is none left]
upset [make someone worried, unhappy or angry] set up [organise or arrange something]

Choose the correct word in these sentences.

1 I have always tried not to intervene / interfere in things that are not my business.
2 Security / Safety at the factory is not good. There have been several accidents involving machinery recently.
3 There are some themes / topics I don’t like to talk about with my friends, such as politics and religion.
4 He was dozing happily in the shade / shadows of an old beech tree.
5 The theme / topic of her latest novel is growing up as an only child in the 1970s.
6 The teacher intervened / interfered to stop the argument between the two students.
 7 The receptionist called the safety / security officer once it became clear that there had been a burglary.
8 He was continually / continuously complaining about something or other.
9 The moon sometimes casts wonderful shadows / shade on the sea.
10You have to press the button continually / continuously until the green light comes on. Don’t take your finger
off it, or it won’t work.
Decide whether the particle should go before or after the verb in these sentences.
1 The cheetah is so fast it can outrun a fast-moving vehicle. (out)
2 The police held up the traffic while the President’s car passed. (up)
3 Sean made an insensitive comment and didn’t realise how much he’d upset Wendy. (up)
4 The committee upheld her complaint, and she was awarded compensation. (up)
5 We decided to do out the living room and went online to choose paint colours. (out)
6 We ended up eating in a dingy café on the edge of town. (up)
7 The radio’s not working. The batteries have run out . (out)
8 We upended the sofa and used it to block the doorway. (up)
Choose a noun from the box that can be associated with the following sentences.
lookout outbreak breakout upset outlook setup
1 There has been violence in the capital city. outbreak
2 My stomach was bad so I couldn’t go to work. upset
3 The prospects for the economy are good over the coming years. outlook
4 I wanted to learn more about how the business was organised. setup
5 She made sure nobody was looking, and her husband did the shoplifting. a lookout
6 Four prisoners have escaped from a maximum security prison. a breakout