ZOU BITH203: Computer Repair and Maintenance

ZIMBABWE OPEN UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

AND
MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATION
BACHELOR OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, AND SOFTWARE ENGINEERING
BITH203
COMPUTER REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE
Author: Taurayi Rupere

Master of Science in Computer Science (University of Zimbabwe)
Bachelor of Science, Computer Science & Mathematics (University of Zimbabwe)
Reviewer: Peace Muyambo

Master of Science in Computer Science (University of Zimbabwe)
Bachelor of Science, Computer Science & Mathematics (University of Zimbabwe)
Module Overview
BITH203: Computer Repair and Maintenance is one of the courses on offer under the Faculty of
IT & Multimedia Communication at Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU).
This course is offered to all students taking the Computer Science and Information System. They
need to understand this course so that they can understand fully all the components of a personal
computer and carry out repair and maintenance. Students from other courses may also find this
course interesting as it answers the many issues usually raised in the computer system field.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning independently and
being able to optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how the course is
conducted.
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
i. Know how a computer works;
ii. Identify the components that form a personal computer and how they function;
iii. Do installations and know the trouble shooting fundamentals;
iv. Carry out repair and maintenance on computers.
This course is divided into 13 Units. The synopsis for each Unit is presented below:
Unit 1: This unit looks at how computer works through input processing and output as well as
storage. It further looks at the hardware and software as two of the basic components of the
computer .It generally discusses about how a computer works.
Unit 2: This unit looks at hardware and software work together. The unit further looks on how a
computer boots and its link with the OS and how to carry protection on hardware and software
Unit 3: This unit looks at the system board. It start by identifying the components found on the
system board then further looks at the functionality of this components and how they are
connected. It describes and elaborates the functionality of system board.
Unit 4: This unit looks at the physical memory that is housed on the system board and expansion
slots. It further looks at how to manage memory and finally looks at upgrading the memory.
Unit 5: This unit looks at how data is stored on secondary storage devices as well as how to
access this data discusses on the disks and CD-ROM drive, further more install, format and
secure secondary storage devices
Unit 6: This unit looks at how data is stored on a hard drive. The unit further looks at how the
data is managed in Windows OS and Dos environments. Finally it looks at how to identify
various types of hard drives, their comparisons and management
Unit 7: This unit looks at the hard drive installation and support. It starts by outlining how to
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carry out installation on a hard drive then followed by revealing how to use a diagnostic
software. It further looks at the recovery of lost data on hard drives then finally looks at the
trouble shooting tasks
Unit 8: This unit looks at the fundamentals of trouble shooting. It starts by looking at how
protection is done on individuals, hardware and software. It then looks at the tools needed for the
support as well as the course of action to take.
Unit 9: This unit looks at user support for the input and output devices. It starts by looking at the
basic principles of peripheral devices support then followed by how to resolve resource conflicts.
It further looks at how to install new devices on the computer with their drivers. Finally it looks
at the key I/O devices like key board and printers.
Unit 10: This unit covers multimedia technologies. It starts by explaining the multimedia
technologies then finishes with the cooling systems. Identify the cooling system inside the
computer.
Unit 11: This unit looks at the electricity and power supply which are the critical components
Needed supplied to the power supply of a PC. Finally it looks at how computer systems can be
protected from power surge
Unit 12: This unit looks at the supporting windows operating systems. It starts at windows
installation process then followed by windows OSs management. It then looks at the windows
registry and diagnostic process as well as the trouble shooting task.
Units 13: This unit looks at the installation and management of laptop hardware as well as to the
basic principles to security and technologies that are needed by a technician in the general
operation of IT equipment by a PC. It starts at looking at how electricity is measured then looks
at how the power is supplied to the power supply of a PC. Finally it looks at how computer
systems can be protected from power surge
Unit 12: This unit looks at the supporting windows operating systems. It starts at windows
installation process then followed by windows OSs management. It then looks at the windows
registry and diagnostic process as well as the trouble shooting task.
Units 13: This unit looks at the installation and management of laptop hardware as well as to the
basic principles to security and technologies that are needed by a technician in the general
operation of IT equipment
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text arrangement.
Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise your study of this course to be
more objective and more effective. Generally, the text arrangement for each Unit is as follows:
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Learning Objectives: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have completely
gone through a Unit. As you go through each Unit, you should frequently refer to these learning
outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your progress of digesting the Unit.
Summary: You can find this component at the end of each Unit. This component helps you to
recap the whole Unit. By going through the summary, you should be able to gauge your
knowledge retention level. Should you find points inside the summary that you do not fully
understand, it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details from the module.
Review Questions: These are short questions for the review for each unit. The short components
help you to recap some of the aspects discussed in the unit and you should be able to answer
them with much challenges .Should you find not able to answer the questions, it would be a good
idea for you to revisit the details from the module.
References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles,
electronic contents or sources can be found. This list appears at the end of the module. You are
encouraged to read and refer to the suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed
as well as to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
There is no specific prior knowledge for this course. However, the knowledge on basic computer
concepts and programming will help the learners to understand the contents better.
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Table of Contents
Module Overview ........................................................................................................................... 2
Unit 1 How Computers Work ....................................................................................................... 15
1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 15
1.1 Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 15
1.2 Components of a PC ....................................................................................................... 15
1.2.1 Hardware ................................................................................................................. 15
1.2.2 Software ....................................................................................................................... 15
1.2.3 Information .................................................................................................................. 15
1.2.4 User .............................................................................................................................. 16
1.3 Hardware and its Connections ............................................................................................ 16
1.3.1 Hardware Used for Input and Output...................................................................... 17
1.3.2 Hardware inside the Computer Case....................................................................... 17
1.3.3 The System board ................................................................................................... 17
1.3.4 Components Used Primarily for Processing ........................................................... 17
1.4 Storage devices ............................................................................................................... 18
1.4.1 Temporary (Primary) Storage Devices ................................................................... 18
1.4.2 Permanent (Secondary) Storage Devices ................................................................ 18
1.5 System board Components ............................................................................................. 18
1.5.1 System Board Components Used for Communication among Devices ................. 18
1.5.2 Interface (Expansion) Cards ................................................................................... 19
1.5.3 The Electrical System ............................................................................................. 19
1.5.4 Instructions and Data Stored on the System Board ................................................ 19
1.6 Software .............................................................................................................................. 19
1.6.1 Firmware or BIOS................................................................................................... 19
1.6.2 Operating Systems .................................................................................................. 20
1.6.3 Applications Software ............................................................................................. 21
1.7 Troubleshooting Windows ............................................................................................. 22
1.8 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 23
1.9 Review questions ................................................................................................................ 24
References ..................................................................................................................................... 26
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Unit 2: How Software and Hardware Work Together .................................................................. 28
2.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 28
2.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 28
2.3 Booting or Startup Process ............................................................................................. 28
2.3.1 System Resources Defined ..................................................................................... 29
2.3.2 The Boot Process, Step by Step .............................................................................. 30
2.4 How software manages hardware resources .................................................................. 32
2.4.1 Memory Addresses ................................................................................................. 32
2.4.2 BIOS and Device Drivers That Request Specific Memory Addresses ................... 33
2.4.3 Input/Output Addresses .......................................................................................... 33
2.4.4 DMA Controller Chip ............................................................................................. 33
2.4.5 Configuration Data and How it is Stored ................................................................ 35
2.5 Protecting Data, Software, and Hardware........................................................................... 35
2.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 36
2.8 Review Questions ............................................................................................................... 37
References ..................................................................................................................................... 39
Unit 3: The System Board............................................................................................................. 41
3.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 41
3.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 41
3.2 Types of System Boards ................................................................................................. 41
3.2.1 Common Motherboard Layout (Intel Socket T (LGA 775).................................... 42
3.3 CPU and the Chip Set ......................................................................................................... 43
3.3.1 Relating CPU Attributes to Bus Architecture ......................................................... 44
3.3.2 The Earlier Intel CPU`s .......................................................................................... 44
3.3.3 The Pentium and Its Competitors ........................................................................... 44
3.3.4 Other Components Found in CPUs......................................................................... 45
3.4 The ROM Bios .................................................................................................................... 46
3.4.1 The Total BIOS in your System.............................................................................. 46
3.5 RAM ................................................................................................................................... 46
3.5.1 Dynamic Memory ................................................................................................... 47
3.5.2 Static Cache Memory.............................................................................................. 47
3.6 Buses and Expansion Slots ................................................................................................. 47
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3.6.1 Bus Evolution.......................................................................................................... 47
3.6.2 Bus Types................................................................................................................ 48
3.6.3 Accelerated Graphics Port ...................................................................................... 48
3.7 On-board Ports and hardware configuration ....................................................................... 49
3.7.1 I/O interfaces ........................................................................................................... 49
3.8 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 51
References ..................................................................................................................................... 53
Unit 4: Understanding and Managing Memory ............................................................................ 55
4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 55
4.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 55
4.2 Physical Memory............................................................................................................ 55
4.2.1 SRAM and Memory Caching ................................................................................. 56
4.2.2 SIMMs and DIMMs ................................................................................................ 56
4.2.3 ECC, Parity, and Non-parity DRAM ...................................................................... 58
4.2.4 What to Look for When Buying Memory Chips and Modules .............................. 58
4.3 How memory is viewed by different OSs ...................................................................... 59
4.3.1 Physical memory and memory addresses ............................................................... 59
4.3.2 Areas of the Memory Map ...................................................................................... 59
4.3.3 Virtual memory ....................................................................................................... 61
4.3.4 RAM Drives ............................................................................................................ 61
4.4 Managing memory using command pro (DOS) ............................................................. 61
4.4.1 Loading Device Drivers High ................................................................................. 62
4.4.2 Loading TSRs High ................................................................................................ 62
4.4.3 Simulating Expanded Memory ............................................................................... 62
4.4.4 Memory Reports Using the MEM Command ......................................................... 62
4.4.5 Using MEMMAKER in command pro ................................................................... 62
4.5 Managing memory in windows OSs .............................................................................. 63
4.5.1 Application Swap Files ........................................................................................... 63
4.5.2 Optimizing Windows with the Swap File ............................................................... 63
4.5.3 Real Mode vs. Virtual Real Mode .......................................................................... 64
4.5.4 Windows OSs Swap File ........................................................................................ 64
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4.6 Memory ............................................................................................................................... 64
4.7 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 66
4.8 Review questions ................................................................................................................ 67
References ..................................................................................................................................... 70
Unit 5: Data storage on Secondary Storage Devices .................................................................... 72
5.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 72
5.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 72
5.2 Data Storage on Secondary storage devices ................................................................... 72
5.3 How Data is Physically Stored on a Disk ...................................................................... 73
5.3.2 How Data is Logically Stored on a Disk ................................................................ 73
5.3.3 Using DOS/ Linux commands to Manage Disks .................................................... 74
5.4 CD-ROM Drives ............................................................................................................ 75
5.4.1 How a CD-ROM Drive Can Interface with the System Board ............................... 76
5.4.2 Installing and Configuring a CD-ROM Drive ........................................................ 76
5.4.3 Device Drivers ........................................................................................................ 77
5.5 CD-R and CD-RW Drives.............................................................................................. 78
5.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 79
References ..................................................................................................................................... 81
Unit 6: Hard Drives ....................................................................................................................... 82
6.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 82
6.1 Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 82
6.2 Hard drive Technology................................................................................................... 82
6.2.1 IDE Technology ...................................................................................................... 83
6.2.2 Formatting a Hard Drive ......................................................................................... 84
6.2.3 Enhanced IDE (EIDE) Technology ........................................................................ 84
6.2.4 SCSI Technology .................................................................................................... 84
6.2.5 Other Variations of SCSI Hardware and Software ................................................. 85
6.3 Organisation of Hard drives to hold data ....................................................................... 85
6.3.1 Hard Drive Partitions .............................................................................................. 85
6.3.2 Logical Drives ......................................................................................................... 85
6.3.3 The Boot Record ..................................................................................................... 86
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6.3.4 The FAT and Root Directory .................................................................................. 86
6.3.5 Communicating with the Hard Drive BIOS............................................................ 86
6.3.6 Adjusting for More Complex Hard Drive Organization ......................................... 86
6.3.7 Translation Methods ............................................................................................... 87
6.4 Some common DOS/ Linux Commands ........................................................................ 88
6.5 Optimising a hard drive .................................................................................................. 89
6.5.1 Fragmentation ......................................................................................................... 89
6.5.2 Disk Compression ................................................................................................... 89
6.5.3 Caching ................................................................................................................... 90
6.5.4 DOS Buffers............................................................................................................ 91
6.5.6 Using DOS under Windows OSs to Manage a Hard Drive .................................... 91
6.6 Other removable drives .................................................................................................. 91
6.7 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 92
References ..................................................................................................................................... 94
Unit 7: Hard Drive Installation and Support ................................................................................. 95
7.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 95
7.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 95
7.2 Installing a hard drive ..................................................................................................... 95
7.2.1 When BIOS Does Not Support Large-Capacity Hard Drives ................................ 96
7.2.2 OS or High-Level Format ....................................................................................... 96
7.2.3 Installing a SCSI Drive ........................................................................................... 97
7.3 Trouble shooting hard drives.......................................................................................... 97
7.3.1 An Ounce of Prevention.......................................................................................... 98
7.3.2 Problems with Hard Drives ..................................................................................... 98
7.3.3 Resolving Hard Drive Problems ............................................................................. 98
7.4 Data Recovery ................................................................................................................ 99
7.5 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 101
7.8 Review Questions ......................................................................................................... 102
References ................................................................................................................................... 104
Unit 8: Trouble shooting fundamentals ...................................................................................... 106
8.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 106
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8.1 Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 106
8.2 Trouble Shooting Perspectives ..................................................................................... 106
8.3 Trouble shooting tools .................................................................................................. 107
8.4 Isolating a computer problem and devising a course of action .................................... 108
8.5 Accurate Record keeping ............................................................................................. 109
8.6 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 111
References ................................................................................................................................... 114
Unit 9: Supporting I/O Devices .................................................................................................. 116
9.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 116
9.1 Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 116
9.2 Basic Principles of Peripheral Installations .................................................................. 116
9.2.1 Hardware Devices ................................................................................................. 117
9.2.2 Embedded BIOS on Devices ................................................................................ 117
9.2.3 Device Drivers ...................................................................................................... 117
9.2.4 Applications Software ........................................................................................... 117
9.3 Using Ports and expansion slots for add on devices .................................................... 118
9.3.1 Ports ...................................................................................................................... 119
9.3.2 PCI Expansion Slots / PCI Bus IRQ Steering ....................................................... 120
9.4 Resolving Resource Conflicts ...................................................................................... 120
9.5 SCSI Devices................................................................................................................ 120
9.6 Essential I/O Devices for PC ........................................................................................ 121
9.6.1 Input device-Keyboard.......................................................................................... 121
9.6.2 Pointing Devices ................................................................................................... 122
9.6.3 Output -VDU ........................................................................................................ 123
9.6.4 Video Cards .......................................................................................................... 123
9.6.5 Video Memory ...................................................................................................... 125
9.7 Printers .............................................................................................................................. 126
9.7.1 Laser ...................................................................................................................... 126
9.7.2 Inkjet ..................................................................................................................... 126
9.7.3 Thermal ................................................................................................................. 127
9.7.4 Impact ................................................................................................................... 127
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9.8 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 127
9.9 Review Questions ............................................................................................................. 129
References ................................................................................................................................... 131
Unit 10: Multimedia Technologies ............................................................................................. 133
10.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 133
10.1 Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 133
10.2 Multimedia................................................................................................................ 133
10.2.1 Bits are Still Bits ................................................................................................... 133
10.3 Multimedia PC .......................................................................................................... 134
10.3.1 Multimedia PC Requirements ............................................................................... 135
10.3.2 MPC3 Specifications ............................................................................................ 135
10.3.3 Sound Cards .......................................................................................................... 136
10.3.4 Digital Cameras .................................................................................................... 136
10.3.5 Video-Capturing Card ........................................................................................... 137
10.4 Cooling methods and devices ......................................................................................... 137
10.4.1 Heat sinks .............................................................................................................. 137
10.4.2 CPU and case fans ................................................................................................ 138
10.5 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 138
10.6 Review Questions ........................................................................................................... 138
References ................................................................................................................................... 140
Unit 11: Electricity and Power Supply ....................................................................................... 142
11.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 142
11.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................. 142
11.2 Introduction to Basic Electricity ............................................................................... 142
11.2.1 Terms .................................................................................................................... 142
11.3 Measuring the voltage of a power supplier .............................................................. 144
11.3.1 Using A Multimeter .............................................................................................. 144
11.3.2 How to Measure the Voltage of a Power Supply.................................................. 144
11.4 Problem with the power supply ...................................................................................... 144
11.4.1 Upgrading the Power Supply ................................................................................ 145
11.4.2 Installing a New Power Supply............................................................................. 145
11.5 Surge protection and battery back-up ....................................................................... 145
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11.5.1 Measuring Power Ranges of Devices ................................................................... 146
11.5.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply .............................................................................. 146
11.5.3 Fire Extinguishers ................................................................................................. 147
11.6 Summary................................................................................................................... 148
11.7 Review Questions ..................................................................................................... 149
References ................................................................................................................................... 150
Unit 12: Supporting Windows OSs............................................................................................. 151
12.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 151
12.1 Objective ................................................................................................................... 151
12.2 Installing Windows OSs ................................................................................................. 151
12.2.1 Shortcut Keys in Windows ................................................................................... 152
12.2.2 Installing Applications Software........................................................................... 154
12.2.3 Problems with Software Conflicts ........................................................................ 154
12.2.4 Memory management ........................................................................................... 155
12.2.5 Memory ................................................................................................................. 155
12.3 The Windows OSs Architecture ............................................................................... 156
12.3.1 16-bit, 32-bit and 64 bit programming .................................................................. 156
12.3.2 Virtual Machines ................................................................................................... 157
12.3.3 Memory Paging ..................................................................................................... 157
12.3.4 Microsoft Windows OSs Startup Menu ................................................................ 157
12.3.5 Installing and Configuring Windows OSs ............................................................ 158
12.4 Plug-and-Play ........................................................................................................... 159
12.4.1 Plug-and-Play BIOS.............................................................................................. 159
12.4.2 Installing New Hardware ...................................................................................... 160
12.4.3 The Windows OSs Registry .................................................................................. 160
12.4.4 Recovering from a Corrupted Registry ................................................................. 160
12.4.5 Modifying and Editing the Registry ..................................................................... 161
12.4.6 Supporting Applications Software with Windows OSs ........................................ 161
12.5 Summary................................................................................................................... 162
12.6 Review Questions ........................................................................................................... 162
References ................................................................................................................................... 165
Unit 13: Laptop Hardware Management and basic security concepts and technologies ............ 167
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13.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 167
13.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................. 167
13.2 Expansion devices .................................................................................................... 167
13.2.1 PCMCIA cards ...................................................................................................... 167
13.2.2 PCI Express cards ................................................................................................. 169
13.2.3 Docking station ..................................................................................................... 170
13.2.4 Port Replicator ...................................................................................................... 172
13.3 Communication connections .................................................................................... 174
13.3.1 Bluetooth ............................................................................................................... 174
13.3.2 Infrared .................................................................................................................. 174
13.3.3 Cellular WAN ....................................................................................................... 175
13.3.4 Wifi Adapters ........................................................................................................ 176
13.4 Power and electrical input devices ........................................................................... 177
13.4.1 Batteries ................................................................................................................ 177
13.4.2 Stylus / digitizer and Function keys ...................................................................... 178
13.4.3 Touchpad............................................................................................................... 178
13.5 Explain the basic principles of security concepts and technologies ......................... 179
13.5.1 Security Online: How to Think About e-Business Security ................................. 179
13.5.2 Key Security Concerns ......................................................................................... 179
13.5.3 Defining Security Needs ....................................................................................... 181
13.5.4 Security Solutions ................................................................................................. 181
13.6Access and Data Integrity ................................................................................................ 182
13.6.1 Anti-Virus Software .............................................................................................. 182
13.6.2 Firewalls and Wireless Network Protection ......................................................... 182
13.6.3 Intrusion Detection Systems ................................................................................. 183
13.6.4 Private Networks ................................................................................................... 183
13.7 Encryption ................................................................................................................ 183
13.7.1 Key Elements in Cryptography............................................................................. 184
13.7.2 Private and Public Key Encryption ....................................................................... 184
13.7.3 Public Key Encryption .......................................................................................... 184
13.7.4 Implementing Encryption ..................................................................................... 185
13.7.5 Certificate Authority ............................................................................................. 185
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13.8 Digital Certificates .................................................................................................... 186
13.8.1 Levels of Certification .......................................................................................... 186
13.8.2 Limitations of Digital Certificates ........................................................................ 186
13.9 Digital Signatures ..................................................................................................... 187
13.10 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 187
References ................................................................................................................................... 190
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Unit 1 How Computers Work
1.0 Introduction
This unit looks at how computer works through input processing and output as well as storage. It
further looks at the hardware and software as two of the basic components of the computer.
1.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 identify how computer works through the hardware and software components;
 list and identify the major hardware and software components of the computer; and
 learn how the CPU uses primary and secondary storage to manage software
1.2 Components of a PC
1.2.1 Hardware
Hardware is the physical components of the computer and is tangible.
1.2.2 Software
Software is the set of programs that controls the computer. PC software can be divided into three
categories: BIOS (or firmware), operating systems (OS), and applications software. The BIOS is
software that is permanently stored on a computer chip.
The BIOS is used to help boot the computer and to communicate with I/O devices. When the
computer is first turned on, the BIOS controls the computer. During the process of booting, the
BIOS loads the OS and the OS takes control.
The OS acts as an interface between hardware and software, manages storage (primary and
secondary), and performs various housekeeping tasks. Users interact with the OS by one of three
interfaces: command-driven, menu-driven, or icon-driven.
1.2.3 Information
Information is processed data or data with a meaning. This is stored in bytes. Primary storage is
temporary storage used by the CPU to process data and instructions. Devices on the system
board and other circuit boards, called memory or RAM (random access memory) provide
primary storage.
The most common types of boards that hold memory chips are SIMMs (single inline memory
modules) and DIMMs (dual inline memory modules).
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Since RAM needs a continuous supply of electrical power, any information in primary storage is
lost when the machine is turned off. Secondary storage is permanent storage that remains even
after the computer is turned off. Secondary storage devices have controllers that contain software
to manage the device and temporarily hold data as it is transferred between primary and
secondary storage.
1.2.4 User
This is the person who will be seated down and operating on the computer and all of us are users
in one way or the other with the main difference being the skills we have. Some are called naïve
end users while others are called sophisticated end users.
1.3 Hardware and its Connections

What is the difference between hardware and software?
Hardware includes the physical devices that make up a computer. Software includes programs
that tell the computer how to use these devices. Firmware is the middleman that translates the
software commands to the proper hardware voltages. Input/output devices typically called
peripheral devices, reside outside the computer case. The monitor, keyboard, and mouse are
examples of peripheral devices. To attach a peripheral device a connection is needed. This
connection is called a port. Some examples of port include COM 1, COM2 and LPT1.
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1.3.1 Hardware Used for Input and Output
Monitors are one of the two most popular types of output devices in use today. Hardware
manufacturers rate a monitor according to the viewable size of its screen and by the number of
pixels used to display the screen. A pixel is a dot or unit of color that is the smallest unit of
display on a monitor. Modern color monitors typically have millions of pixels, which make up
the screen.
1.3.2 Hardware inside the Computer Case
CMOS is a chip that can maintain configuration information as long as it has an electrical
charge. It is used on system boards to remember hardware configuration information such as the
presence of a hard drive, floppy drive or CD-ROM drive. Expansion cards are circuit boards
designed to attach to the system board using an expansion slot. Expansion cards were originally
created to modularize the installation of additional hardware such as video cards, sound cards
and I/O cards.
1.3.3 The System board
The largest and most important circuit board in the computer is the system board. All other
circuit boards in a computer attach to the system board in some manner. The system board also
houses the CPU (central processing unit), which is the brain of a PC. The CPU is involved in
almost every calculation the PC makes.
1.3.4 Components Used Primarily for Processing
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Three components are primarily used for processing in almost all computers. They are:
1. CPU - A microprocessor housed on the system board.

2. Chipset - A chipset is a group of chips on the system board that relieves the CPU of
some of the system`s processing tasks, which increasing the overall speed and
performance of the system.
3. Coprocessor - A chip or portion of the CPU that helps the microprocessor perform
calculations.
1.4 Storage devices
1.4.1 Temporary (Primary) Storage Devices
Primary storage is temporary storage. Primary storage is provided by devices on the system
board and on the other circuit boards, called memory or RAM. The RAM chips can be installed
individually, directly on the system board, or in banks of several chips, on a small board that
plugs into the system board. The most common types of memory chips are SIMMs (single inline
memory modules) and DIMMs (Dual inline memory modules), which are two type of volatile
memory. Memory is considered volatile if it needs to be continually refreshed by the CPU.
Cache memory is a kind of fast RAM that serves as a holding area for data that is accessed
frequently. It is more efficient that volatile RAM because it does not need to be continually
refreshed.
1.4.2 Permanent (Secondary) Storage Devices
RAM on the system board, is considered primary storage; secondary storage is everything else.
The four most popular secondary storage devices are hard disks, floppy disks, Zip drives and
CD-ROMs. A hard drive consists of several metal platters and metal read/write heads. The
heads move over the platters to read and write data. However, if the heads ever touch the platters,
it is considered a head crash. Bumping or dropping a hard drive can cause a head crash. Laptops
are particularly susceptible to head crashes. A hard drive controller is the device responsible
for directly controlling the head movement of the hard drive. Older hard drives did not come
with onboard controllers. A floppy disk uses the same method as a hard drive but because it is
designed to be portable, it has only one platter, made of plastic, and has no heads. In order to
read the data stored on a floppy disk, the disk must be put into a floppy drive. The drive then
uses its heads to read the data stored on the floppy disk`s platter.
1.5 System board Components
1.5.1 System Board Components Used for Communication among Devices
The lines on a circuit board are called traces and are circuits, or paths, that enable data,
instructions, and power to move from component to component on the board. This system of
pathways used for communication and the protocol and methods used for transmission are
collectively referred to as the bus. A protocol is a set of rules and standards that any two entities
use for communication.
18
1.5.2 Interface (Expansion) Cards
The three most commonly used expansion card types are:
PCI (Peripheral component interconnect) expansion slot used for high-speed input/output
devices.
AGP (accelerated graphics port) expansion slot used for a video card.
ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) expansion slot used by older and/or slower devices.
1.5.3 The Electrical System
The purpose of a power supply is to convert electricity from 110AC to either 5 or 12 volts for the
system board and other devices. Standard PC power supplies have two connectors for the system
board: one for the floppy drive, and four connectors for devices like hard drives and CD-ROMs
(although these numbers vary depending on the manufacturer).
1.5.4 Instructions and Data Stored on the System Board
BIOS (Basic input/output system) is firmware that controls much of a computer`s input/output
functions, such as communication with the floppy drive, RAM chips, and the monitor. BIOS is
also called RAM BIOS. ROM (Read Only Memory) is a chip that can hold data without an
electrical charge. Flash ROM can also hold data without an electrical charge, but unlike ROM
the data can be erased and rewritten by software. The process of erasing and rewriting data to a
flash ROM chip is referred to as flashing.
1.6 Software
Three Types of Software and What They Do
The three types of software are:
1. Firmware (BIOS)
2. Operating System (OS)
3. Application software
1.6.1 Firmware or BIOS
The purpose of the BIOS is the same as the purpose of device drivers - to translate software
instructions into a language that the hardware components can understand. The system BIOS is a
combination of all of your computer`s different BIOS`s combined. These BIOS`s would include
the video BIOS, the startup BIOS, and any others that may be installed.
19
Software Layers
When a command is executed within an operating system, the following steps occur:
 Step 1. The application makes a request to the operating system

 Step 2. The operating system translates and forwards that request to the BIOS or proper
device driver.
 Step 3. The BIOS or device driver translates the request into the specific electrical pulses
that the hardware device can understand.
 Step 4. (Optional) Sometimes the operating system sends requests to DOS and then DOS
sends those requests to the BIOS or device driver. This depends on the operating system.
How Software Manages and Shares Information
A memory address is a number that is assigned to each byte in RAM. The CPU can use memory
addresses to track where information is stored in RAM. For example, when the CPU executes a
program, it uses the memory address to assign and retrieve data from primary storage. Memory
addresses are usually displayed as hexadecimal numbers in segment/offset form.
1.6.2 Operating Systems
The operating system creates an environment in which all applications can be executed.
Operating systems are normally stored on the hard drive. Some of the most common operating
systems in use today include: DOS (Disk Operating System), Windows XP, Windows 7,
Windows 8, Linux, OS/2, UNIX and even Android.
Starting Up the Operating System
What is the difference between a data file and a program file? A data file is a collection of
related records or lines that can be written to a disk and assigned a name, such as a simple letter
or payroll file containing data about employees. A program file is a file that contains
instructions designed to be executed by the CPU. When a system is booted, it reads the boot
record of its primary hard drive and looks for an operating system. If it finds one, it copies the
necessary files into RAM and loads the operating system.
What happens behind the scenes when an application is executed? After the first set of program
instructions are copied to RAM, it is executed by the CPU. The executed instructions, points the
CPU to another set of instructions stored at a different location within the RAM. The CPU then
executes those instructions. This process continues until the application has completed execution.
Interfacing with the Operating System
There are two kinds of operating system user interfaces: command-driven interface (command
line) or Graphical User Interface (GUI). In a command-driven interface you must type in the
command that you want the computer to perform. In a GUI interface, icons and graphics are used
to communicate with the user. Windows is an example of GUI.
20
Survey of Operating Systems
Multitasking refers to the ability to execute more than one task at a time. Older CPUs and
operating systems did not have this ability. Cooperative multitasking is a type of pseudo-
multitasking whereby the CPU switches back and forth between programs loaded at the same
time. One program sits in the background waiting for the other to relinquish control. Cooperative
multitasking is also called task switching. Cooperative multitasking was designed to give the
illusion of multitasking. Preemptive multitasking is a type of pseudo-multitasking whereby the
CPU allows an application a specified period of time and then preempts the processing to give
time to another application. A computing environment refers to the operating system and its
capabilities. Some OS have advantages over others.
How an Operating System Manages an Application
Under DOS, a file`s name has two parts. The first part, called the filename, contains up to eight
characters. The second part, called the file extension, contains up to three characters. When you
write file extensions in DOS commands, you separate the extension from the filename with a
period. Other operating systems such as Windows 7 and Linux, can use long file names that can
contain up to 256 characters, as opposed to the eight-character limitation of DOS. DOS divides
memory usage in the following way:
 Conventional or base memory 0 to 640K

 Upper memory 640 to 1024K
 Extended memory Above 1024K
What is the difference between real mode and protected mode? Real mode is a single-tasking
operating mode whereby a program only has 1024K of memory address, has direct access to
RAM, and uses a 16-bit data path. Protected mode is an operating mode that supports
multitasking whereby the OS manages memory, programs have more than 1024K of memory
addresses, and programs can use a 32-bit data path. In protected mode, the OS does not allow a
program direct access to RAM, but works as the mediator between memory and programs. This
allows the OS some latitude in how it uses RAM. If the OS is low on RAM, it can store some
data on the hard drive. The method of using hard drive space as though it were RAM is called
virtual memory. Windows implements virtual memory by storing data in a file on the hard drive
called the swap file.
1.6.3 Applications Software
The six most common types of applications are: word processing, spreadsheets, database
management, graphics, communications, and games. A Suite of applications is a set of programs
designed to be compatible with each other, and is usually comprised of at least five applications.
Most applications and application suites are designed with a specific operating system in mind.
21
How Applications Software is Loaded and Initialized
A directory is a folder where files can be stored. Think of the root directory as the main folder.
All files and folders on the PC are ultimately stored in the main folder, or root directory. Note
that the root directory is represented by a backslash (\). To execute a file under DOS, you would
type in the name of the file. DOS will then search for the file in the following order: .com, .exe,
.bat. DOS will only search the current directory unless a search path has been specified. A
search path is a list of default directories that the operating system will search when looking for
an executable. The search path can be edited using the PATH command or by modifying the
AUTOEXEC.BAT. If you specify a path when attempting to execute a file, the operating system
will not have to use the search path to locate the file.
Loading Applications Software using Windows 7/8
In the Windows environment, command lines are assigned to icons to make the environment
more user-friendly. However, if you wanted to launch a program without using an icon, you
could open a command window and type the name of the program you wished to execute. Note:
the Windows "Run" option is the same as a command prompt on the start or the office button.
Although Windows 8 has a slight different interface to windows 7, it still uses the same concepts
as Windows 7. Otherwise the process is still the same where you can search from the start
button.
1.7 Troubleshooting Windows
The key thing to remember when troubleshooting in the Windows environment is to follow a
basic process. For example:
 Verify that the hardware component involved is functioning properly- e.g. if there were a
printing problem, you would run a self-test on the printer.
 Verify that the hardware involved is communicating with the BIOS or device driver.
Verify that the correct device driver is being used.
 Verify that the application supports the hardware device.
22
1.8 Summary
Hardware is used for four basic functions: input, output, processing, and storage. Input devices
include the keyboard and mouse; the printer and monitor are both examples of output devices.
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is an important hardware component because it is the
primary processing unit for the computer. Storage devices can be either permanent (secondary)
or temporary (primary).
Secondary or permanent storage, as the name implies, retains the data even if there is no power.
Hard drives, flash disks, Zip drives, and CD ROMS are all examples of permanent storage.
Primary or temporary storage is faster than permanent storage and is used to hold data and
instructions while processing. When the computer is turned off, any information in temporary
storage is lost. Temporary storage is called memory. Examples of memory devices are SIMMs
and DIMMs.
PC software can be divided into three categories: BIOS (or firmware), operating systems (OS),
and applications software. The BIOS is software that is permanently stored on a computer chip.
The BIOS is used to help boot the computer and to communicate with I/O devices. When the
computer is first turned on, the BIOS controls the computer. During the process of booting, the
BIOS loads the OS and the OS takes control.
The OS acts as an interface between hardware and software, manages storage (primary and
secondary), and performs various housekeeping tasks. Users interact with the OS by one of three
interfaces: command-driven, menu-driven, or icon-driven.
Primary storage is temporary storage used by the CPU to process data and instructions. Devices
on the system board and other circuit boards, called memory or RAM (random access memory)
provide primary storage.
The most common types of boards that hold memory chips are SIMMs (single inline memory
modules) and DIMMs (dual inline memory modules).
Since RAM needs a continuous supply of electrical power, any information in primary storage is
lost when the machine is turned off. Secondary storage is permanent storage that remains even
after the computer is turned off. Secondary storage devices have controllers that contain software
to manage the device and temporarily hold data as it is transferred between primary and
secondary storage.
23
1.9 Review questions
Question 1 (1 point)
Timing on the system board is controlled by a pulsing electrical single called the ______.
1. CPU
2. System clock
3. Memory bus
4. System BIOS
Temporary storage is also known as secondary storage.

1. True
2. False
A keyboard is an example of a/an ______ device.
Answer:_______________
The following OS, and all its source code, is free to everyone.
1. DOS
2. Windows 8
3. Linux
4. OS/2
Computers need two different operating systems to function properly.

1. True
2. False
______ is the ability of the computer to do more than one thing at a time.
Answer:___________
24
DIMM stands for

1. Dual Inline Memory Modules
2. Decision Integration Memory Modules
3. Data Input Memory Modules
4. Data Image Memory Modules
Volatile memory needs a constant supply of electrical power to retain data.
1. True
2. False
The ______ times the activities of the chips on the system board.
Answer:______________
25
References
 Robert Bruce Thompson, Barbara Fritchman Thompson: PC Hardware in Nutshell. 3rd
edition. Pages 878. ISBN-13: 9780596005139 Publisher: O'Reilly Media, Incorporated
 Morris Rosenthal :Computer Repair with Diagnostic Flowcharts, 3rd Edition:
Troubleshooting PC Hardware Problems from Boot Failure to Poor Performance:
Publisher: Foner Books (January 25, 2013) Paperback: 170 pages eBook HTML
Language: English ISBN-10/ASIN: 0972380183 ISBN-13: 978-0972380188 - See more
at: http://freecomputerbooks.com/Computer-Repair-with-Diagnostic-
Flowcharts.html#sthash.ekmFEmYP.dpuf
 Morris Rosenthal: Build Your Own PC - An Illustrated Step by Step Guide to
Building a Computer Publisher: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 1st Edition
(12/29/1998); 4th Edtion (10/2004); eBook (2011) Paperback: 200 pages eBook HTML
files Language: English ISBN-10/ASIN: 0071346287/B00007FYE7 (4th Edition:
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
http://freecomputerbooks.com/Build-Your-Own-PC-An-Illustrated-Step-by-Step-Guide-
to-Building-a-Computer.html#sthash.psmiWvaO.dpuf
 Roger Young : How Computers Work: Processor and Main Memory: Publisher: 1st
Books Library (August 1, 2002); CreateSpace, 2 edition (April 17, 2009) Paperback: 152
pages eBook Online, HTML, PDF Language: English ISBN-10: 1442113987 ISBN-13:
978-1442113985 - See more at: http://freecomputerbooks.com/How-Computers-Work-
Processor-and-Main-Memory.html#sthash.ckmTKD7q.dpuf
 Wikibooks contributors:How To Assemble A Desktop PC :Publisher: Platypus Global
Media (September 9, 2011); eBook (Wikibooks.org, 2011 - Date) Paperback: 90 pages
eBook HTML and PDF Language: English ISBN-10: 0615539602 ISBN-13: 978-
0615539607 - See more at: http://freecomputerbooks.com/How-To-Assemble-A-
Desktop-PC.html#sthash.slofeq8P.dpuf
 Jeff Heaton: Build a Computer from Scratch Publisher: Heaton Research, Inc. (June
14, 2006) Paperback: 212 pages eBook Online, HTML, PDF Language: English ISBN-
10: 0977320626 ISBN-13: 978-0977320622 - See more at:
26
http://freecomputerbooks.com/Build-a-Computer-from-
Scratch.html#sthash.yHSGtc60.dpuf
 David Carey: How It Works...The Computer : Publisher: Ladybird Books; First edition
(1979) Hardcover/Paperback 50 pages eBook Online, HTML Language: English ISBN-
10/ASIN: B0007ARLD2 ISBN-13: N/A - See more at:
http://freecomputerbooks.com/How-It-Works-The-
Computer.html#sthash.CWET2WmI.dpuf
 "PC Maintenance Handbook - 2nd Edition" :Improve your PC's performance, speed,
and reliability. With this free eBook you will also receive updates detailing additional
Windows tools, help, and guides in your email courtesy of MintyWhite. Offered Free
by: Windows Guides
 Other Resources from:Windows Guides- See more at:
http://freecomputerbooks.tradepub.com/free/w_winb03/?p=w_winb03#sthash.y4UKmzm
x.dpuf 10.08.2015
27
Unit 2: How Software and Hardware Work Together
2.0 Introduction
This unit looks at hardware and software work together. The unit further looks how a computer
boot and its link with the OS.
2.1 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should able to:
 explain the booting, startup and process works;

 explain how software manages hardware resources; and
 carry protection on hardware and software
2.3 Booting or Startup Process
The boot, or startup, process can be divided into four parts: POST (power-on self-test), loading
the OS, the OS initializing itself, and loading and executing an application. During the POST, the
ROM BIOS startup program surveys hardware resources and needs and assigns system resources
to meet those needs.
The startup program then finds the OS and loads it most often from logical drive C. After the OS
is loaded, it has control of the computer. The OS then configures the system and completes its
own loading.
The OS checks memory and loads software to control the mouse, CD-ROM, scanner, and other
peripheral devices.At this point, the system is ready to receive commands from the user to
execute application software.
At startup, a hardware device is assigned an IRQ, I/O addresses, memory addresses, and possibly
a DMA channel. Hardware uses the IRQ to signal to the CPU that it needs attention. The
hardware and CPU communicate by using the I/O addresses. The CPU uses memory addresses to
locate the BIOS or device driver to manage a hardware device.
The user communicates with the application, which in turn communicates with the operating
system. The operating system communicates with the BIOS. Finally the BIOS communicates
directly with the hardware. Figures 2-1 and 2-2 illustrate this process:
28
2.3.1 System Resources Defined
 IRQ - A line of a system board bus that a hardware device can use to signal the CPU that
the device needs attention. Some lines have a higher priority for attention than others,
Each IRQ line is identified by a single number.
29
 I/O Address - Numbers assigned to hardware devices that software uses to get devices`
attention and to interact with them. Each device "listens" for these numbers and responds
to the ones assigned to it.
 Memory Addresses - Numbers that are assigned to physical memory located either in
RAM or ROM chips. Software can then access this memory by using these addresses.
 DMA Channel - A number designating a channel whereby the device can pass data to
memory without involving the CPU. Think of a DMA channel as a shortcut for data
moving to/from the device and memory.
2.3.2 The Boot Process, Step by Step
What is the difference between a hard boot and a soft boot? The term hard boot is used when
referring to powering on a system. The term soft boot is used when referring to cycling a
system`s power by either pressing the reset button, or pressing the control, alt and delete key, all
at the same time. The following are the four steps of the boot-up process:
1. The ROM BIOS Startup program surveys hardware resources and needs. When a
computer is first booted, it checks the configuration information stored in the CMOS and
compares it to the hardware it currently detects.
2. The ROM BIOS Startup Program searches for and loads an operating system. After
all the hardware resources have been verified, the CMOS chip tells the startup BIOS
where to find an operating system. If the BIOS finds an operating system, it will load the
first files of the operating system into memory, then hand over control to the operating
system.
3. The operating system configures the system and completes its own loading. When the
operating system takes control, it verifies the hardware again and then loads the device
drivers necessary to control the hardware.
4. The user executes applications software. When the user executes an application, the
operating system must first find the proper files then copy them into memory and execute
the program.
What happens when an application request occurs? The user points and clicks within an
application. The application then makes a request to the operating system and the operating
system forwards the request to either a device driver or the system BIOS. Finally, the system
BIOS or device driver translates the request into a "language" the hardware device can
understand.
Step 1: Power - On Self-Test (POST)
The term POST refers to the processes the startup BIOS manages when a system is first powered
on (testing vital hardware components and comparing detected hardware to the CMOS settings).
30
Step 2: BIOS Finds and Loads the OS
By default, the startup BIOS will first search the system`s floppy drive for an operating system
before looking on the system`s hard drive. This is a setting that can normally be modified in the
CMOS. The two files that are required to start DOS are MSDOS.SYS and IO.SYS. After these
files are loaded off of the hard drive and into RAM, the BIOS releases control of the system.
After the BIOS releases control of the system, MSDOS.SYS looks for its configuration file,
which is called CONFIG.SYS. The CONFIG.SYS is the first file used in the DOS boot process
that the user can modify. The CONFIG.SYS normally contains the following statements:
 BUFFERS - This statement is used to tell DOS how many file buffers to create.
 FILES - This statement is used to tell DOS how many files it can use at once.
 DEVICE - These statements are used to tell DOS which device drivers to copy into
RAM.
After CONFIG.SYS instructions have been executed, MSDOS.SYS then looks for the
COMMAND.COM file and copies it into memory. COMMAND.COM then looks for the last
DOS configuration file, the AUTOEXEC.BAT. The AUTOEXEC.BAT normally contains the
following statements:
 PROMPT $P$G - This statement tells DOS to display the current directory name and the
current drive name as part of the command prompt.
 PATH - Remind the students what the purpose of the PATH statement is, and explain that
DOS loads its PATH statement from the AUTOEXEC.BAT.
TSR stand for Terminate and Stay Resident. The term TSR is used when referring to
programs, such as device drivers, that stay resident in RAM even though they may not be in use.
Step 3: The OS Completes the Boot Process
The DOS boot process is completed after the AUTOEXEC.BAT has finished loading.
Sometimes the command win is added to the AUTOEXEC.BAT to execute the win.com, which
will then start Windows 3.x. Both the CONFIG.SYS and the AUTOEXEC.BAT are standard text
files and can be edited with any text editor. Two of the more common DOS and Windows text
editors are EDIT, and Notepad.
Booting with Windows 7/8
The boot process for Windows 7 and windows is very similar to the boot process for Windows
XP or Vista, although some files are used differently. Both OSstill searches for and loads the
CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT, it does not need these files to load device drivers or
Windows hence they have eliminated the pauses during the boot process and improved startup
code for faster processing.
31
2.4 How software manages hardware resources
The 8-bit and 16-bit ISA Bus: ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) is a term used to describe a
bus design. Over the years there have been several different incarnations of ISA. The first was an
8-bit architecture; the modern implementation of ISA is a 16-bit ISA expansion slot, which is
slightly larger than the 8-bit, and is considerably faster.
Interrupt Request Number (IRQ): IRQ`s are used by hardware devices to request service from
the CPU. Each hardware device uses a unique IRQ to request service from the CPU. The I/O
address table is a small table kept in memory that correlates each IRQ with a specific memory
address, which contains the beginning of the program that will service the request for the device.
In other words, the I/O address table is an index used to keep track of memory addresses for
input/output devices.
2.4.1 Memory Addresses
Once the IRQ has gotten the attention of the CPU, its job is done, but memory addresses are used
as the device is serviced. Recall that memory addresses are numbers assigned to both ROM and
RAM memory so that the CPU can access that memory:
Hardware components most often use memory to store data instructions. These instructions are
used to send requests to and retrieve results from a device. In contrast, software, both
applications and operating systems, use memory addresses to temporarily store data so that it can
be easily manipulated. Memory addresses are, for the most part, assigned by the BIOS and OS
during the boot process. Recall that the boot process begins with the startup BIOS on the ROM
BIOS chip.
32
2.4.2 BIOS and Device Drivers That Request Specific Memory Addresses
Some legacy real-mode device drivers only work if they are assigned specific memory addresses.
However, this is not the case with most modern hardware. BIOS shadowing is the process of
copying the BIOS from ROM to RAM. Note that some of the newer BIOS leave the option to
shadow several different device BIOS into RAM because the access time is faster using RAM
than using ROM.
2.4.3 Input/Output Addresses
Another system resource that is made available to hardware devices is input/output addresses or
I/O addresses. I/O addresses (AKA port addresses or ports) are numbers that the CPU can use
to access hardware devices. An interrupt request is made and is sent to the I/O address table to
find out which program will service the request. The I/O address table is stored at the bottom of
memory. Next, the interrupt goes to the program that will service the request - the interrupt
handler. The CPU then follows the instructions to service the device and passes data to the
operating system. An I/O conflict occurs when two hardware devices claim the same memory
address.
2.4.4 DMA Controller Chip
How does the CPU use DMA? DMA stands for Direct Memory Access. DMA consists of a chip
on the system board that provides several channels for hardware components to request direct
access to RAM without interrupting the CPU.
Tying It All Together
Figure 2-4 illustrates hardware interrupt, where the request handler is BIOS:
33
Figure 2-5 illustrates software interrupt:
34
2.4.5 Configuration Data and How it is Stored
The setup program is a way of viewing the information stored in CMOS from the last time the
system was booted. This information is often referred to as configuration data or setup data. DIP
switches are switches that have two positions - ON, which has a binary value of 1, or OFF,
which has a binary value of 0. These switches are used to tell the device how to respond. DIP
switches give a device added configuration information by telling it how to behave (IRQ, DMA,
I/O address). You can access the BIOS setup program by pressing some combination of keys
during the boot process. The exact way to enter setup varies from one system-board
manufacturer to another. Jumpers give the device added configuration information by telling it
how to behave (IRQ, BMA, I/O address). Jumpers are functionally the same as DIP switches but
have a different physical appearance. A jumper consists of two pins sticking up side by side, with
a cover over the two pins making a connection. CMOS passwords can protect systems from
being booted. Unfortunately because the password is stored in CMOS it will be erased if the
CMOS chip loses power. Should the user forget their CMOS password, most system boards have
a jumper or DIP switch available that will clear the CMOS password without clearing all of the
CMOS configuration information. Note that for this reason, these types of passwords are not
considered secure.
2.5 Protecting Data, Software, and Hardware

35
Saving and Restoring Setup Information in CMOS: It is helpful to write down CMOS
configuration information in order to simplify the restoration process. You will need this
information if your CMOS chip loses power. If you prefer to use software to track this
information you can Install a third party software package and follow the directions.
Keeping OS Rescue disks: The purpose of keeping a rescue disk is to enable you to boot the
system should the operating system on the hard drive fail. Note that a rescue disk will only help
in the event of a software failure. If the hard drive has suffered a head crash, the OS rescue disk
will be useless.
Backing Up Your Hard Drive: How often data should be backed up depends on the value of
the data. If the data is business critical, then it should be backed up daily. Common types of
backup media include DAT tapes, ZIP tapes, CD-ROMs, JAZZ disks and other hard drives.
Documentation: If you want to add new hardware to a system you will want to first verify that it
is compatible with your current hardware, as well as check for necessary jumper or DIP switch
changes. For this reason, you should always keep the documentation that comes with your
hardware and software.
Damage from Electricity: ESD (electrical static discharge) and power spikes are the two most
common types of electrical damage sustained by computers.
2.6 Summary
The boot, or startup, process can be divided into four parts: POST (power-on self-test), loading
the OS, the OS initializing itself, and loading and executing an application. During the POST, the
ROM BIOS startup program surveys hardware resources and needs and assigns system resources
to meet those needs.
Thestartup program then finds the OS and loads it most often from logical drive C. After the OS
is loaded, it has control of the computer. The OS then configures the system and completes its
own loading.
The OS checks memory and loads software to control the mouse, CD-ROM, scanner, and other
peripheral devices.At this point, the system is ready to receive commands from the user to
execute application software.
At startup, a hardware device is assigned an IRQ, I/O addresses, memory addresses, and possibly
a DMA channel. Hardware uses the IRQ to signal to the CPU that it needs attention. The
hardware and CPU communicate by using the I/O addresses. The CPU uses memory addresses to
locate the BIOS or device driver to manage a hardware device.
The optional DMA is a method where an I/O device can send data directly to memory bypassing
the CPU. When a hardware device needs attention from the CPU, the device raises its IRQ line
36
to the CPU. When the CPU senses the IRQ, it stops what it is doing and handles the interrupt.
The CPU looks at the location in memory where the device driver or BIOS program that services
the device is stored. The CPU then executes this program, which will use the I/O addresses to
communicate with the device.
Since problems can, and often do, occur with computers, it is important to protect data, software,
and hardware. The CMOS is important to the successful operation of a computer, so a backup of
the CMOS information should be made and kept in a safe place.
An OS rescue disk, which allows the computer to be booted from the disk rather than the hard
drive, should also be made. The disk should contain enough software to load the OS and the
AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS files with the software needed to access the CD-ROM
drive in order to use the Windows 7 CD.
It is also a good idea to regularly make a backup of the computer`s hard drive. The backup is just
an extra copy of a file or files made to a different location or storage media. Along with copies of
the CMOS, boot disk, and hard drive backup, all the hardware and software documentation
should be kept in a safe place in case it is needed later.
2.8 Review Questions
When DOS is loaded, which file is executed first?
1. COMMAND.COM
2. IO.SYS
3. CONFIG.SYS
4. AUTOEXEC.BAT
A TSR program is loaded into memory but not immediately executed
1. True
2. False
The filename AUTOEXEC.BAT stands for ______.
37
The keyboard uses what IRQ? .
1. 1
2. 6
3. 7
4. 8
Software stored on a hard driver must first be copied into RAM before processing.
1. True
2. False
______ is a shortcut method that allows an I/O device to send data directly to memory bypassing
the CPU.
Answer:___________
Which of the following is not an indicator that setup information is lost?
1. The battery is discharged
2. "Hard disk failure" message at startup
3. "Hardware information is lost" message at startup
4. The battery has been replaced
It is okay to touch the inside of the computer even if it is on as long as you touch the outside of
the computer case first to ground yourself.
1. True
2. False
38
References
Flowcharts.html#sthash.ekmFEmYP.dpuf 10.4.2016
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
to-Building-a-Computer.html#sthash.psmiWvaO.dpuf 10.4.2016
Processor-and-Main-Memory.html#sthash.ckmTKD7q.dpuf 10.4.2016
Desktop-PC.html#sthash.slofeq8P.dpuf 10.4.2016
10: 0977320626 ISBN-13: 978-0977320622 - See more at:
39
Scratch.html#sthash.yHSGtc60.dpuf 10.4.2016
Computer.html#sthash.CWET2WmI.dpuf 10.4.2016
40
Unit 3: The System Board
3.0 Introduction
This unit looks at the system board. It start by identifying the components found on the system
board then further looks at the functionality of this components and how they are connected.
3.1 Objectives
 learn what physical components are on the system board;
 learn how the system board transports data, follows programming logic, and
coordinates the timing and execution of each processing task;
 learn how to select system boards and CPUs for your system; and
 learn how to upgrade some components on a system board
3.2 Types of System Boards
There are two popular types of system boards - the older AT and the newer ATX. The
differences between the two types of boards has nothing to do with their overall performance -
they differ only in size, convenience features, the type of case into which they will fit, and the
type of power connections they have.
When you purchase a system board your selection determines the following:
 Type and speed of the CPU.

 Chip set on the board (which is built-in)
 Memory cache type and size
 Types and number of expansion slots: ISA, EISA, VESA local bus, PCI, and AGP.
 Type of memory parity or nonparity, EDO, SDRAM, SIMMs or DIMMs
 Maximum amount of memory you can put on the board and the incremental amounts by
which memory can be upgraded.
 Type of case you can use
 ROM BIOS, which is already installed
 Type of keyboard connector
 Presence or absence of different types of proprietary video and/or proprietary local bus
slots
 Presence or absence of IDE adapters and SCSI controller
 Presence or absence of COM ports, LPT ports, and mouse port
41
3.2.1 Common Motherboard Layout (Intel Socket T (LGA 775)
42
1 CPU Socket 13 BIOS_WP - BIOS flash protect jumper
2 CPU_FAN - CPU cooling fan connector 14 COM2 - Onboard Serial port hader
3 DIMM1~2 - 240-pin DDR2 SDRAM slots 15 WOL1 - Wake On LAN connector
4 IRDA - Infrared header 16 S/PDIF - SPDIF out header
5 FDD - Floppy diskette drive connector 17 F_AUDIO - Front panel audio header
6 ATX1 - Standard 24-pin ATX power 18 AUX_IN - Auxiliary In connector

connector
19 PCI1~2 - 32-bit add-on card slots
7 IDE1 - Primary IDE channel
20 PCIE1 - PCI Express x1 slot
8CLR_CMOS - Clear CMOS jumper
21 PCIEX16 - PCI Express slot for graphics
9SATA1~4 - Serial ATA connectors interface
10 PANEL1 - Panel connector for case 22 SYS_FAN - System cooling fan connector
switches and LEDs
23 ATX12V - Auxiliary 4-pin power connector
11 USB1-2 - Front Panel USB headers
12 1394a - IEEE 1394a header
The universal bus is expected to eventually replace serial and parallel ports and is designed to
make installation and configuration of I/O devices easy, providing room for as many as 127
devices daisy-chained together. The Universal Serial Bus (USB) uses only a single set of
resources for all devices on the bus.
3.3 CPU and the Chip Set
CPU`s are rated using the following guidelines:
 CPU speed measured in megahertz

 Efficiency of the programming code
 Word size, sometimes called the internal data path size
 Data path
 Maximum number of memory addresses
 The amount of memory included with the CPU
 Multiprocessing ability
 Special functionality
43
3.3.1 Relating CPU Attributes to Bus Architecture
What is "word size" and "data path"? Word size is the amount of data the CPU can process in
one operation. Data path is the amount of data that can be sent to the CPU. Note also that the
data path is the same as the bus size.
3.3.2 The Earlier Intel CPU`s
The 386 CPUs ran slower than the 486 CPUs, and some, like the 386SX, could not address as
much memory as the 486 CPUs. The 486 was the first PC CPU to have a built-in coprocessor. A
coprocessor is a secondary processor that performs calculations for the CPU, faster than the CPU
is capable of doing, thereby increasing the performance of the entire system. In most systems
today the coprocessor exists within the processor. Turbo mode forces the CPU to work in
overdrive, which can cause the CPU to overheat. If the CPU overheats, the system will lock up.
To minimize the possibility of lock ups, all newer CPU`s require some sort of cooling device to
function properly.
3.3.3 The Pentium and Its Competitors
Bus speed, which is measurable, is the speed or frequency at which the data on the system board
is moving. To determine the clock speed of a system, you would perform the following equation:
Bus speed x multiplier = clock speed
A memory cache that is included on the CPU microchip itself is called internal cache. Internal
cache is faster than external cache and is contained inside the 80486 or Pentium CPU. External
cache is static memory that is stored on the system board or inside the CPU housing, which is
not part of the CPU.
The Pentium II uses Slot 1 architecture and ranges in speeds from 233MHz - 333MHz. The
Classic Pentium uses a Socket 7 ZIF to connect to the system board and ranges in speeds from
75MHz - 200MHZ. Table 3-4 illustrates the Intel Pentium family of CPUs:
44
The Pentium Competitors
Intel`s two primary competitors are AMD and Cyrix. Both companies have advertised goals to
produce CPU`s that are just as fast and powerful as Intel`s but cost less. You can get more
information about Pentiums and competitors at http://www.intel.com.
3.3.4 Other Components Found in CPUs
RISC technology: A growing trend in chip design is the increased use of RISC (reduced
instruction set computer) technology, over the traditional CISC (complex instruction set
computer) chip design. The difference between these two technologies is the number of
instructions (called the instruction set) hard-coded within the CPU. RISC CPUs have a simpler
instruction set that, as a result, are executed faster.
CPU Cooling Fans: An overheated CPU typically causes erratic system behavior and incorrect
responses. Because a CPU generates so much heat, most computer systems use a cooling fan to
keep the temperature below the Intel maximum allowed limit of 185 degrees F. Good CPU
cooling fans can maintain the temperature at 90 to 110 F. Some newer CPUs generate so much
heat that they need extra cooling. The chips might have a heat sink attached to them and a large
fan attached on top of the sink or to the side of the case, blowing over the heat sink. A heat sink
is a clip-on device that mounts on top of the CPU.
CPU Slots and Sockets: The type of slot or socket supplied by the system board for the
processor must match that required by the processor. The four most common today are Socket 7,
Super Socket 7, Socket 8, and Slot 1.
CPU Voltage Regulator: Some CPUs require one voltage amount for external operations and
another amount for internal operations. Those that require two different voltages are called dual
voltage CPUs. Most often the CPU`s voltage is configured via jumpers or DIP switches found
45
on the system board near the CPU socket. Some modern system boards require an additional
circuit board, called a voltage regulator, to control the amount of voltage on the system board.
The Chip Set: The chip is set of chips on the system board that collectively controls the memory
cache, external buses, and some peripherals. Accelerated graphics port (AGP) is a special slot on
a system board which holds a video card that provides transfer of video data from the CPU that is
synchronized with the memory bus. The latest Triton series of chip sets is the 430TX, which
replaces the VX and MX becoming the first chip set by Intel used in both notebooks and
desktops. Natoma and Orion are currently the only Triton system board that supports the
Pentium II and Pentium III architecture (i.e. Slot 1). Interestingly, although Intel does not support
bus speeds faster than 66 MHz, this doesn`t mean that their system boards are not capable of
going faster. Support simply means that Intel will not take responsibility for problems when the
system board is used at speeds faster than 66MHz. Although system boards manufactured by
Intel tend to be more expensive, system boards manufactured by other companies tend to be
more proprietary. Running a system board at a speed that is not recommended or guaranteed by
CPU or chipset manufacturers is often referred to as overclocking.
3.4 The ROM Bios
One of the more common problems with older BIOS versions was that you were required to
upgrade the BIOS chip when adding new hardware. This isn`t a problem on modern system
boards because Flash ROM is now used for the BIOS rather than ROM. The most common
problem seen today when attempting to upgrade a hard drive is, older BIOS can`t recognize a
large capacity drive because the BIOS chip has not been upgraded with that capability.
3.4.1 The Total BIOS in your System
Although the system board has the primary BIOS, it does not have the only BIOS in the PC. The
total BIOS in their systems include all of the different BIOS` combined, including expansion
cards and other devices (i.e. Most PnP devices have their own onboard BIOS). Unlike older
BIOS versions, the Plug-and-Play BIOS communicates with peripheral devices to identify and
assign resources. It used to be that when a device made a request for service, the BIOS would
have the information to service that device. Now, device drivers have that information,
eliminating the need to upgrade the BIOS every time you add a proprietary hardware device.
Most manufacturers provide the newest version of a product`s BIOS at their web site or via
phone order. A Flash ROM BIOS update is simply a software program designed to erase and
write data to your Flash ROM (EEPROM) chip. The actual update process will vary depending
on the manufacturer, however, it is important to understand that if a BIOS is flashed incorrectly,
it can render the system board unusable.
3.5 RAM
46
RAM stand for Random Access Memory. There are two types of RAM.
3.5.1 Dynamic Memory
There are two types of RAM: dynamic RAM and static RAM. Dynamic RAM chips hold data
for a very short time; static RAM chips hold data until the power is turned off. Parity is an error-
checking scheme in which a ninth, or "parity," bit is added. The value of the parity bit is set to
either 0 or 1 to provide an even number of ones for even parity and an odd number of ones for
odd parity. A parity error occurs when the number of ones in the byte is not in agreement with
the expected number. Generally speaking, a "Parity Error 1" is a parity error on the system board,
while a "Parity Error 2" is a parity error on a memory expansion board.
Recall that later, computers were made to hold RAM on a group of chips stored in a single
physical unit called a SIMM (single inline memory module). SIMMs hold from 8 MB to 64 MB
of RAM on one board. All new system boards today use DIMMs (dual inline memory modules),
which can hold from 8 MB to 256 MB of RAM on a single board. Differences between SIMMs
and DIMMs include access speed, physical size, slot type, required voltage, and cost.
3.5.2 Static Cache Memory
Cache holds data that the processor anticipates it will need next. The data is stored in cache
because it is faster than storing the data in the standard memory area (SIMMs). Cache is referred
to by level. L1 cache (level one cache) is internal cache that is housed within the processor. L2
cache (level two cache) is external cache that is normally added through an expansion slot on the
system board.
3.6 Buses and Expansion Slots
3.6.1 Bus Evolution
In the early 1980s when PCs were first introduced, there was only one bus on the system board,
called the system bus. The system bus manages the electrical power, control signals, memory
addresses, and data. At that time, the system bus ran at the same speed as the CPU. Everything
on the system board working with the CPU or the bus would keep the same beat, following the
pulses of the system clock (the system clock is run by a crystal on the system board, occupies
one line of a bus and keeps the "beat" for the CPU and other devices). Over time, different
hardware components have developed at different speeds. Now, the typical PC will have as many
as 5 or 6 different bus speeds. For example The CPU works at one speed, the bus connecting the
CPU to the memory is working at a slower speed, and the bus communicating with I/O devices
must work at an even slower speed. For example, legacy devices such as an 8 or 16-bit
expansion card are typically not able to keep up with the "beat" of the system bus, so they
normally are counting one "beat" for every three or four "beats" that the system bus has counted.
47
3.6.2 Bus Types
ISA Bus: The ISA bus was used in the early 1980`s on the first IBM PCs. Initially, the ISA bus
had an 8-bit data path, but IBM later revised it to have a 16-bit data size. The IBM AT personal
computer used this bus and the 80286 chip, which is why the 16-bit bus is sometimes referred to
as the AT bus.
Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) Bus: The Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) bus was
the first 32-bit expansion card designed for PC`s. IBM patented the MCA bus so that other
hardware vendors couldnot manufacturer it economically. The other hardware vendors didn`t
want to pay IBM to use the Micro Channel technology. Instead they banded together to form the
Gang of Nine and develop the EISA standard.
The EISA Bus: EISA, designed to compete with MCA, was also a 32-bit expansion card. The
bus is compatible with older ISA buses so that expansion boards have 8-bit or 16-bit data path
work on the EISA bus.
Universal Serial Bus: With USB you can display daisy chain devices such as scanners,
keyboards, mice and modems. USB has a data transfer rate of almost 10mbs - faster than the
current serial standard.
Firewire: Firewire is an expansion bus that can also be configured to work as a local bus. It is
expected to replace the SCSI bus, providing an easy method to install and configure fast I/O
devices. FireWire is referred to as IEEE 1394, and supports speeds up to 400mbps.
Local I/O Buses: The local bus is anything that runs at the same speed or near the same speed as
the CPU. The VESA standard was created to accommodate memory expansion slots. Many
hardware vendors endorsed the VESA standard because it was the first opportunity to develop a
32-bit standard for PCs.
PCI Bus: The PCI bus has a 32-bit data path, has a bus speed of 66MHz, and does not run on the
local bus. Therefore, it does not create wait states and slow down the processor. To accomplish
the reduced wait states, the PCI Bus manages requests from the ISA Bus and forwards them to
the CPU via the PCI bridge controller. The PCI Bridge Controller then accesses the local bus to
transmit hardware requests from the PCI bus. PCI Bus has a speed of 66MHz, whereas the 16-bit
ISA bus speed is only 8.33MHz.
Bus Mastering is a smart device that can access memory directly without sending a request to
the CPU to access the memory for the device.
3.6.3 Accelerated Graphics Port
AGP (accelerated graphics port) runs at the same speed as the memory bus, connects directly to
it, and has a 32-bit data path. AGP runs faster than PCI, running at half the memory bus speed,
but also offers additional features that give it overall better performance for video than PCI. One
48
example is an improved rendering of 3-D images when software is designed to take advantage of
its extended capabilities.
How Speed Affects Overall Performance
There are two ways to change the speed of a computer:
1. Change the speed of the memory bus, which, according to Intel recommendations, should
normally be 60 to 66MHz.
2. Change the multiplier that determines the speed of the CPU. The choices for the
multiplier vary.
3.7 On-board Ports and hardware configuration
3.7.1 I/O interfaces

Integrated AMD Motherboard
49
PS2 Mouse Used to connect a PS/2 pointing device.
PS2 Keyboard Used to connect a PS/2 keyboard.
VGA Port Connect your monitor to the VGA port.
DVI-I Port Connect a monitor with DVI connection.
HDMI Connect a monitor or HDTV with HDMI connection.
Optical S/PDIF Used for sound connections to home audio recievers or powered PC speakers with
optical connections.
1394a Port Use the 1394a port to connect to any firewire device.
LAN Port Used to connect an RJ-45 cable to a Network hub or router.
USB Ports Used to connect USB devices such as printers, scanners cameras et...
Analog Audio Ports Used to connect audio devices.
 Orange - Center & Woofer

 Black - Back Surround
 Grey - Side Surround
 Blue - Line-in
 Green - Front Out
 Pink - Mic_in Rear
An "on-board port" is some type of communication port that is an integrated part of the system
board, such as a built-in keyboard port or on-board serial port. If an on-board port fails, it can
normally be disabled using the CMOS setup program.
Setup Stored on a CMOS Chip
CMOS maintains its configuration information by using the power supplied by a small lithium
battery near the CMOS. If the battery is disconnected or fails, all CMOS settings go back to
default.
50
3.8 Summary
A system board is made up of many components. The most important component on a system
board is the CPU, or the central processing unit. The CPU is the microprocessor at the heart of
the PC system, where almost all operations must ultimately be processed.
Other components include the chip set, ROM BIOS, CMOS configuration and its battery,
RAM,RAM cache, a system bus with expansion slots, jumpers, ports that come directly off the
board, and power supply connections.
Data is passed over a bus in a group of wires. The number of lines in the bus used to pass data
determines how much data can be passed in parallel at one time. The purpose of a local bus is to
provide direct access to the CPU for a few fast devices that can run at nearly the same speed as
the CPU.
A local I/O bus must connect with the CPU by way of the memory bus. ISA buses cannot send
data at the speeds that new computers are used to, so the data from an ISA bus must pass through
an interface, which sends the data in conjunction with the system clock. The system clock is
dedicated to timing the activities of the chips on the system board. The chipset controls bus
activity.
When selecting a system board, most people select one that allows some room for later
expansion. Select the CPU and memory modules that are compatible with the system board. On
today's system boards, the CPU speed is a multiple of the system board speed. For best overall
performance, you don't want the multiple to be too large so that the CPU is not running
proportionately faster than the system board.
Not all of the components on a system board can be replaced, but there are some that can be
replaced or upgraded. One component that can be upgraded is the CPU. When replacing a CPU,
it is important to consider the CPU speed, amount of memory included with the CPU,
multiprocessing ability, and special functionality.
The ROM BIOS chip can also be replaced. The ROM BIOS chip has a label with the
manufacturer`s name, the date of the manufacture, and the serial number of the chip. This
information is important when you are selecting the correct upgrade for the chip. The CMOS
battery and RAM cache can also be replaced and RAM can be upgraded.
51
Which of the following is the component on the system board that controls the memory cache,
external buses, and some peripherals?
1. Chip set
2. CMOS
3. Jumpers
4. Expansion slots
A CPU has a fixed range of addresses that it can assign to physical memory.
1. True
2. False
The number of lines on the bus dedicated to data is called the ______.
Answer:_______________
Which of the following are transmitted over buses?
1. Electrical power
2. Memory addresses
3. Both A and B
4. Neither A nor B
The EISA bus, designed to compete with the MCA bus, has a 32 bit data path and is compatible
with older ISA buses.
1. True
2. False
A ______ occurs when the CPU must wait for some other component to catch up.
Answer:___________
When you buy a system board, your selection does not affect the ______.
1. type of monitor you can use
2. amount of memory you can use
3. types and speeds of the CPU you can use
4. memory cache type and speed
52
References
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
10: 0977320626 ISBN-13: 978-0977320622 - See more at:
53
54
Unit 4: Understanding and Managing Memory
4.0 Introduction
This unit looks at the physical memory that is housed on the system board and expansion slots. It
further looks at how to manage memory and finalise looks at upgrading the memory.
4.1 Objectives
By end of this unit, you should be able to;
 know the type of physical memory housed at the system board;
 know how memory is managed; and
 carry-out memory upgrading
4.2 Physical Memory
Physical memory is divided into two categories: ROM and RAM. ROM stores system BIOS and
startup BIOS programs in a type of microchip that does not lose its data when the computer is
turned off. Flash ROM is a type of ROM that allows their programs to be changed. RAM is
called primary memory, and it temporarily holds data and instructions as the CPU processes
them.
RAM is divided into static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM). SRAM chips hold their
data for as long as the computer is powered on; DRAM chips cannot hold data for very long, and
they need constant refreshing.
SRAM chips provide faster access then DRAM chips, but they are also more expensive, so most
computers have a little SRAM on the system board and a lot of DRAM. RAM is stored in either
SIMMs (single inline memory modules) or DIMMs (dual inline memory modules).The major
difference between a SIMM and DIMM is the width of the data path that the module
accommodates. A SIMM has a data path of 32 bits, and a DIMM has a data path of 64 bits.
SRAM is static RAM, which maintains the data written to it until the data is overwritten or the
power is cycled. DRAM is dynamic RAM and it cannot maintain data written to it without being
refreshed about every 4 milliseconds. Unlike DRAM, SRAM does not have to be constantly
refreshed by the DMA controller and the CPU; therefore, it is considered faster than DRAM.
RAM stores data temporarily, whereas ROM chips save data permanently. EEPROM chips are
ROM chips that can be upgraded using special software. EEPROM are often used to on the
system board and expansion cards to store the BIOS program. FLASH memory acts like
secondary storage because it does not lose its data when powered off. FLASH memory is faster
than conventional secondary storage devices, because it stores data electronically rather than
using magnetism and mechanical arms and platters. RAM is normally installed either on circuit
boards called SIMMs, or soldered directly onto the system board.
55
4.2.1 SRAM and Memory Caching
Memory caching is the process of using a small amount of faster RAM to store recently retrieved
data, in anticipation of what the CPU will next request, thus speeding up access. Static RAM
works well for caching because SRAM doesn`t need to be constantly refreshed like DRAM, and
therefore provides faster data access. SRAM can be found in several different locations
depending on the type of system board. Some locations include individual chips on the system
board, COAST (cache on a stick), and even, inside the CPU housing. SRAM is normally used as
cache and can be installed in modules of 64KB, 128KB, 256KB and 512KB. Types of SRAM
include:
 Synchronous SRAM. Synchronous SRAM synchronizes itself with the clock cycle of
the CPU via a clock signal.
 Pipeline burst SRAM. Pipeline burst SRAM sees data transfer as a two-step process.
First the memory address is sent, and then the data is sent. Note: This process does not
slow down the access time significantly, and is less expensive than synchronous SRAM.
 Asynchronous SRAM. Asynchronous SRAM does not synchronize itself with the CPU;
therefore it requires one clock cycle to lookup the address request sent to it by the CPU.
This extra lookup cycle is what makes asynchronous SRAM slower than synchronous
SRAM.
 Burst SRAM. Memory that is more expensive and slightly faster than pipelined burst
SRAM. Data is sent as a two-step process; the data address is sent, and then the data itself
is sent without interruption.
Some system boards are designed to support both synchronous and asynchronous SRAM, but
these cannot be used at the same time.
4.2.2 SIMMs and DIMMs
SIMMs are sold in sizes ranging from 2MB to 256MB. SIMMs are rated in nanoseconds (NS).
Some common SIMM speeds include 60NS, 70NS and 80NS. Note that an access time of 60NS
is faster than 70NS. SIMMs technology includes:
 FPM (fast page mode) memory. - An earlier memory mode used before the introduction
of EDO memory.
 EDO (extended data output) memory. - A type of RAM that may be 10-20% faster than
conventional RAM because it eliminates the delay before it issues the next memory
address.
DIMM Technology includes:
 Synchronous DRAM. - Modules that are more expensive than SIMM modules and can
operate at various speeds, depending on the bus speed, whereas SIMMs only operate at a
single speed.
56
 Burst EDO BEDO. - A refined version of EDO memory that significantly improved
access time over EDO. BEDO is not widely used today because Intel chose not to support
it. BEDO memory is stored on 168-pin DIMM modules.
DIMM - Come in three common pin configurations.
 240-pin slots - for DDR2 SDRAM memory for desktop computers.

 184-pin slots - for DDR SDRAM memory for desktop computers.
 168-pin slots - commonly found in Pentium and Athlon systems.
< Installed DIMM
< Open DIMM Slots
Figure 4.1 DIMM slots
Future RAM Technologies
One of the up and coming RAM technologies is Direct Rambus DRAM, which uses a 16-bit
high-speed bus running at more than 400 Mhz, and provides a throughput of 1.5 GB/sec.
57
4.2.3 ECC, Parity, and Non-parity DRAM
ECC (error checking and correction) is a type of RAM that may be 10-20% faster than
conventional RAM because it eliminates the delay before it issues the next memory address.
Typically ECC memory costs a little more than standard memory but is also more reliable.
4.2.4 What to Look for When Buying Memory Chips and Modules
Ram is sold in two grades, high-grade (new) and low-grade (refurbished). Some manufacturers
even provide a third grade, or quality, of RAM called mixed, which is normally slightly more
expensive than low-grade RAM, has very short warranty period and can have a mixture of
refurbished and new RAM chips on the memory board. It is recommended that you always
purchase the best quality RAM.
You should consider the following points when purchasing RAM:
 Memory speed. Check system board documentation for the correct memory speed to be
used with your system board. Note: If memory speeds are mixed, for example 70NS with
80NS, all of the memory will be addressed at the slowest speed, in this case 80NS.
 Tin or Gold leads. Always match the metals used on the system board with the metal
type on the SIMM. This will eliminate the possibility of a chemical reaction. Note: A
good rule to follow when working with memory is to match everything - speed, lead type,
pins and parity.
 Choosing the correct size module. Most memory has to be installed in pairs.
 Remanufactured and Used modules. A simple way to identify refurbished
(remanufactured) SIMMs is to check the date on the RAM chips on the SIMM. Look for
the data in the following format: YYWW. Where Y is the year the chip was made and W
is the week the chip was made.
 Re-marked chips. Re-marked chips have been returned to the manufacturer, marked
again and sent back out. Note: a quick way to tell the difference is to look at the RAM
chip - if it has a shiny protective coating it is probably a new chip.
58
4.3 How memory is viewed by different OSs
4.3.1 Physical memory and memory addresses
A memory address is a number that the CPU assigns to physical memory to keep track of the
memory it can access. Note that CPUs have a limited number of memory addresses that they can
assign to physical memory. Some older expansion cards had built-in ROM chips that could only
be assigned a particular memory address. This inflexibility created problems when another
expansion card, requiring the same memory address, was installed. Memory mapping is the
process of assigning memory addresses to physical RAM and ROM during the boot process. In
order for the CPU to access RAM or ROM, it must have a memory address assigned to it.
ROM is normally assigned its own memory address, and is addressed in the same manner as
RAM. Note that ROM is only copied into RAM when it is being shadowed - this will be
discussed later in this unit. Shadowing ROM refers to the process of copying ROM data to RAM
for faster access. Shadow RAM (RAM used to shadow ROM) is used to speed up system
response time. Note that one of the most commonly shadowed devices is the video card.
4.3.2 Areas of the Memory Map
Below is a list of summary of memory locations:
1. Conventional memory. Conventional memory is the first 640K of RAM.

2. Upper memory. Upper memory includes the memory starting at 641K and ranging up to
1024K.
3. Extended memory. Extended memory includes all memory above the first 1024K.
4. High memory area. The high memory area is the first 64K of extended memory.
5. Expanded memory. Expanded memory is the memory that is accessed in 16K pages via
the upper memory area.
Conventional Memory: Conventional memory is limited to 640K because when DOS was
originally designed it was decided that no one would ever need more than 640K of memory. This
assumption was, of course, incorrect. Part of the reason this decision was made, was to allow
video ROM and other older hardware to use the memory addresses directly above 640K for their
ROM and RAM. Reasons why 640K is no longer adequate:
 Applications are larger than they used to be, requiring more memory addresses to hold
the program and its data.
 PCs are now designed to multitask, which means they are often holding more than one
program in memory at a time.
 Many memory addresses are required to support a graphical user interface.
Upper Memory: The upper memory area includes memory addresses starting at 641K and
ending at 1024K. This address range is used to address hardware ROM and RAM, as well as
59
store the system BIOS. Although upper memory is used to address hardware ROM and RAM,
there are often unused addresses.
Memory management involves gaining access to these unused addresses and storing device
drivers there. When programs are loaded into upper memory they will be allocated the space on a
first come, first served basis. For example, the first program to be loaded into upper memory will
get the largest available allocation, whether it needs it or not. Therefore, you should load your
largest TSRs into upper memory first.
Extended Memory and the High Memory Area: Memory above 1MB (1024K) is called
extended memory. The high memory area is the first 64K of extended memory. The high
memory area was created because of a bug in the 286 processor, which produced a small area of
extended memory that always went unused. Thus, Microsoft took advantage of this bug by
calling the area the high memory area and storing portions of DOS there. Extended memory is
managed by the operating system through a device driver. In order for the operating system to
access extended memory it requires a memory management device driver.
Expanded Memory: Linear addressing refers to memory that is assigned addresses starting
with the value of 1 and counting up. A page frame refers to the 64K of upper memory that is
projected on to expanded memory in 16k segments called pages. Expanded memory differs from
linear in that it is made available through a small window in upper memory called a page frame.
The following steps illustrate the process of expanded memory:
1. The operating system requests expanded memory from the memory manager.
2. The memory manager selects a segment of expanded memory and assigns it an upper
memory address.
3. The memory manager then returns the value of the upper memory address to the
operating system.
4. The next time the operating system requests that upper memory address, the memory
manager checks to see what portion of expanded memory that address is assigned to and
returns the data stored in expanded memory.
Expanded memory was developed through a combined effort of Microsoft, Intel and Lotus
sometimes ago when an application package Lotus 1-2-3 was being introduced. During those
times it was developed because Lotus 1-2-3 required more memory. Nowadays, there are quite
strong applications that require also more memory. After expanded memory`s development,
other applications were designed to take advantage of its architecture. Windows Oss (XP, Vista,
7, 8) and DOS accomplish backwards compatibility with applications that require expanded
memory by using software to emulate expanded memory, should an application require it.
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4.3.3 Virtual memory
Virtual memory refers to the process of using hard drive space as a substitute for RAM.
Because virtual memory is stored on the hard drive, it is considerably slower than RAM. The
swap file is a file on the hard drive that Windows addresses as memory, thereby making virtual
memory possible.
4.3.4 RAM Drives
A RAM drive is a section of extended memory that acts like a physical drive. The advantage of
using a RAM drive is the data stored there can be accessed quicker than data on a physical hard
drive. The disadvantage is it has to be recreated every time the power is cycled, and can`t
maintain any permanent data. To create a RAM drive, use the following command in the
CONFIG.SYS: (This command will create a RAM drive that is 1024KB in size)
DEVICE=C:\DOS\RAMDRIVE.SYS 1024.
Memory management makes the greatest amount of conventional memory available to an

application. During the boot process, after ROM and RAM from expansion boards acquire upper
memory addresses, any unused addresses in upper memory are used to hold TSRs and device
drivers.
4.4 Managing memory using command pro (DOS)
TSRs, like HIMEM.SYS and EMM386.EXE, should be loaded from the AUTOEXEC.BAT and
CONFIG.SYS files upon startup. HIMEM.SYS is considered to be a device driver because it
manages the extended memory device. It should be loaded before COMMAND.COM and at the
beginning of the CONFIG.SYS file. A buffer is an area of memory that is used to hold data
temporarily until the processor has a chance to process it. The use of buffers minimizes the
amount of times the CPU has to request data from a device. In modern computers buffer use has
been replaced with disk caching.
EMM386.EXE is another memory manager that utilizes the addresses in upper memory and can
emulate expanded memory. The MEM command can be used to view the amount of memory
available in each memory address range as well as view the programs that are using the space.
Figure 4-13 demonstrates the syntax for loading HIMEM.SYS and EMM386 from the
CONFIG.SYS. Notice also, the syntax used to load DOS into the upper memory block
(DOS=UMB). The upper memory block is a group of consecutive memory addresses in the
upper memory area that are assigned to physical memory.
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4.4.1 Loading Device Drivers High
When DOS loads a device driver into the upper memory area, it will allocate the largest
consecutive block of upper memory to the first device driver that is loaded. Load size refers to
the amount of memory required by a device driver to initialize itself in memory and maintain
enough room to store data. It is important to understand that data is stored directly above the
driver in memory. Therefore, the memory directly above a driver is considered to be part of the
"load size" for the driver. If a device driver is specified in the CONFIG.SYS to load into upper
memory and does not, it is probably because there was not a large enough consecutive memory
range (UMB) available for the device driver to initialize and store data.
4.4.2 Loading TSRs High
All device drivers are TSRs but not all TSRs are device drivers. TSRs are programs or drivers
that reside in memory when they are not in use. Device drivers always reside in memory when
they are not in use; therefore all device drivers are TSRs. Before the LOADHIGH command will
load programs into the upper memory area, DOS must first initialize the upper memory area.
You would use the following commands to initialize the upper memory area (the NOEMS
parameter tells DOS not to emulate expanded memory):
DEVICE=C:\DOS\HIMEM.SYS
DEVICE=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE NOEMS
DOS=UMB
It isn`t always a good idea to load TSRs into upper memory. Some TSRs can`t function properly
when loaded into upper memory and sometimes there is not a large enough block to load a TSR
into upper memory.
4.4.3 Simulating Expanded Memory
The two files required to emulate expanded memory are: HIMEM.SYS and EMM386.EXE. To
tell DOS to emulate expanded memory, replace the NOEMS parameter with the amount of
memory that should emulate expanded memory. Note that memory that simulates expanded
memory is unavailable for extended memory use.
4.4.4 Memory Reports Using the MEM Command
The MEM command has several switches, to find more information about these switches type
MEM /? at the command prompt.
4.4.5 Using MEMMAKER in command pro
The MEMMAKER command automatically evaluates and configures your system for optimal
memory management. Before MEMMAKER modifies your system files, it creates a backup
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copy of them by renaming their file extensions to .UMB. You can find more information about
the syntax for MEMMAKER by typing MEMMAKER /? at the command prompt.
4.5 Managing memory in windows OSs

Swapping is the method of temporarily moving data from memory to the swap file on the hard
drive to free up memory for other purposes. The following three swapping methods are used in
the Windows 3.x environment:
1. Temporary files
2. Application swap files
3. Swap files used to create virtual memory
Temporary files are created at will by Windows applications and may or may not be deleted
when the application is unload. Temporary files are used by applications for temporary data
storage in the directory specified by the SET TEMP variable in the AUTOEXEC.BAT (SET
TEMP=C:\WINDOWS\TEMP. A system variable is a variable that has been given both a name
and a value and made available to the operating system.
4.5.1 Application Swap Files
To create a multitasking environment, Windows OSs uses application swap files to move an
application out of memory so another can be loaded. It`s very important not to delete an
application swap file while Windows is running, because a background application could be
stored there. Swap files can be used to create virtual memory. Windows can use either a
permanent swap file called 386SPART.PAR, or a temporary swap file called WIN386.SWP.
Note that these are hidden system files and are normally stored in the root directory.
4.5.2 Optimizing Windows with the Swap File
When there is no swap file specified or not enough room to create a swap file, performance will
suffer significantly. When creating a swap file it is important to not make the swap file too large
- if it is, Windows will use the swap file more often than necessary and slow down the system`s
overall performance. On most systems, you would want to make the swap file the same size as
the physical memory. Permanent swap files are faster than temporary swap files because they
don`t have to be resized and their clusters are always consecutive on the disk drive. If you have
the extra resources to spare, putting your swap file on a RAM drive will force Windows to
always use RAM; even for virtual memory this will significantly improve your overall system
performance and can be done through the Control Panel.
Memory management has not changed much in Windows OSs - it is still organized as
conventional, upper, extended and expanded memory. Windows OSs attempts to use only 64-bit
or 32-bit drivers, rather than 16-bit drivers. An advantage of using 64 or 32-bit drivers over 16-
bit drivers is 32-bit drivers are normally written in fast code, and are automatically loaded into
extended memory by Windows OSs. A real mode driver is a 16-bit driver. A virtual device
driver, or VXD, is a 32-bit driver.
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Although Windows OSs does not require the AUTOEXEC.BAT and the CONFIG.SYS file for
normal operation, it maintains a copy of these files in order to provide backwards compatibility
for 16-bit drivers and applications. If you are using 16-bit drivers you will need to edit the
CONFIG.SYS and add the HIMEM.SYS, EMM386.EXE and DOS=UMB commands, because
these are not automatically added by Windows OSs. A PIF (program information file) is used to
describe the environment that a particular DOS application should be executed in.
4.5.3 Real Mode vs. Virtual Real Mode
Virtual real mode is an application environment created by the OS that is backwards compatible
with 16-bit applications that were written to work in real mode. Virtual real mode is sometimes
referred to as virtual DOS mode. In real mode, applications are able to directly address
conventional memory. In virtual real mode applications are started in a mini DOS environment
and allowed to access what they think is conventional memory. What really happens in the
background is that the OS intercepts the application`s requests, executes them for the application
and then, returns the results.
4.5.4 Windows OSs Swap File
Windows OSs automates the managing of virtual memory for you. Although you can override
the automation, there is little reason to do so. To see what options Windows OSs offers, open the
Control Panel and double-click on System, then choose the Performance tab.
Windows NT uses 4K segments of memory called pages to address all of its memory. Windows
NT doesn`t allow any applications to directly address physical memory, which creates a more
stable environment. If an application needs to request pages of memory, Windows NT decides
where those pages will physically reside (in RAM or virtual memory) and writes and retrieves
data for the application.
4.6 Memory
With the demands that today`s software places on computers, you will want to have as much
memory as possible. When you upgrade or add more memory to your computer, ask yourself
these questions:
 How much memory can my computer physically accommodate?

 What increments of memory does my system board support?
 How much additional memory is cost effective?
 What kind of memory can fit on my system board?
 What memory is compatible with memory I already have installed?
System boards can only accommodate a certain amount of RAM. You should check the system
board documentation for details. A bank is a location on the system board that contains slots
(normally two) for memory modules. To determine how many slots are in a bank you must know
the local bus size (size of the CPU bus). For Pentium systems this is normally 64-bits, and for
486 systems the bus size is normally 32-bits. One of the most common mistakes made when
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adding memory to a system board is mixing memory types. For example, mixing parity with
non-parity memory or 60NS with 80NS memory should not be done. Figure 4.2 is an example of
a typical memory add. Notice the information provided includes memory size, density, type,
speed, number of pins, and of course, price:
Figure 4.2 demonstrates how SIMMs are installed:
Figure 4.5 demonstrates how DIMMs are installed:
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4.7 Summary
Physical memory is divided into two categories: ROM and RAM. ROM stores system BIOS and
startup BIOS programs in a type of microchip that does not lose its data when the computer is
turned off. Flash ROM is a type of ROM that allows their programs to be changed. RAM is
called primary memory, and it temporarily holds data and instructions as the CPU processes
them.
RAM is divided into static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM). SRAM chips hold their
data for as long as the computer is powered on; DRAM chips cannot hold data for very long, and
they need constant refreshing.
SRAM chips provide faster access then DRAM chips, but they are also more expensive, so most
computers have a little SRAM on the system board and a lot of DRAM. RAM is stored in either
SIMMs (single inline memory modules) or DIMMs (dual inline memory modules).The major
difference between a SIMM and DIMM is the width of the data path that the module
accommodates. A SIMM has a data path of 32 bits, and a DIMM has a data path of 64 bits.
A VDM is an environment that is a 32-bit protected-mode OS provides for a real-mode program

to operate in. Conventional memory consists of the first 640K of memory addresses. The
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memory addresses from 640K to 1024K are called upper memory. Memory above 1024K is
called extended memory, and the first 64K of extended memory is called the high memory area.
Early versions of DOS restricted the number of memory addresses to only 640K, and the next
group of addresses, the 384K above conventional memory was assigned to utility operations for
the system. This can be a problem because programs almost always expect data to be written into
memory directly above the addresses for the program itself. So if a program begins storing its
data above its location in conventional memory, eventually it will hit the beginning of upper
memory assigned to video ROM. Virtual memory is the utilization of some hard drive space such
that it acts like memory. Windows stores virtual memory in a file called a swap file.
When using DOS, access to extended memory for applications is attained by the memory driver,
HIMEM.SYS loaded from the CONFIG.SYS file. In addition, upper memory blocks for device
drivers and other TSRs can be made available by loading EMM386.EXE from the CONFIG.SYS
file. Device drivers can then the loaded high from the CONFIG.SYS file and TSRs can be loaded
high from AUTOEXEC.BAT.
Upgrading memory means to add more RAM on the system board. Today, a PC uses SIMMs or
DIMMs or a combination of both. Consult the system board documentation for the type of
SIMM or DIMM and how many the board can use. Use the same speed and type of SIMM
within a bank. When installing a memory module, take care to protect against ESD. Once the
module is physically installed, when the PC boots, it will automatically detect and use the new
memory.
4.8 Review questions
Of the following technologies, which are used with main memory?
1. Pipelined burst
2. BEDO
3. Both A and B
4. Synchronous SRA
Both pipelined burst SRAM and burst SRAM are types of synchronous SRAM.
1. True
2. False
BEDO and SDRAM are two common technologies used with _____.
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Conventional memory is also called _____.
1. Upper memory
2. Extended memory
3. High memory
4. Base memory
Extended memory includes the high memory area.
1. True
2. False
______ uses part of the hard drive to act like memory.
The purpose of a PIF file is to ______.
1. describe to DOS the environment needed by a Windows program
2. describe to Windows OSs the environment needed by a DOS program
3. automatically make an entry in the Windows OSs Registry
4. control the size of the swap file
A Windows OSs virtual device driver (VxD) is written in 32-bit code.
1. True
2. False
When Windows OSs provides a DOS box or environment in which a DOS application can run,
this environment is called _____.
What is the data path size of a DIMM?
1. 8 bits
2. 32 bits
3. 64 bits
4. 128 bits
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If a SIMM is advertised as having a density of 16 x 36, then what is the size of the SIMM?
69
References
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
10: 0977320626 ISBN-13: 978-0977320622 - See more at:
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Unit 5: Data storage on Secondary Storage Devices
5.0 Introduction
This unit looks at how data is stored on secondary storage devices as well as how to access this
data.
5.1 Objectives
 know how data is stored on secondary storage devices;
 access data on secondary storage devices; and
 install, format and secure secondary storage devices
5.2 Data Storage on Secondary storage devices
Secondary storage devices include CDs, tapes, flash disks etc. They differ in how they store data
either as sequential access like tapes or the other that works with CDs and flash disks. With other
devices like floppy disks though now not popular and rarely in use, data is stored on both sides
of a floppy disk in tracks, which are concentric circles on the disk. Each track is divided into
segments called sectors. Each sector holds 512-1024 bits of data. A new disk is formatted by the
operating system to hold data by writing the track and sector markings on the disk surface and
writing a file allocation table (FAT) and directory or using NTFS.
The directory contains a list of files on the disk and the FAT tracks the locations of each file.
Every disk has a boot record that tells the OS how the disk was formatted so that the OS knows
how to interpret information on the disk.
Windows OSs and DOS manages a these disks from the DOS command prompt. The Format
command initially formats a floppy disk or by simply right clicking and click format. The Label
command puts a volume label on the disk. The Del command deletes a file and the Recover
command recovers corrupted sectors on the disk. Diskcopy, Copy, and Xcopy can all be used to
copy files from one location to another. Windows offers the same commands, but from a GUI
interface. Windows Explorer is the most useful Windows tool to manage these disks.
The disk drive subsystem contains the drive, a data cable, a power cord from the power supply
and a disk drive connection on the system board. The disk drive data cable contains connections
for different drives. A twist in the cable distinguishes drive A from drive B. Drive A is between
the twist and the system board. Install the drive in a bay and stabilize the drive with screws.
Connect the power cord.
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5.3 How Data is Physically Stored on a Disk
Different disks consist of the various physical materials, which include a protective hard plastic
outside or covers with a thin piece of magnetically coated plastic on the inside as for tapes and
floppy disks. Data is written/read to a floppy via magnetic read/write heads inside. There are
only two heads for other disks while others have one head like CD ROMs and they move back
and forth, in unison across the plastic disk, reading and writing data. For other disks like floppy,
because magnetism can spread or "bleed" easily, there are two eraser heads directly behind and
on either side of the read/write heads. Their job is to erase any excess magnetic charge that
helps to ensure that a clean track is written. In addition to the eraser heads following the
read/write heads, there is one blank track between each data track. This also helps to prevent
bleeding. When a disk is formatted, tracks are created by repeating the binary ASCII code for
F6. The tracks are then divided into sectors. The beginning sector is marked on each track with a
designated code.
Double-density formatting works on all disks, but can increase the chance of data corruption if
used on a high-density disk. It is recommended that you always use the proper disks with the
proper type of formatting. When data is requested from a disk, the read/write heads pass over the
disk and wait for the right section of disk to appear. When the read/write heads detect the correct
section of the disk, they begin reading the magnetic charges on the disk, which are then
amplified and forwarded to the disk controller.
5.3.2 How Data is Logically Stored on a Disk
A sector can refer to either a large section on one side of a disk, or a single segment of one track.
A cluster is the smallest unit of allocation. A cluster contains two sectors (segments of tracks),
each holding 512 bytes of data. A cluster includes two sectors: the sector on the top side of the
disk, and the parallel sector on the bottom side of the disk. File Allocation Unit is another name
for a cluster. During formatting, the Windows OSs or DOS FORMAT command performs the
following steps:
 Creates the tracks and sectors by writing tracks as a series of ASCII F6s and, as
necessary, writing the sector address mark to identify the beginning sector on a track.
 Creates the master boot record (MBR).
 Creates two copies of the file allocation table (FAT).
 Creates the root directory.
Tracks and sectors are created on a disks by overwriting any data on the disk with the ASCII
character for F6. The master boot record (MBR) is where the BIOS looks for an operating
system to load. The MBR is always located at the beginning of the disk, track 0 sector 1. Table
5.1 illustrates the contents of the master boot record:
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The file allocation table, also referred to as FAT, contains the location of files on the disk. How
is FAT used? When a file needs to be read off of a disk the system will first check the file
allocation table to find out where the first cluster of the file is located. After reading the first
cluster, it checks the clusters table entry to see where the next segment of the file is located. A
cluster chain includes all of the cluster locations for a specific file. This is slightly different
although similar when using NTFS or even on Linux OS.
The Root Directory
Depending on the type of disk, the root directory contains a predetermined number of files and
directories.
5.3.3 Using DOS/ Linux commands to Manage Disks
An internal DOS command is a command that is part of the command.com file. An external
DOS command is a separate program located in the DOS directory. FORMAT is an example of
an external DOS command. Other examples are:
 FORMAT command - used to create tracks and erase all data on a disk.
 LABEL command - allows the user to electronically label a disk.
 CHKDSK command - examines the disk for inconsistencies in the file system.
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 SCANDISK command - an improved version of CHKDSK.
 DEL or ERASE command - will delete files from a disk.
 UNDELETE command - used when trying to retrieve deleted files.
 RECOVER command - used when attempting to recover a file from a bad sector on a
disk.
 DISKCOPY command- used to make an exact duplicate from one disk to another.
 COPY command - used to copy files from one location or disk to another.
 XCOPY command - an improved version of the COPY command.
 DELTREE command - used to delete entire directories and their contents.
Six typical things that drive-testing software will check for to help you solve drive problems are:
1. Azimuth skew: Does the drive head align itself well with the tracks, or is it at a tangent?
2. Hub centering: Does the disk wobble as it turns, or does it turn in a perfect circle?
3. Hysteresis: Can the drive find a track regardless of the direction from which it
approaches the track?
4. Radial alignment: Is the drive head centered correctly on the track, or is it too far to the
left or the right?
5. Rotational speed: Does the drive turn the floppy disk at the proper speed?
6. Sensitivity: How far from the data must the head be before it can read the data?
5.4 CD-ROM Drives
CD-ROMs were originally designed to be used as multimedia storage devices. CD-ROMs are
uniquely qualified for this purpose because they have a large storage capacity and a disk access
time fast enough to support multimedia files. Data is written to CD-ROM discs only once
because the data is actually embedded into the disc. The information is stored in a series of pits
and lands which respectively represent bits of either 0 or 1. Lands are raised areas embedded on
the surface of a CD-ROM disc that represent the binary value of 1. Pits are recessed areas
embedded on the surface of a CD-ROM disc that represent the binary value of 0. Data is read
from a CD-ROM disc using a laser beam that can distinguish between pits and lands by
recognizing the amount of reflection that occurs when the laser beam hits the surface of the disc.
CLV stands for constant linear velocity. CLV refers to the ability of a CD-ROM drive to adjust
the speed of the spinning disc so that the laser beam is over a sector near the center of the disc
for the same amount of time it is over a sector on the outer edges of a disc. CD-ROM drives are
rated by their transfer rate. The first CD-ROM drives had a transfer rate of 150k. Since then,
transfer rates have increased substantially but are still referred to by the original speed of 150k.
Therefore, a 2X CD-ROM is 2 times 150k. A multi-session CD-ROM drive has the ability of
reading a CD-ROM that has been written to more than once.
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5.4.1 How a CD-ROM Drive Can Interface with the System Board
CD-ROM drives can interface with the system board in one of several ways. The drive can:
 Use an IDE interface; it can share an IDE controller with a hard drive or other device
 Use a SCSI interface with a host adapter
 Use a proprietary expansion card that works only with CD-ROMs from a particular
manufacturer
 Use a proprietary connection on a sound card
 Be a portable drive and plug into a bi-directional parallel port on your PC
5.4.2 Installing and Configuring a CD-ROM Drive
There are several ways to connect an IDE CD-ROM to a system. One of the most commonly
used is to set the CD-ROM as SL (Slave) and connect it to the same cable as the hard drive (the
hard drive should be set to MA (Master).
Like an IDE CD-ROM there are several ways to install a SCSI CD-ROM. Assuming that your
system already has a host adapter you simply jumper the CD-ROM drive to select the following
three options and connect the cables:
1. SCSI ID
2. Enable or disable SCSI parity checking
3. Enable or disable the built-in SCSI terminator on the drive
An IDE CD-ROM drive is configured the same way an IDE hard drive is. Using the jumpers,
you must set the CD-ROM drive to either MA (Master), SL (Slave), or CS (Cable Select).
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CD-ROM drives use rails to connect to the case in the same manner as a hard drive. When
connecting the data cable for a CD-ROM drive, they need to follow the same Pin 1 procedures
used for hard drive installation. When a CD-ROM is properly wired to the sound card, the CD-
ROM will be able to play sound through the sound card. After installing a CD-ROM drive you
can quickly verify that the drive has power by ejecting the CD-ROM tray.
5.4.3 Device Drivers
In the DOS environment a CD-ROM driver is loaded through commands in the CONFIG.SYS
and AUTOEXEC.BAT. The name of the DOS device driver is MSCDEX.EXE (Microsoft CD-
ROM extension). To install a device driver within Windows OSs, open control panel, select add
new hardware, and then allow Windows to detect the CD-ROM. As with any new hardware,
you should always test to the CD-ROM drive to make sure it is working properly.
Update your Windows OSs Rescue Disk to Include Access to the CD-ROM
Be sure to update your Windows OSs rescue disk so that the CD-ROM boot disk will load the
necessary drivers to access your CD-ROM drive from DOS. Hint: Include MSCDEX.EXE on the
disk.
Optimizing CD-ROM Cache
For removable drives, Windows OSs will cache data when reading but not when writing data.
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5.5 CD-R and CD-RW Drives
CD-R (recordable CD) is a CD drive that can record or write data to a CD. The drive may or
may not be multi-session, but the data cannot be erased once it is written. CD-RW (rewritable
CD) is a CD drive that can record or write data to a CD. The data can be erased and overwritten.
The drive may or may not be multi-session.
Digital Video Disc (DVD)
DVD is very similar to CD-ROM technology. The difference is that DVD can store about 7
times as much data as can a CD-ROM. DVD technology is considered a competitor of CD-ROM
technology. Note that phase-dual optical drives also fall into the DVD technology category.
How does DVD accomplish increased disc capacity? DVD reads and writes data using the same
pits and peaks method as a CD-ROM, but uses a shorter laser wavelength, allowing it to read
more densely packed pits which increase the disc capacity. Note that in addition to the shorter
wavelength, DVD discs have an added opaque layer, which can store data. This layer nearly
doubles the disc`s capacity.
When you purchase a DVD drive there is normally an expansion card included. This expansion
card is an MPEG decoder that separates the video from the data and sends the two streams of
data to their respective destinations. Table 5.2 illustrates some of the up-and-coming DVD
technologies:
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5.6 Summary
Secondary storage devices include CDs, tapes, flash disks etc. They differ in how they store data
either as sequential access like tapes or the other that works with CDs and flash disks. With other
devices like floppy disks though now not popular and rarely in use, data is stored on both sides
of a floppy disk in tracks, which are concentric circles on the disk. Each track is divided into
segments called sectors. Each sector holds 512-1024 bits of data. A new disk is formatted by the
operating system to hold data by writing the track and sector markings on the disk surface and
writing a file allocation table (FAT) and directory or using NTFS.
Windows OSs and DOS manages a these disks from the DOS command prompt. The Format
command initially formats a floppy disk or by simply right clicking and click format. The Label
command puts a volume label on the disk. The Del command deletes a file and the Recover
command recovers corrupted sectors on the disk. Diskcopy, Copy, and Xcopy can all be used to
copy files from one location to another. Windows offers the same commands, but from a GUI
interface. Windows Explorer is the most useful Windows tool to manage these disks.
A CD-ROM drive can connect to the system board by an IDE connection, a SCSI bus, a
proprietary expansion card, a proprietary connection on a sound card, or be an external device
connected to the PC by the parallel port. Most often the CD-ROM drive is uses the IDE
connection following the ATAPI standards that allows devices other than hard drives to use IDE.
If a CD-ROM is sharing the same data cable with an IDE hard drive, set the CD-ROM drive to
slave and the hard drive to master. A sound card has a connection for an audio cord to make a
direct connection to a CD-ROM drive to play music CDs. Sound cards sometimes require a
DMA channel to speed up data transfers. DVD drives can make for a complex installation as the
drive requires a converter card to convert video data before it is output to the monitor.
In DOS, to copy a directory and all its subdirectories from one disk to another, use the command:
1. COPY
2. FORMAT
3. DELTREE
4. XCOPY
Using Windows OSs, to format a flashy disk, select Format under the File menu of Windows
Explorer. .
1. True
2. False
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What are the steps to create a Windows Emergency Startup Disk that contains utilities to help
with problems when booting Windows?
When connecting a CD ROM drive data cable to a drive, align the side of the data cable that is
colored with:
1. Pin 40 on the drive
2. Pin 1 on the drive
3. The red side of the floppy drive connection
4. The left side of the drive
A CD ROM drive receives its power from a power cord from the power supply.
1. True
2. False
What does the error message, "Write-protect error writing drive A:" indicate?
80
References
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
81
Unit 6: Hard Drives
6.0 Introduction
This unit looks at how data is stored on a hard drive. The unit further looks at how the data is
managed in Windows OS and Dos environments. Finally it looks at how to identify various types
of hard drives, their comparisons and management.
6.1 Objectives
 know how data is stored on a hard drive;

 manage data on a hard drive; and
 identify different types of hard drives
6.2 Hard drive Technology
A hard drive is a stack of platters enclosed in a protective case. Data is written on both surfaces
of each platter. Data is stored on a hard drive in concentric circles called tracks which are divided
into segments called sectors. The drive is partitioned into logical drives assigned letters such as
drive C:, D:, E: and so forth.
A partition table at the beginning of the drive lists the logical drives, their size, and location on
the physical drive. Each logical drive has a root directory and FAT that together track the files on
the drive. A file is stored in one or more clusters. A cluster contains one or more sectors.
The following are physical components of a hard drive:
 Disk platters. The disk platters are the physical components that store data.
 Head. Each side or surface of one platter is called a head.
 Read/write head. The read/write head is responsible for magnetically reading and
writing data to the platters.
 Actuator. The actuator is responsible for the read/write heads over the platters.
 Cylinder. A cylinder is made up of eight tracks, one on each head that have the same
radius.
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The problem with round platters is, that as the read/write heads move closer to the centre of the
platter there is less physical space available for them to read and write data. Two methods can be
used to adjust for the smaller tracks: write precompensation and reduced write current. Write
Precompensation speeds up the writing of data to the drive as the tracks become smaller near
the centre of the platters. Reduced write current reduces the amount of current used to place
spots of magnetism on the platters.
6.2.1 IDE Technology
IDE stands for Integrated Device Electronics and refers to a hard disk that uses either LBA or
zone bit recording to access its platters. MFM and RLL are the oldest hard drive standards. IDE
is currently one of the most popular hard drive standards; SCSI is the other. IDE is also called an
interface card, which is a small circuit board inserted in an expansion slot and used to
communicate between the system bus and a peripheral device. Another name for this is an
adapter card. MFM drive technology requires that every sector on every platter is the same size.
IDE technology utilizes the full drive capacity because it isn`t limited to making every sector the
same size.
What does zone bit recording accomplish? Unlike what the BIOS is expecting, zone bit
recording does not use the same number of sectors per track throughout the drive, thereby
forcing the BIOS to translate for the operating system. One result of not having the same sector
size is the operating systems are not able to communicate with the hard drive directly. Because
of this problem, IDE drives come with an integrated on-board controller to communicate directly
with the hard disk.
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6.2.2 Formatting a Hard Drive
IDE drives are sometimes referred to as disposable because normally, only the manufacturer will
have the ability to low-level format the drive. After several years of use, the original tracks will
fade and you will be forced to replace the hard disk. Be warned: low-leveling an IDE drive can
destroy the hard disk. A high-level format is a format performed by the OS that writes a file
system to a logical drive. For DOS and Windows OSs, the command used is FORMAT, which
writes a FAT and a directory to the drive. High-level format is also called OS format. IDE hard
drive controllers are integrated with the hard drive. Their function is to locate and retrieve data
form the hard drive platters when it is requested.
6.2.3 Enhanced IDE (EIDE) Technology
EIDE supports up to 128 gig drive capacity. It uses LBA to exceed the 528mb barrier and it is
ATAPI compatible.
6.2.4 SCSI Technology
SCSI stands for Small Computer Systems Interface. SCSI is like a separate bus that can be added
to a PC. A host adapter acts as the bridge between the SCSI bus and the system bus. Most host
adapters have a built-in SCSI BIOS, which is responsible for managing all of the data
transactions that occur on the SCSI bus. SCSI out performs IDE because of the SCSI bus adapter
chip (SBAC), which manages all of the data transactions on the SCSI bus without interrupting
the CPU. Embedded SCSI refers to a device that has a SCSI controller chip or SBAC on the
logic board of the device. This type of SCSI device needs only an adapter to communicate with
the system bus. The disadvantage of an embedded device is that it cannot support other SCSI
devices.
The following are the common SCSI standards in use today, and their specifications:
 SCSI-1 - requires an 8-bit parallel bus with optional parity, uses a 50 pin ribbon cable
and can daisy chain up to 8 devices including the host adapter. Note that it requires a
hardware terminator
 SCSI-2 - requires parity checking and uses improved termination methods.
 Wide SCSI - supports the larger data paths of 16-bit and 32-bit. It also uses a larger
ribbon cable - 68pin - rather than the standard 50 pin. Wide SCSI supports up to 16
devices including the host adapter.
 Ultra SCSI - is one of the most popular SCSI types because it is backwards compatible.
Some of the ultra SCSI features include 20MB/sec burst transfer rate using an 8-bit data
path, 40/sec burst transfer rate using a 16-bit data path. Ultra SCSI uses an automatic
configuration tool that complies with the PnP standard.
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6.2.5 Other Variations of SCSI Hardware and Software
Termination prevents an echo effect from electrical noise and reflected data at the end of the
SCSI daisy chain, which can cause interference with the data transmission. There are three
different types of terminators: passive, active, and perfect. Device drivers for SCSI devices
should be provided by the hardware manufacturer. The two most common drivers used for SCSI
products are ASPI, or Advanced Programming Interface, and CAM - Common Access Method.
When purchasing a SCSI host adapter, look for ease of installation. (PnP, software controlled
termination and built-in ROM configuration BIOS). All SCSI host adapters require an IRQ,
DMA and I/O address. Before installation be sure that you have these required resources
available.
Following are differences between EIDE and SCSI hard drives:
 SCSI technology is more expensive than the EIDE technology.

 The SCSI subsystem provides faster data transfer than EIDE drives, thereby making
SCSI the faster technology.
 A SCSI bus supports multitasking, for example, the SCSI bus internally manages requests
to SCSI devices, thereby freeing the CPU to continue processing other requests instead of
waiting for a response from the SCSI device.
 A good SCSI host adapter allows for daisy chaining of devices.
 Another way that a SCSI bus multitasks is by allowing multiple SCSI devices on the
same bus to do different tasks at the same time. This differs from EIDE, where only one
device can be busy at a time.
6.3 Organisation of Hard drives to hold data
6.3.1 Hard Drive Partitions
Partitioning is the process of dividing a single physical drive into one or more logical drives. A
logical drive is a portion of the hard drive that an operating system views as a separate physical
drive. The partition table is a location at the beginning of a hard drive where information is
stored about logical drives. The master boot record (MBR) is the first sector on a hard drive.
The MBR contains the partition table and other information needed by BIOS to access the drive.
6.3.2 Logical Drives
How is the physical location of a file tracked? The physical location of a file is tracked by the
BIOS or device driver that is managing the hard drive. The operating system only recognizes a
large amount of clusters and requests filed by the cluster number. The BIOS retrieves files by
using the root directory to determine the beginning cluster of a file. Then, it references FAT for
all other cluster information. Operating systems manage logical drives as separate physical
drives. This is why each logical drive must have its own FAT and boot record.
85
6.3.3 The Boot Record
The boot record is used during the boot process to inform the OS of how a logical drive is
organized. The bootstrap is the program stored in the boot record used to load the operating
system.
6.3.4 The FAT and Root Directory
There is only one FAT per a hard drive, although there can be many directories. A block is a 32-
byte entry in a file's parent directory containing the file name and extension. VFAT stands for
virtual file allocation table. The purpose of VFAT is to accommodate long filenames by
recording how many blocks are allocated for each file listed in a directory. Some older DOS
based utilities, which were not designed with VFAT in mind, could damage the VFAT table.
FAT 16 only allowed 12 bits per a FAT entry whereas FAT 32 allows 28 bits per an entry. FAT
32 allows better management of very large hard drives, because the number of cluster per logical
volume can increase.
There are 512 entries available in the DOS root directory but, remember that long filenames will
take more than one entry. The root directory is physically located after the two FAT tables on a
hard drive. The larger the cluster size the more physical space will be wasted because a small file
may not need a full cluster to be saved but unfortunately, under the FAT file system, a cluster is
the smallest unit available. (Other file systems will be discussed later)
6.3.5 Communicating with the Hard Drive BIOS
With older hard drives, an OS could communicate cylinders, tracks and sector information; with
newer technology this is not the case. Legacy hard drives were limited in capacity because they
were designed to have no more than 17 sectors per a track and only 1024 tracks. Because legacy
hard drives have a capacity limitation of 528MB, legacy BIOS also have the same limitation.
6.3.6 Adjusting for More Complex Hard Drive Organization
CHS, or normal mode, is the standard way of addressing a hard drive. When using this method
there is no need for translation. The actual layout of heads, tracks, and sectors on a hard drive is
referred to as the physical geometry. Logical geometry is the number of heads, tracks, and
sectors that the BIOS on the hard drive controller presents to the system BIOS and the OS. The
logical geometry does not consist of the same values as the physical geometry, although
calculations of drive capacity yield the same results. CHS mode (cylinders, heads, sectors) or
normal mode, is the method by which system BIOS manages a hard drive by communicating to
the controller BIOS the logical geometry of the hard drive, based on tracks, cylinders, sectors
and heads. CHS can be used under the following conditions:
 The number of cylinders does not exceed 1,024

 The number of heads does not exceed 16
 There are no more than 63 sectors/track, assuming a constant number sectors/track
 There must be 512 bytes per a track.
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The maximum amount of storage on a hard drive using CHS mode is 528 MB or 404 MB,
depending on how the calculations are done. This limitation exists because of a combination of
two factors: the way software calls up system BIOS to access the drive and the IDE/ATA
interface standard that many hard drives adhere to. See Figure 6.2 below:
6.3.7 Translation Methods
An enhanced BIOS is a newer BIOS that has been written to accommodate larger-capacity
gigabyte drives. The term translation method refers to the conversion of sector addresses used
when the hard drive addressing system does not conform to what the system BIOS is expecting.
Two circumstances in which hard drive translation is necessary are when a drive uses zone bit
recording and, on large-capacity drives. Large mode is a translation method that supports hard
drives up to 1 gig in size by re-mapping the data on the physical hard drive to conform with the
normal mode standard, which is what the operating system expects. LBA is a translation method
that creates a table like FAT and assigns an LBA number to specific locations on the hard drive
(similar to clusters). Any hard drive larger than 528MB (more than 1024 cylinders) is considered
a large capacity drive. The three types of translation methods used with large capacity hard
drives are:
 CHS (cylinders, heads, sectors) or normal mode

 Large Mode
 Enhanced BIOS or LBA (logical block address) mode
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System BIOS Helps Manage Data Transfer
The three ways the system BIOS is used to support a hard drive are:
1. System BIOS provides the interrupt handler for software interrupts.

2. System BIOS can automatically detect and configure ma hard drive.
3. System BIOS helps manage data transfer over the I/O bus between the hard drive and
memory.
Who`s in Charge?
The three devices that could manage the data transfer for the hard drive are:
1. Using programmed I/O (PIO) mode, the CPU is in charge and manages data transfer.
There are five different PIO modes (0 - 4) with transfer rates from 3.3 MB/sec to 16.6
MB/sec.
2. Using DMA, the DMA controller is in charge and manages the transfer of data to
memory without the involvement of the CPU.
3. Using bus mastering, the hard drive BIOS controls data transfer.
6.4 Some common DOS/ Linux Commands
DOS/ Linux syntax and functionality:
MKDIR - This command is used to create subdirectories. MKDIR [DRIVE:] PATH
CHDIR - This command is used to change directories. Syntax: CHDIR [DIRVE] PATH
RMDIR - This command is used to remove directories. Syntax: RMDIR [DRIVE:] PATH
TREE - This command is used to list the directory structure. Syntax: TREE [DRIVE:] [PATH]
ATTRIB - This command is used to modify or view the attributes of a file. Syntax: ATTRIB
MIRROR - This command is used to create a copy of partition table information in older
versions of DOS. Syntax: MIRROR /PARTN
UNFORMAT - This command is used to unformat a hard drive and restore partition table
information. Syntax: UNFORMAT /PARTN
PATH - This command is used to set or modify the search path. Syntax: PATH [DRIVE:] PATH
Using Batch Files
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A batch file is a text file with file extension of BAT. Batch files contain a list of DOS
commands, which are automatically executed when the batch file is executed. An example of a
batch file is the AUTOEXEC.BAT.
6.5 Optimising a hard drive
6.5.1 Fragmentation
What is fragmentation? A hard disk is considered fragmented when most of the files are not
written in consecutive clusters. A chain is the same as a cluster chain - a series of clusters that
make up a file. Remember that operating systems record files in pieces called clusters. The
disadvantage of using a fragmented hard disk is that when a hard disk has become fragmented,
the file access time becomes slower because the drive must move to many different physical
areas on the disk in order to access all of the clusters necessary for a particular file. The
DEFRAG utility locates file clusters that have been scattered throughout a hard disk and
rewrites them into consecutive order. A cross-linked file has a cluster that is pointing to a
different cluster chain other than the one it belongs to. A lost cluster still exists on the hard disk
but is no longer part of any chain. The SCANDISK utility is used to detect the presence of lost
cluster and cross-linked files. When using FAT volumes, it is considered good maintenance to
run the SCANDISK and DEFRAG utilities at least once a month.
6.5.2 Disk Compression
Disk compression is used to increase the amount of space available on a hard disk by reducing
the size of files stored on the hard disk. Following are two ways in which disk compression is
accomplished:
1. All the files on the hard disk are written to one large file. The compression driver
manages all file read/write operations.
2. The compression driver writes and rewrites all data to the hard drive in an algorithm that
uses less space.
The disk compression driver is able to save space by examining each file stored on the hard disk
and then removing repeating characters within the same file. The driver then verifies that every
file on the hard disk uses all of the space in each cluster. If a file does not use all of the space
within a particular cluster, the file is rewritten. Advantages to using disk compression are:
1. The disk compression driver must be loaded in order to access the volume correctly.
2. Data is stored in one file; therefore, if the one large file becomes corrupt you risk losing
all data on the hard disk.
Disadvantages are:
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1. Software incompatibilities: some software applications cannot communicate properly
with standard compression drivers.
2. Slower speed: it is slower to access files on a compressed hard disk because compressed
hard disks have to wait for the data to be translated from something the compression
driver can understand, into something the operating system can understand.
Disk Compression in Windows OSs: CVF stands for compressed volume file. The CVF is the
file that all hard disk data is written to when compressing a hard drive. A host drive is a small
partition, normally around 2MB that is created to hold the CVF file for the hard disk. When
Windows OSs compresses a hard disk it first creates the host drive and then rewrites all the data
that is currently on the hard drive to one large file. After this process is complete the
compression driver is used to read and write data to and from the single large file. To get the
highest compression ratio you need to compress the hard disk before it has too much data.
6.5.3 Caching
Disk Caching: Disk caching is the process of using a temporary storage place to maintain data
being read and written to the hard disk.
Hardware Cache and Software Cache: A software disk caching program reads ahead of the
CPU`s requests on the hard disks, and stores that data in RAM. This improves performance
because most files are in consecutive order, and if the file is in RAM, the CPU doesn`t have to
wait for the data to be transferred from the hard disk.
Hardware cache serves the same purpose as software cache, but accomplishes it differently.
Hardware cache stores the read-ahead data on a RAM chip in the hard disk controller. Although
hardware cache reads ahead of the CPU and stores the data in RAM, it doesn`t store the data in
system RAM. This still forces the CPU to wait for a response from the bus that the hard disk
controller is on, rather than taking the data straight from system RAM, which is much faster.
Disk Cache in DOS and Windows OSs: Smart Drive is a hard drive cache program that comes
with Windows OSs and DOS that can be executed as a TSR from the AUTOEXEC.BAT file.
VCACHE in Windows OSs: VCACHE is Windows OSs` built-in caching software. VCACHE
is automatically loaded with the operating system, doesn`t need any configuration parameters,
and out performs any of the DOS caching programs available. Some of the Windows OSs
"don`ts" are:
 Don`t use older DOS software that isn`t VFAT and VCACHE aware.
 Don`t use FDISK, FORMAT C: or SYS C: from within Windows OSs.
 Don`t use hard drive caching programs unless they were created for Windows OSs
 Don`t use older versions of the DOS backup program because it will truncate the long file
names.
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6.5.4 DOS Buffers
A buffer is a temporary memory area where data is kept before being written to a hard drive or
sent to a printer, thus reducing the number of writes to the devices. Buffers are typically
configured via the CONFIG.SYS file.
6.5.6 Using DOS under Windows OSs to Manage a Hard Drive
The following commands should not be used in the Windows OSs environment:
 Third-party disk utilities

 FDISK, FORMAT SYS or CHKDSK
 Third-party disk caching programs
 Old DOS backup programs
6.6 Other removable drives
Table 6.1 illustrates the advantages of removable drives:
Some of the product features to look for when purchasing a removable hard drive include auto-
eject, high drop height, audible feedback, automatic sleep mode, write-protect options and Plug-
and-Play compliance. The half-life of a product is the half of the estimated life span of the
product. Note that the half-life for a magnetic disk is normally between 5 to 7 years. A ZIP drive
uses a high capacity magnetic disk to store up to 100MB of data. ZIP drives have become
popular because they are inexpensive and very easy to connect via a parallel port. JAZZ drives
91
are hard disk removable drives, which can store up to 1GB of data and are faster than ZIP drives.
The downside is that JAZZ drives typically cost more than ZIP drives. SyJet drives have a
storage capacity of 1.5GB and are very similar to JAZZ drives.
6.7 Summary
DOS commands to manage a hard drive include the MKDIR command to create directories,
CHDIR to change directories, RMDIR to remove a directory, TREE to display a directory
structure, ATTRIB to display and change the attributes of a file, MIRROR and UNFORMAT to
manage the partition table on a hard drive, and PATH to set a path to executable files. Except for
MIRROR and UNFORMAT, these same commands are available in Windows OSs.
Most hard drives today use the IDE technology which contains the hard drive controller directly
on the hard drive housing. (Older technologies had the controller on a separate expansion card
that controlled the drive by way of a controller cable.). An Enhanced IDE (EIDE) drive can hold
more data than an IDE drive. All new IDE drives today are EIDE drives and the industry loosely
calls them IDE drives. A system board can support up to 4 IDE devices including CD-ROM
drives and hard drives. There are several variations of IDE standards including ATA-2, ATA-3
and Ultra ATA which all use a standard 40-pin IDE cable. The latest standard Ultra ATA/66
requires an improved 40-pin cable that improves ground quality. There are also several SCSI
standards including Regular SCSI, Fast SCSI, and Ultra SCSI. Because older System BIOS did
not support hard drives larger than 504 MB, translation modes where created so that a system
could handle larger drives. Two translation methods are ECHS mode (also called large mode)
and LBA mode.
Fragmentation is the undesirable placement of a single file in several cluster locations that are
not next to each other, so that data access time is increased. Fragmentation happens over time as
many files are written, erased, and rewritten to a drive. To defragment a drive is to reorder the
files so that all files are written into contiguous clusters. Defragmenting a drive improves
performance. Cross-linked clusters are clusters on a hard drive that are marked as used in the
FAT by more than one file. Lost clusters are clusters that the FAT records as used, but contain no
data. Both cross-linked and lost clusters can be corrected by ScanDisk, a Windows utility to
improve hard drive performance. Disk caching is built into Windows OSs as a 32-bit protected-
mode utility called Vcache. Disk caching speeds up drive access by buffering data between the
CPU and the drive.
When selecting a removable drive, consider the capacity of the drive, the ease of use, the drop
height, the ability to automatically drop into sleep mode, write-protect options, the speed, Plug-
and-Play compliance, compatibility with other technology, cost, warranty, and quality of the
documentation. Popular removable drives include the 100-MB and 250-MB Zip drives, 120-MB
SuperDisk and the 1-GB Jaz drive.
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A variation of Enhanced IDE hard drive technology that uses an especially fast I/O bus with its
own bus controller is ______.
1. Maxtor
2. SCSI
3. RLL
4. MFM
When a hard drive is formatted by the OS, track and sector markings are written on the drive.
1. True
2. False
How much data is contained within one sector on a hard drive?
A directory in DOS is called what in Windows OSs?
1. A directory
2. A path
3. A file
4. A folder
To create a folder in Windows OSs, using Explorer, click File, New, Folder.
1. True
2. False
What is the DOS command to make the file MYFILE.TXT read only?
When a hard drive is using CHS mode, what is true?
1. The drive is larger than 504 MB
2. System BIOS is managing the drive
3. Windows NT is managing the drive
4. The drive has at least 25 heads
What virtual or physical device is always required at each end of a SCSI daisy chain?
93
References
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
94
Unit 7: Hard Drive Installation and Support
7.0 Introduction
This unit looks at the hard drive installation and support. It starts by outlining how to carry out
installation on a hard drive then followed by revealing how to use a diagnostic software. It
further looks at the recovery of lost data on hard drives then finally looks at the trouble shooting
tasks.
7.1 Objectives

 know how to install a hard drive;
 know how to use a diagnostic software;
 know how to recover data on a hard drive; and
 apply hard drives trouble shooting
7.2 Installing a hard drive
A hard drive requires a power cord from the power supply, a data cable to connect it to the
system board and a bay inside the computer case. Sometimes an LED wire connects to the front
of the computer case to indicate when the drive is in use. CMOS setup must be informed of the
drive's presence and its size. Some CMOS setups support AutoDetect which automatically
detects the drive. When installing a drive take care to protect the system against ESD. For an
IDE drive, the drive jumpers or DIP switches must be set to master, slave, single, or cable select
depending on the IDE configuration for the system. A SCSI drive has different requirements
specific to a SCSI subsystem including a SCSI ID, a host adapter, and perhaps a terminating
resistor. All hard drives require device drivers or System BIOS to interface with them.
Before beginning work on a system, verify all hardware components, check IRQ, DMA and I/O
addresses and most importantly, read the documentation of the hardware. The following are
typical IDE hard drive configurations:
 Single drive configuration. This configuration is used when there are no other devices
connected to the same data cable as the hard drive.
 Master. This configuration is used to tell the system that out of the two drives available
this is the first or primary drive.
 Slave. This configuration is used to tell the hard drive that it is the secondary drive.
 Cable select. This configuration tells the system that the first hard drive on the data cable
is master and that if there is another drive present it is slave.
Remember that a technician should always follow ESD procedures when working with computer
components. An easy way to remember which direction a data cable should be plugged in is to
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align pin 1 (red line on cable) with the power connector. Always test an installation by booting
the system to verify that the system recognizes the hard drive. The following are common
problems during a hard drive installation:
 Cable connected incorrectly

 Jumpers or DIP switches set incorrectly
 Adapter card failure. Try reseating the card
Informing Setup of the New Drive: Most recent BIOS`s can auto-detect a hard drive`s
configuration information but beware: in order for auto-detect to work properly, both the hard
drive and the BIOS must support this feature.
Setup for Hard Drives Less Than 528 MB: To configure legacy hard drives, you may need to
use the "user defined" option found in the CMOS setup program. The user defined method
requires cylinder and head information, which can normally be found written on top of the hard
drive.
7.2.1 When BIOS Does Not Support Large-Capacity Hard Drives
The following options are available for managing BIOS issues with large-capacity drives:
 Upgrade the BIOS or your entire system board

 Use an advanced EIDE adapter card that supports LBA mode without software or BIOS
settings.
 Use software drivers stored on the hard drive that support LBA mode. Note that this sort
of software used to be commonly distributed by the manufacturer for use with larger hard
drives.
A Note on Moving a Hard Drive or Changing BIOS: When dealing with large capacity hard
drives there is a chance that the translation method on the original system may be different from
the translation on the system that the hard drive is moved to, rendering the drive unreadable.
Partitioning the Hard Drive
Under standard DOS conventions there is only one Primary partition which is labeled your C:
drive. All other drives are Logical drives and they are sub-partitions of the extended partition. A
partition table is also known as the master boot record and contains information about the
hard drive`s partition and operating system configuration. Although sometimes a hard drive is
partitioned for organizational purposes, normally it is partitioned to save drive space by reducing
cluster size. It is important to note that DOS has a 2GB limitation for any single partition.
7.2.2 OS or High-Level Format
A high-level format installs the file system. First it creates the DOS boot record, which is used as
sector zero for each partition, then, it creates two copies of the FAT. Second, it creates the root
directory. Finally, it scans the drive for sectors that previously were marked as damaged by the
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low-level format, and marks them as bad in the FAT. The FORMAT /S command will make the
drive bootable if it has a Primary partition set active. After the Primary partition is created and
the high-level format is complete, you are ready to install an operating system. After all of the
software has been installed (operating system, applications) it is an excellent time to do a system
backup. As discussed in Chapter 5, use the MIRROR command to back up the partition table
information to disk.
7.2.3 Installing a SCSI Drive
Before installing a SCSI host adapter make sure that your system has the available resources to
support the adapter you are going to install (IRQ, DMA, I/O address). Before installing a SCSI
hard drive, verify that it is compatible with your SCSI host adapter and that you have the correct
type of SCSI cable to connect the drive to the host adapter. If you are unsure, check the host
adapter documentation. A SCSI installation requires that you configure the SCSI host adapter
and the SCSI hard drive so that they can communicate with each other. This is done as follows:
1. Set SCSI IDs: The SCSI ID needs to first be set on the hard drive. Check the
documentation for the jumper settings. Verify that the hard drive SCSI ID is not in use by
any other SCSI device.
2. Disable or enable disk drive and hard drive controllers: If the SCSI host adapter has a
built-in drive controller that you are not using, it should be disabled. Check the SCSI host
adapter documentation for the correct jumper settings. Note also that if your system board
has built-in IDE or SCSI controllers that are not in use, these should also be disabled.
Again, check documentation for details.
3. Terminating resistors: The type of termination varies depending on the SCSI host
adapter, but you should always have at least one terminator at the end of the SCSI cable.
Check the host adapter documentation for specifics.
4. CMOS setup for a SCSI system: Most CMOS have a setting that will tell the BIOS to
look for a host adapter. Some require that you specify SCSI; in others you must specify
that there is no hard drive available. Check system board documentation for details.
5. SCSI device drivers: In the DOS or Windows 3.1 environment you are required to load
a SCSI device driver before SCSI devices become available for use. Note, these drivers
normally will be included with the host adapter at the time of purchase and should be
loaded through the CONFIG.SYS.
Term: Dual-Boot: The term dual-boot refers to having two operating systems loaded on the
same computer and having the capability of selecting one at startup.
7.3 Trouble shooting hard drives
Windows and DOS have some diagnostic utilities that can be useful in diagnosing problems with
hard drives. FDISK will examine and report on problems with the partition table. The Windows
Emergency Rescue Disk contains it and several other utilities. Nuts & Bolts, Norton Utilities,
and Partition Magic are third-party utility software programs that can help with routine
maintenance and hard drive problem solving. Use one of these programs to keep a backup of the
partition table and all important data on a hard drive in the event of a hard drive crash.
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When troubleshooting a hard drive, first determine if the problem occurs during or after the boot.
If the drive will not boot, first eliminate a physical problem with the hardware, and then turn to
the software on the drive. Perhaps the problem is not with the drive at all, so confirm that the
monitor, computer switches, and keyboard are all working.
Look for POST codes on the screen during booting. Check for bad cable and power connections,
and look for errors in CMOS setup. Try booting from an OS rescue disk. If you can boot from
the rescue disk, examine the partition table on the hard drive using FDISK. Next check the
system files on the logical drive used for booting (usually drive C:). From a DOS prompt, run
Scandisk on the drive and a current version of anti-virus software.
7.3.1 An Ounce of Prevention
The following are five damage control tactics you should employ:
 Backup EARLY and OFTEN. The more important the data, the more often it should be
backed up.
 Use the SCANDISK and DEFRAG utilities about once a month
 Don`t smoke around your hard drive.
 Don`t leave a system turned off for long periods of time.
 Keep your system in a cool, dry location - high humidity can be dangerous for hard
drives.
7.3.2 Problems with Hard Drives
Common hard drive hardware problems include problems with the hard drive controller, power
supply, data cable, BIOS and unsupported firmware or hardware. Some of the common software
issues that are caused by hard drive problems include: corrupt operating system, corrupt files
system, corrupt data and viruses. When working with hard drive problems, the first step is to
determine what data is priority and start with trying to recover that data first. When working on a
PC, sometimes it is more important that the issue be resolved than it is you resolve the issue by
yourself: be willing to ask for help.
7.3.3 Resolving Hard Drive Problems
The numeric error message range used by many BIOS` includes 17xx to 104xx, other messages
may include fixed disk errors, hard drive errors, and fixed disk POST failure errors. The easiest
way to narrow down or pinpoint a problem is to ask yourself, what has changed? If a hard drive
is making loud noises or is suspected of having mechanical difficulties, the worst thing you can
do is turn it off. If a partition table is corrupt, you can sometimes use another hard drive with the
same partition table information to boot the system and then switch the data cables between the
two hard drives. The following items must be intact for DOS or Windows OSs to access a drive:
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 The partition Table
 The boot record
 The FAT
 The root directory
Norton Utilities, Nuts & Bolts and other third party software programs will allow you to make a
backup copy of important information including the partition table. This is recommended when
planning disaster recovery. To restore a partition table: Boot to DOS and use the UNFORMAT
/PARTN command. This will prompt you for the PARTNSAV.FIL, which stores all of the
necessary information to restore the partition table. If the tracks containing the partition table
become physically damaged, it will be impossible to restore the partition table (even if you have
a backup of the partition table). A floppy disk has only one boot record, whereas a hard drive has
one master boot record in its partition table and a boot record at the beginning of each partition.
7.3.4 Damaged Boot Record
If you receive the error message Unable to read drive A: Abort, Retry, Fail? there is a good
chance that the boot record could be damaged. Most rescue disks create a backup copy of the
boot record. When restoring from a rescue disk, the software simply refreshes the boot record
from the backup copy.
7.3.5 Damaged FAT or Root Directory
Because FAT and the root directory are constantly changing, they are difficult to repair. The
following utilities can be used to repair damaged FAT: Norton Disk Doctor, Norton Disk Editor,
Nuts & Bolts.
7.4 Data Recovery
Much can be done to recover lost data on a hard drive, but beware of one important thing. If you
are trying to recover data, do not write anything to the drive so that you don't overwrite the
corrupted or lost data. Some things to try to recover lost data include using the CHKDSK
command with the /F option, using COPY and ignoring bad sectors as you copy good portions of
the file to a new media, using UNDELETE to recover an erased file, and using third-party
recovery software such as Lost & Found and Norton Utilities.
7.4.1 What to Do When Corruption Occurs
Corrupted System Files: The fastest way to repair corrupt system files is to SYS the drive
again.
Corrupted Sector and Track Markings: "Bad sector or sector not found" is an error message
you may see on a drive with damaged sectors or tracks. There are two types of low-level formats:
1. Destructive format. A destructive low-level format will destroy all data on the drive.
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2. Non-destructive format. A non-destructive low-level format will not destroy data. It
accomplishes this by copying the data to a different location on the drive then formatting
the track and moving the data back to the original location. Note: This process is much
slower than the destructive format.
Corrupted Data and Program Files: Keep in mind some of the following options when trying
to recover data:
 Try using a third party utilities package like the Nuts & Bolts software.
 Use a DOS utility like SCANDISK.
 Copy the data to a new disk, selecting Ignore through any error messages.
 Use a disk editor and try to reconstruct the data yourself
 If a data file`s file header has been lost or damaged you still may be able to recover the
data by copying it into an ASCII text file and then importing the ASCII file back into the
application.
Using OS Tools and Commands to Recover Data: The two most important things to do when
working with data recovery are:
1. Never write anything new to the disk you are trying to recover data from.
2. Use the DISKCOPY or copy command to back up the data that you are trying to recover
(before doing anything else!)
Corrupted File Headers: If an application`s data file cannot be open or read it may have a
corrupt file header. To repair a corrupt file header you can normally import the file into an
application in ASCII text format and then convert it back into application format.
Lost Allocation Units: A file can lose its clusters if the system is rebooted while the file is in
use or if the application that accesses the file is shutdown improperly. SCANDISK and
CHKDSK both are designed to recover lost clusters.
Bad Sectors: When a disk has bad sectors the first thing to do is attempt to copy the file or disk
to a different drive. Note that when copying a file with bad sectors you will probably receive an
error message something like: Unable to read from drive A: Abort, Retry, Ignore? Selecting
ignore will tell DOS to skip the bad sector and move on. The only time you want to use the
RECOVER command is when there is no other way, or if you have a backup copy of the data.
The RECOVER command can accidentally destroy a file it is trying to recover.
Erased File: When DOS deletes a file it does the following:
 Overwrites the first character of the filename in the root directory with the characters that
have a hex value of E5.
 Replaces all entries in the file allocation table referencing the file with zeros.
 The UNDELETE command recovers files by locating the file and then renaming the first
character of the file to something other than the value of E5.
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Using Utility Software to Recover Files: There are two approaches to using a disk editor for
file recovery:
1. Use the disk editor to create a new file on another disk, then copy the sectors on the
original disk to the new disk and attach the copied sectors to the new file.
2. Edit the FAT so the damaged clusters will be avoided when trying to read the file (this
could result in data loss).
Virus Problems: When you are having intermittent difficulties with data loss, you may want to
scan for viruses.
7.5 Summary
A hard drive requires a power cord from the power supply, a data cable to connect it to the
system board and a bay inside the computer case. Sometimes an LED wire connects to the front
of the computer case to indicate when the drive is in use. CMOS setup must be informed of the
drive's presence and its size. Some CMOS setups support AutoDetect which automatically
detects the drive. When installing a drive take care to protect the system against ESD. For an
IDE drive, the drive jumpers or DIP switches must be set to master, slave, single, or cable select
depending on the IDE configuration for the system. A SCSI drive has different requirements
specific to a SCSI subsystem including a SCSI ID, a host adapter, and perhaps a terminating
resistor. All hard drives require device drivers or System BIOS to interface with them.
Windows and DOS have some diagnostic utilities that can be useful in diagnosing problems with
hard drives. FDISK will examine and report on problems with the partition table. The Windows
Emergency Rescue Disk contains it and several other utilities. Nuts & Bolts, Norton Utilities,
and Partition Magic are third-party utility software programs that can help with routine
maintenance and hard drive problem solving. Use one of these programs to keep a backup of the
partition table and all important data on a hard drive in the event of a hard drive crash.
Much can be done to recover lost data on a hard drive, but beware of one important thing. If you
are trying to recover data, do not write anything to the drive so that you don't overwrite the
corrupted or lost data. Some things to try to recover lost data include using the CHKDSK
command with the /F option, using COPY and ignoring bad sectors as you copy good portions of
the file to a new media, using UNDELETE to recover an erased file, and using third-party
recovery software such as Lost & Found and Norton Utilities.
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How many Enhanced IDE devices can a system support?
1. 1
2. 4
3. 10 or more
4. 2
If two IDE drives are sharing the same data cable, one is set to slave and the other is set to
master.
1. True
2. False
A system already has a Zip drive, CD-ROM drive, and two hard drives, which are all Enhanced
IDE devices. How do you install a third hard drive in the system?
Things that can cause damage to a hard drive are:
1. Backing up important data on the drive
2. Defragment the drive
3. Backing up the hard drive partition table
4. High humidity
Utility software to manage a hard drive written for Windows 3.x can safely be used on a FAT32
hard drive.
1. True
2. False
Which Norton utility creates a snapshot of important information on a hard drive including the
boot record, FAT and root directory information?
System files needed to boot form the hard drive can be replaced using what DOS command?
1.ATTRIB
2.SYS C:
3.DISKCOPY
4.SYSTEM
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When Windows OSs is instructed to delete a file, the file location is recorded in the Recycle Bin.
1. True
2. False
The DOS command CHKDSK C:/F will create a file from lost clusters and store the file in
________.
In a troubleshooting situation, what can FDISK tell you?
1. That the operating system is installed and running properly
2. That the hard drive is not fragmented
3. That the partition table is not corrupted
4. None of the above
103
References
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
10: 0977320626 ISBN-13: 978-0977320622 - See more at:
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Unit 8: Trouble shooting fundamentals
8.0 Introduction
This unit looks at the fundamentals of trouble shooting. It starts by looking at how protection is
done on individuals, hardware and software. It then looks at the tools needed for the support as
well as the course of action to take. It finally looks at record keeping and how to put the
components back to functionality.
8.1 Objectives

 know how to protect yourself, hardware and software while solving computer
problems;
 identify the tools you need for trouble shooting and to isolate the computer you
are solving;
 learn importance of good record keeping; and
 gather and assemble the components back to functionality
8.2 Trouble Shooting Perspectives
The most common threat to hardware is electrostatic discharge (ESD), commonly called static
electricity. To protect against ESD, wear an anti-static bracelet whenever you work inside a
computer or handle computer components such as memory modules or expansion cards. Don't
touch chips or edge connectors on boards unless absolutely necessary. Don't stack boards or put
boards on top of or next to the monitor. Always turn off the PC before moving it even a few
inches, and unplug it before working inside it. Never wear an ESD bracelet when working inside
a monitor or power supply and never open a monitor or power supply unless you are trained to
work inside them because they hold dangerous electrical charges even after the device is
unplugged.
The four troubleshooting perspectives are:
1. PC Support Technician. A PC support technician works on site and closely interacts

with the customers on a daily basis.
2. PC Service Technician. A PC Service Technician goes to a customer`s site in response
to a service call.
3. Bench Technician. A bench technician may or may not come into contact with the
customer and is not permanently responsible for the PC.
4. Help Desk Technician. A Help Desk Technician provides technical support over the
phone.
5.
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8.2.1 Protect Yourself, the Hardware, and the Software
Remember, it is extremely important that you be properly grounded before working with
computer hardware.
8.3 Trouble shooting tools
The tools needed to solve computer problems and install or replace components include a
multimeter, pliers, a flashlight, an ESD bracelet, a bootable rescue disk, and utility software
including anti-virus software. Keep a bootable rescue disk with Windows or DOS utilities, and
regularly scan the disk for viruses. A POST diagnostic card is also a useful tool as well as a
variety of diagnostic software such as PC Technician, CheckIt and Norton Utilities.
What is a bootable rescue disk? For DOS, a bootable rescue disk is a floppy disk that can
upload the OS files necessary for the computer to startup properly. When troubleshooting a
system it is sometimes necessary to boot the system into DOS to verify hardware functionality
and/or run diagnostic software. Some of the common utilities that should be kept on a DOS boot
disk used for troubleshooting include:
 ATTRIB
 CHKDSK
 EDIT
 FDISK
 FORMAT
 MSCDEX
 SCANDISK
 HIMEM.SYS
 UNDELETE
Rescue Disk for Windows OSs: It is a good idea to have a Windows OSs recovery disk
available when you are required to support the Windows OSs environment.
Diagnostic Cards and Software: Diagnostic cards are adapter cards designed to discover and
report computer hardware failures and conflicts at POST time, often by displaying a number on
the card.
POST Diagnostic Cards: POST diagnostic cards are used to diagnose hardware problems. They
are temporarily installed through an expansion slot to test the system. There are several
manufacturers that compete in the market of POST diagnostic cards.
Diagnostic Software: Diagnostic software is designed to identify hardware problems. Most

diagnostic software has its own small operating system built into the software. This is to prevent
other operating systems from masking or interfering with the diagnostic tests. The software will
boot to its operating system and then diagnose the hardware.
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Virus Detection Software: Viruses are most commonly transmitted through the exchanging of
diskettes or downloads from the Internet. When a disk is accessed that has a virus, the virus will
copy itself onto your hard drive. Some of the most common places viruses hide include inside
executables, inside partition tables and even, inside the master boot record. F-PROT, McAfee,
and Norton anti-virus are all examples of anti-virus software that is designed to examine each
file on a selected drive and look for virus code.
Identifying and Preventing a Virus: Indicators that your system has a virus are: files are
disappearing, programs take longer to load, less memory is available and executables have
changed size. A few of the easiest ways to help prevent the spread of viruses include: write-
protect you diskettes, boot only from your hard drive, and scan you hard drive regularly.
8.4 Isolating a computer problem and devising a course of action
When planning how to solve a computer problem, first ask the user to explain the problem and
then attempt to reproduce it. Isolate the problem by eliminating the unnecessary or trading good
components for suspected-bad ones. Determine if the problem occurs before or after a successful
boot. If the problem does not allow for a successful boot, eliminate these sources of the problem
in this order: the electrical system, the video system, the hard drive system, the system board.
When first approaching a computer that is having problems you should take the attitude of the
investigator. Start by asking the user what happened, or, if possible, ask the user to demonstrate
the problem. The following are fundamental rules to remember when troubleshooting a computer
problem:
 Approach the problem systematically. Computers are logical. When trouble arises,
work through the problem in logical steps and understand what the computer is doing
each step of the way.
 Divide and conquer. When troubleshooting a system it is a good idea to eliminate
possibilities one at a time. For example, first decide if the problem is hardware or
software.
 Don`t overlook the obvious. If a user is having problems with connectivity, start with
the obvious and check the LAN drop first.
 Check the simple things first. It is faster and easier to check all the simple solutions
first. If you start with the simplest solutions first it will save you time. Example: If a user
is having problems with their monitor check the monitor and the cables first, not the
video card.
 Make no assumptions. Never assume anything and always start with the obvious
because although you believe something to be obvious, it may not be to the user.
 Become a researcher. If you don`t understand or know the answer to a problem, ask
another technician, check the Internet, read books, and check the online help.
 Write things down. Keep notes. All good technicians have some sort of note taking
system.
 Reboot and start over. It is always a good idea to restart a system and walk through a
problem from the very beginning.
108
 Establish your priorities. Decide what priority is for your customer before beginning to
troubleshoot the problem.
 Keep your cool. Even though your customer may be very excited and upset you must not
let that affect your technical judgment.
 Don`t assume the worst. This speaks for itself but the importance of this rule should
never be ignored.
 Know your starting point. Verify a problem before troubleshooting it. Ask the customer
to recreate it or attempt to recreate the problem yourself.
Interacting with the user: After discovering what a problem is, suggest a plan to the user. Be
sure to include any risks that the user may be taking by allowing you to proceed with your plan.
When working on a user`s system, be polite. Remember that you are a guest at their computer.
Ask permission before shutting down applications or making changes to their configuration,
even if they just gave you permission. When talking to a user, be understanding of their level of
expertise. Talk to them at a level that they can understand, by explaining the problem and
solution to them and showing them how to avoid the problem in the future.
8.4.1 Other Tips
Eliminating the Unnecessary: When troubleshooting hardware or software problems always

work the problem backwards. Start with a bare system and re-add the pieces until the problem
reoccurs.
Trade Good for Suspected Bad: For testing purposes it is always a good idea to have parts on
hand that you know function properly. Having a known good collection enables the technician to
test different components while troubleshooting.
An Alternate Approach to Trading Good for Suspected Bad: This approach is really the
reverse of trading good for bad. If you have another computer with similar hardware to the one
with the problem, simply remove the part that you suspect to be bad and test it in the "known
good" system.
8.5 Accurate Record keeping
Accurate records of the configuration data on a PC, the hardware, the software, and the data are
essential to effective troubleshooting. Make these records, or teach the user t make them, when
all is well. Keep documentation on hardware and software in an easy-to-find location. Prepare a
bootable disk that contains copies of the necessary startup files on the hard drive specific to this
PC. Organize the hard drive to keep the number of files in the root directory to a minimum.
It is highly recommended that you review this section, which contains troubleshooting tips for
many different hardware configurations.
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8.5.1 When a PC is your Permanent Responsibility
Organize the Hard Drive Root Directory
As mentioned earlier, the root directory is limited to only 512 entries in the FAT. With the root
directory`s FAT limitation in mind, it becomes very important to put only necessary directories
and system files in the root directory. Organization is key when managing your file system. It is
also recommended to keep all data files in a data directory. This will simplify backups as well as
make files easier to locate.
Create a Boot or Rescue Disk
A good rescue disk will be bootable and have backup copies of all INI files as well as the
AUTOEXEC.BAT and the CONFIG.SYS. Note that in Windows OSs you will also want to
include a copy of the SYSTEM.DAT and the USER.DAT files.
Documentation
Always keep the documentation for all hardware and software in a safe place - it will prove
invaluable in emergency situations.
Record of Setup Data
It is best to keep both a hard copy and a disk with all the necessary CMOS settings. Use a utility
program like Nuts & Bolts to make a recovery disk with all of the CMOS settings, then use print
screen to create a hard copy.
Practical Precautions to Protect Software and Data
The following backup precautions should be taken before installing new software:
 Be sure that you have current copies of all INI files and other configuration files
 If possible backup the entire WINDOWS\SYSTEM directory
 If possible don`t compress your hard drive.
 Don`t store data files in the same directory as software. This is to avoid having your data
overwritten.
Backup of Original Software
Most software companies allow you to create one backup copy of their software. This is
recommended! Check your user software license documentation for more information.
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Backup of Data on the Hard Drive
A rule of thumb: the more important the data, the more often it should be backed-up. If a system
that you are responsible for must be functional 100% of the time, you should be backing up the
entire hard drive on a regular schedule.
8.6 Summary
The most common threat to hardware is electrostatic discharge (ESD), commonly called static
electricity. To protect against ESD, wear an anti-static bracelet whenever you work inside a
computer or handle computer components such as memory modules or expansion cards. Don't
touch chips or edge connectors on boards unless absolutely necessary. Don't stack boards or put
boards on top of or next to the monitor. Always turn off the PC before moving it even a few
inches, and unplug it before working inside it.
When planning how to solve a computer problem, first ask the user to explain the problem and
then attempt to reproduce it. Isolate the problem by eliminating the unnecessary or trading good
components for suspected-bad ones. Determine if the problem occurs before or after a successful
boot. If the problem does not allow for a successful boot, eliminate these sources of the problem
in this order: the electrical system, the video system, the hard drive system, the system board.
Accurate records of the configuration data on a PC, the hardware, the software, and the data are
essential to effective troubleshooting. Make these records, or teach the user t make them, when
all is well. Keep documentation on hardware and software in an easy-to-find location. Prepare a
bootable disk that contains copies of the necessary startup files on the hard drive specific to this
PC. Organize the hard drive to keep the number of files in the root directory to a minimum.
A PC technician should be able to take a computer apart and put it back together. Wear an ESD
bracelet as you work and use paper cups or plastic bags to hold screws. Remove the case cover
and draw a diagram of cable connections to help you reassemble later. Remove expansion cards,
the floppy drive and hard drive. Remove the power supply followed by the system board. After
you have reassembled everything, turn on the PC and check that everything works.
Static electricity can cause ______.
1. a catastrophic computer failure
2. unpredictable and intermittent problems difficult to isolate and detect
3. complete destruction of a component
4. All of the above
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Always store unused computer components in anti-static bags to protect them against ESD.
1. True
2. False
The DOS command to format a flash disk, making the disk bootable is _____.
Answer:_______________
A symptom that a virus might be present is
1. A program takes too long to load
2. Unusual error messages display
3. The system won't boot
4. All of the above
F-PROT is an anti-virus program that can detect and remove a virus.
1. True
2. False
Name one manufacturer of a diagnostic card.
Answer:___________
If you can hear a spinning fan or hard drive, then you can assume that which subsystem is
working?
1. Video
2. Power
3. Hard drive
4. CPU
Excessive dust inside a computer case can cause components to overheat.
1. True
2. False
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A file in the hard drive's root directory with a INI file extension is most likely
1. An initialization file left there by software installed on the drive
2. A Windows system file
3. A swap file
4. A DOS batch file
113
References
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
10: 0977320626 ISBN-13: 978-0977320622 - See more at:
114
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Unit 9: Supporting I/O Devices
9.0 Introduction
This unit looks at user support for the input and output devices. It starts by looking at the basic
principles of peripheral devices support then followed by how to resolve resource conflicts. It
further looks at how to install new devices on the computer with their drivers. Finally it looks at
the key I/O devices like key board and printers.
9.1 Objectives
By end of the unit you should be able to:

 know how to use standard resources on a computer system;
 resolve resource conflicts;
 install new devices on a computer; and
 know about the key peripherals devices
9.2 Basic Principles of Peripheral Installations
When adding a new device to a computer system, most devices need a device driver or BIOS as
an interface between the device and the OS. In addition, the device might require applications
software and system resources including an IRQ, a DMA channel, some I/O addresses, and some
upper memory addresses (for 16-bit BIOS or software). If the device is Plug and Play installed in
a Windows OSs system, in most situations, the Plug-and-Play BIOS assigns the system resources
to the device without your involvement. If the device uses older 16-bit BIOS on board the device
expansion card or 16-bit device drivers installed from CONFIG.SYS, then the firmware or
software might dictate the system resources that it requires. Jumpers or DIP switches on these
legacy devices can sometimes be set to use alternate resources in the event there is a conflict
between two devices that require the same resource.
Most all peripherals require the following basic fundamentals:
 The hardware and firmware for the peripheral

 A device driver, BIOS or both
 Available resources (IRQ, DMA, I/O address)
In addition to the list above, some peripherals also require proprietary software that works in
conjunction with the device driver. The CPU uses INT (interrupts) to locate an entry in the
interrupt vector table. This table, located in the lowest part of memory, has stored the address of
an interrupt handler, a program that will handle the request. The program is either a device driver
or BIOS and will use I/O addresses to communicate with the device. The three basic steps to
installing an add-on device are:
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1. Install the device
2. Install the device driver
3. Install the applications software
In the Windows 3.x environment most device drivers are installed using the CONFIG.SYS. In
the Windows OSs environment you can install device driver via Control Panel.
9.2.1 Hardware Devices
Internal peripheral devices are normally less expensive than external devices but can be difficult
to install. External devices, though more expensive are typically easier to install because the
device will use an external port that is already configured with the proper resources (IRQ, DMA,
I/O address). Whenever considering a hardware purchase, you should know as much as possible
about your hardware and software configuration (operating system version, type of system board,
amount of RAM and hard drive space, etc).
9.2.2 Embedded BIOS on Devices
Peripheral manufacturers use ROM chips called firmware to load some of the software that is
required for the peripheral to function properly. Some peripheral devices have RAM on the
device, which is used as temporary storage for data that is moving through the device. Most
peripheral devices have jumpers or DIP switches, used to control the resources requested by the
device. It is important to read the peripheral documentation to understand how to properly
configure the device to function with your system.
9.2.3 Device Drivers
Windows OSs has the capability to automatically detect and install new hardware; this is referred
to as plug-and-play. The DEVICE command is used to load device drivers in the DOS
environment. Similar to other DOS commands, some device drivers use switches and parameters
to modify the driver behaviour. It is important to remember that all device drivers are TSR`s.
9.2.4 Applications Software
After the hardware resources are set correctly and the device driver is installed properly you can
then use your application to control the device. Some application examples include the
following:
 OCR software for a scanner

 MIDI or WAV software for a sound card
 A COM program or dialing software for a modem.
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9.3 Using Ports and expansion slots for add on devices
When installing a new device in a system, first determine what resources the system has
available. Look for empty expansion slots or ports. Internal devices can be installed in ISA or
PCI expansion slots or external devices can use serial, parallel, or USB ports on the system
board. SCSI devices can be internal or external and require a SCSI host adapter to interface with
the CPU and a SCSI ID on the SCSI bus system.
Plug-and-Play devices are easier to install because resources are assigned by the device at startup
based on the overall needs of the system as determined by Plug-and-Play BIOS. When installing
a device, protect the system against ESD as you work. Remove the computer case and install the
expansion card in an expansion slot, or, for external devices, plug the device into the port. For
Windows OSs, allow the OS to automatically detect the new device at startup.
Using Serial Ports: Most PCs have two COM ports and one parallel port (COM1, COM2 and
LPT1). The difference between a DB-9 and a DB-25 serial port are the number of physical pins.
Figure 9.1 shows serial ports together with a game port and a parallel port, for comparison.
A protocol is a set of agreed upon rules for communication that is established before data is
actually passed from one device to another. DCE stands for Data Communication Equipment. A
modem is an example of a DCE device. DTE stands for Data Terminal Equipment. A computer
with a modem installed is an example of a DTE device.
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Null Modem Connections: A null modem cable is a serial cable designed for communication
between two PCs. A null modem cable has the communication wires crossed to emulate modem
communication.
The UART Chip: UART stands for Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter chip. The
UART chip establishes and controls all serial communications. The UART chip is also
responsible for converting parallel data bits from the system bus into serial data bits. The first
UART chip was the 8250; next came the 16450, and the modern UART version is 16550 or its
revision, 16550A. Note that FIFO was introduced soon after the 16450 chip. When using any
UART chip other than the 16550A, you should expect a stable connection no faster than 9600
baud.
FIFO buffer stands for First In First Out buffer. The purpose of the FIFO buffer is to reduce
data loss. Windows OSs has a built-in FIFO driver, but in Windows 3.x you must load a driver
that will tell the UART chip to use FIFO. The standard UART buffer size is 16 bytes, but there
are newer UART chips available that have a buffer size of up to 64 bytes. Most systems today
include Plug-and-Play UART chips. These chips provide an interface with Plug-and-Play BIOS
that automatically configures them when the system is booted.
9.3.1 Ports
Resources Used by Serial Ports: Normally, if the IRQ is not conflicting with any other devices,
then the I/O won`t be either.
Using Parallel Ports: Parallel ports transmit 8 data bits at a time, parallel to each other. Serial
ports transmit one bit at a time, single file. Parallel communications are limited to a distance of
about 5 meters. Note that if a cable longer than 4 meters is used, there could be data loss. Parallel
ports were designed to be used with printers. However, today`s parallel ports are used for high-
speed access to external devices.
Types of Parallel Ports: Enhanced parallel port (EPP) is a parallel port that allows data to flow
in both directions (bi-directional port) and is faster than original parallel ports on PCs that only
allowed communication in one direction. Extended capabilities port (ECP) is a bi-directional
parallel port mode that uses a DMA channel to speed up data flow.
Configuring Parallel Ports: If the parallel port is on an expansion card, then refer to the
documentation that came with it to properly set the jumpers. However, if the parallel port is on-
board then use the CMOS setup program to configure the card.
Examining a General Purpose I/O Card: Unlike with serial ports, parallel ports don`t allow
you the option of selecting the LPT assignment. The BIOS will automatically assign the parallel
port with the highest I/O address, LPT1.
Using USB Ports: The requirements for installing a USB port are:
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 A system board or expansion card that provides a USB port and USB firmware
 An OS that Supports USB
 A USB device
 A USB device driver
The following Microsoft operating systems support USB:
 Windows 98/2000/XP/Vista/ 7/8/8.
9.3.2 PCI Expansion Slots / PCI Bus IRQ Steering
PCI expansion cards utilize resources assigned to its PCI slot, the PCI slot is assigned resources
by the PCI bus. The PCI bus master is normally last to be assigned resources by the system BIOS
because some ISA device require specific IRQs. PCI bus IRQ steering is a feature that makes it
possible for PCI devices to share an IRQ. System BIOS and the OS must both support this
feature.
Using ISA Expansion Slots
ISA devices must request their resources from the system BIOS at startup and are normally
configured using DIP switches or jumpers.
9.4 Resolving Resource Conflicts

A resource conflict is the most common problem that occurs when new hardware is introduced to
system. A resource conflict occurs when two devices attempt to use the same resource. If a
resource conflict occurs, use MSD, Device Manager, CMOS setup, and documentation for the
system board and devices to first identify, and then resolve the conflict.The first step is to
determine what resources are currently in use by other devices in the system, and then decide
what resources the legacy devices can use. Consult the device's documentation to know how to
set jumper or DIP switches on the device to force it to use an available resource. If both devices
that are in conflict cannot be forced to use a different resource, then the two devices cannot exist
together in the same system. Sometimes there will not be enough IRQs to go around. In this case,
it might be possible for two or more PCI devices to share the same IRQ, a feature called PCI bus
IRQ steering.
9.5 SCSI Devices
SCSI devices can be installed the following three ways:
1. Install a SCSI device using a SCSI host adapter designed to support only one or two SCSI
devices.
2. Install a SCSI device using an existing or new SCSI host adapter.
3. Install a SCSI CD-ROM using a SCSI connection provided by a sound card.
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Matching the Host Adapter to the SCSI Device it supports
The following issues may occur when connecting a SCSI device to an existing SCSI host
adapter:
 The host adapter must be made for the correct expansion slot. Verify that the device
you want to add is compatible with the SCSI standard used by your host adapter. (SCSI-
1, SCSI-2, SCSI-3, etc.)
 The host adapter must be for the correct expansion slot. When installing a host
adapter be sure that you have the correct type of expansion slot available (PCI, ISA,
MCA, EISA).
 Bus Mastering. If possible, use a host adapter that supports bus mastering. The
advantage is the host adapter will not require a DMA channel.
 A host adapter that supports several SCSI standards. This will allow you to choose
from a larger variety of SCSI devices.
 Device driver standard. Choose a host adapter that supports either ASPI or CAMS
device drivers. This will help eliminate compatibility issues with the operating system
and other software packages.
 Single-ended and differential SCSI. Select a SCSI host adapter that is compatible with
the signaling method you wish to use.
 SCAM Compliant. Choosing a SCAM compliant host adapter and SCAM compliant
devices will make the installation of new SCSI hardware easier.
9.6 Essential I/O Devices for PC
9.6.1 Input device-Keyboard
Keyboards typically use either a 5-pin DIN connector or a 6-pin smaller PS/2 connector although
keyboards using a USB port have recently become available. Because all systems require a
keyboard, the IRQ 1 used by the keyboard is never used by other devices, so you seldom need to
be concerned about conflicts with the keyboard.
A keyboard requires no I/O addresses because the CPU does not send output to the keyboard.
Keyboards are so inexpensive that, when one gives a problem, most often the solution is to
simply replace it. There are many pointing devices on the market; the most common is the mouse
which can be either a serial mouse, system-board mouse or bus mouse. A mouse can use PS/2 or
DIN connector, a serial port or a USB port.
Carpal tunnel syndrome is developed as a result of keeping the wrists in an unnatural position
and executing the same motions over a prolonged period of time. The term ergonomic refers to
safe comfortable interaction between humans and machines. The two most common types of
keyboard connectors are the larger 5- pin DIN connector and the smaller 6 -pin PS/2 connector.
A make code is a code produced by pressing a key on a computer keyboard. A break code is a
code produced when a key on a computer keyboard is released.
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9.6.2 Pointing Devices
A system-board mouse will most likely use IRQ 12 and a serial port mouse will use the IRQ
assigned to the serial port. A video subsystem requires a video card, video cable and monitor.
Newer system boards have an AGP slot for the video card, but, for older system boards, use a
PCI slot for the video card. Use video RAM on the video card to speed up video display.
Inside a mouse, there are two or more rollers that move when the mouse ball is rolled. Each
roller turns a wheel. When the wheels are turned they "chop" a small light-beam that is used to
sense the turning of the wheel. Some mice have more than the two standard buttons. Note that
special software is usually necessary to control the additional buttons. The three different
methods for connecting a mouse to a computer are:
1. Using a serial port.

2. Using a dedicated round mouse port coming directly from the system board (system
board mouse or PS/2-compatible mouse).
3. Using a mouse bus card that provides the same round mouse port as discussed earlier.
The disadvantage of using a serial mouse is it requires one available COM port. This can pose a
problem when the user requires the use of that COM port for other external devices. Some
alternatives to using a mouse are a Track ball and Touch pad:
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9.6.3 Output -VDU
Monitors: Monitors today are rated by the refresh rate, resolution and interlace features. A CRT
monitor works in the following way: to create images on a monitor screen, filaments at the back
of the cathode tube shoot electrons to the front of the tube. The refresh rate is the time it takes
the electrons to redraw the screen, starting at the top and working down the screen from left to
right. An interlaced monitor redraws the screen by making two passes, as opposed to a non-
interlaced monitor, which redraws the screen in one pass. The dot pitch is the distance between
each spot or dot on the screen that the electronic beam hits. Resolution is a measure of how
many spots on the screen are addressable by software. A pixel is the smallest addressable unit
within the picture element.
When purchasing a monitor and video card, there are things to keep in mind to ensure your
choice is an equitable one. For example, under most circumstances you wouldn`t want to
purchase a high-end video card if only have a low-end 14" monitor to use with it. The only
exception to this rule would be if you were planning on upgrading your monitor in the future.
Multiscan monitors have a greater variety of refresh rates, but they are normally more
expensive. A monitor is sometimes referred to as a Green monitor if it meets the EPA
requirements. Although LCD monitors require less space and produce a better quality picture,
they are normally more expensive than a CRT monitor. The screen size of a monitor is the one
feature that drastically affects its price. ELF refers to extremely low frequency emissions of
magnetic fields.
The following two standards were designed to control ELF emissions:
1. MPR II standard. This standard includes guideline for ELF control

2. TCO `95 standard. Note: This standard includes guidelines for ELF control, energy
consumption, screen flicker and luminance.
Note: Most monitors only adhere to the MPR II standard.
9.6.4 Video Cards
The video controller card is the interface between the monitor and the computer. These cards are
sometimes called graphic adapters, video boards, graphics cards, or display cards. Because video
controllers are separated from the core system functions of a computer, manufacturers can a
variety of techniques to improve performance without being concerned with compatibility with
functions on the system board. Video controller cards are rated according to the amount of video
memory they contain, and by the type of bus they are designed to use. The most commonly used
bus types for video include: VESA, PCI ISA and AGP. Note that some system boards include
embedded video controller cards. To display a large number of colors at higher resolutions, the
system board requires several megabytes of temporary storage.
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How a Video Card Works
The following four-step process is used by most video cards to produce images. These steps are
illustrated in Figure 9.3:
1. The digital data arrives from the system bus to the video chip set on the video card.
2. The video chip set writes the digital data to video memory.
3. The data stored in video memory is passed to the digital analog converter (RAM DAC).
4. RAM DAC passes the analog data to the monitor.
RAM DAC is a chip, or sometimes part of a chip set, that consists of three digital-to-analog
converters. Note that each converter is dedicated to one of the monitors color guns (red, blue and
green). The term dual porting refers to a video that allows both RAM DAC and the chip set to
access memory at the same time. The term graphics accelerator refers to a video card with a
built-in processor to increase performance. Graphic accelerators have become a common
necessity in today`s market. Some of the following common features are included with a
graphics accelerator:
 MPEG decoding
 3D graphics
 dual porting
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 color space conversion
 interpolated scaling
 EPA Green PC support
9.6.5 Video Memory
An advantage to having video memory is that the video card will be able to handle larger
amounts of data, thereby producing higher quality images. The first video cards with memory
used DRAM. Color depth is the number of colors displayed (16 colors, 256 colors and 65,000
colors). Video RAM is used to store the data required to generate a single screen of data.
It is important to understand the relationship between video RAM and picture quality. For
example: The more pixels and the more color depth the image has, the more video RAM is
required to store a complete single screen of data. To determine the color depth, simply raise the
number of bits per pixel to the power of 2 (24-bits to the second power is 16.7 million colors).
To determine the amount of RAM needed for a particular resolution you must multiply the
number of bits per pixel by the number of pixels on the screen, giving the total number of bits
per screen. Then divide that number of bits by the number of bits required for the color depth
desired. Last, round up to the nearest megabyte.
Note that video RAM, like system RAM, must match the data path of its bus. For example, if the
video data path is 64-bits, the video RAM must be added in pairs.
Types of Video Memory
 MDRAM stands for Multibank Dynamic Random Access Memory. MDRAM is a

special type of video RAM that is able to use a 128-bit bus path without using a full 4MB
of video RAM.
 VRAM is designed so that video memory can be accessed by both the input and output
processes at the same time.
 SGRAM, or Synchronous Graphics RAM, is similar to SDRAM but is designed
specifically for video cards. The advantage of using SGRAM is that it can synchronize
itself with the CPU bus clock.
 WRAM, or Windows RAM, is another type of dual porting RAM but it is faster and less
expensive than VRAM. Note that WRAM got its name from its ability to manage full-
motion video.
 3D-RAM was designed to improve the performance of video processing that involved 3D
graphics. Note that this was accomplished by embedding most of the 3D logic processing
into the video card.
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9.7 Printers
Differentiate between printer types

9.7.1 Laser
The laser printer is a common type of computer printer that reproduces high quality text and
graphics on plain paper. Laser printers employ a xerographic printing process but differ from
most photocopiers in that the image is produced by the direct scanning of a laser beam across the
printer's internal drum.
Laser printers have significant advantages over other types of printers. Unlike impact printers,
laser printers can reproduce a mixture of text and graphics, including varied font like ARIL, and
halftone images. Laser printers use toner, a black powder, rather than ink and do not require
special paper, unlike thermal printers, whose images can be smeared if the paper comes in
contact with a source of heat. Advantages of laser printers over inkjet printers include higher
resolution, no smearing, lower cost per page, and faster print speed, since the entire page is
imaged at one time, while an inkjet typically prints a series of narrow strips. However, laser
printers always produce raster images, and except in the highest-quality versions are less able to
reproduce continuous tone images such as photographs.
There are typically six steps involved in the laser printing process:
1. Charging: A corona wire (in older printers) or a primary charge roller projects an
electrostatic charge onto a revolving drum (surfaced with a special plastic or garnet);
2. Writing: A Raster Image Processor (RIP) chip is used in laser printers to convert
incoming images to a raster image suitable for scanning onto the drum. The laser is aimed
at a moving mirror which directs the laser through a system of lenses and mirrors onto the
photosensitive drum. Lasers (typically laser diodes) are used because they generate a
coherent beam of light for a high degree of accuracy. Wherever the laser strikes the drum
the charge is reversed, thus creating a latent electro-photographic image on the drum's
surface;
3. Developing: The surface of the drum passes through the toner, a bath of very fine
particles of dry plastic powder mixed with ink or lampblack, and the charged toner
particles are electrostatically attracted to the drum where the laser wrote the latent image.
4. Transferring: The drum is pressed or rolled over the paper, transferring the image.
5. Fusing: The paper passes through a fuser assembly, which, having rollers that provide
heat and pressure (up to 200 degrees Celsius), bonds the plastic powder to the paper.
6. Cleaning: When the print is complete an electrically neutral rubber blade cleans off any
excess toner on the drum and deposits it into a reservoir, and a discharge lamp removes
the remaining charge from the drum.
9.7.2 Inkjet
A nonimpact printer in which liquid ink is vibrated or heated into a mist and sprayed through
tiny holes in the print head to form characters or graphics on the paper. Ink-jet printers are
competitive with some laser printers in price and print quality if not in speed. However, the ink,
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which must be highly soluble to avoid clogging the nozzles in the print head, produces fuzzy-
looking output on some papers and smears if touched or dampened shortly after printing.
9.7.3 Thermal
A nonimpact printer that uses heat to generate an image on specially treated paper. The printer
uses pins to produce an image, but rather than striking the pins against a ribbon to mark the paper
as does a wire-pin dot-matrix printer, it heats the pins and brings them into
gentle contact with the paper. The special coating on the paper discolors when it is heated.
 thermal wax-transfer printer A special type of nonimpact printer that uses heat to melt
colored wax onto paper to create an image. Like a standard thermal printer, it uses pins to
apply the heat. Rather than making contact with coated paper, however, the pins touch a
wide ribbon saturated with different colored waxes. The wax melts under the pins and
adheres to the paper.
9.7.4 Impact
A printer, such as a wire-pin dot-matrix printer or a daisy-wheel printer, that drives an inked
ribbon mechanically against the paper to form marks.
 Dot-matrix printer Any printer that produces characters made up of dots using a wire-
pin print head. The quality of output from a dot-matrix printer depends largely on the
number of dots in the matrix, which might be low enough to show individual dots or
might be high enough to approach the look of fully formed characters. Dotmatrix printers
are often categorized by the number of pins in the print head—typically 9, 18, or 24.
 Daisy-wheel printer A printer that uses a daisy-wheel type element. Daisy-wheel output
is crisp and slightly imprinted, with fully formed characters resembling typewriter
quality. Daisy-wheel printers were standard for high-quality printing until being
superseded by laser printers.
9.8 Summary
When adding a new device to a computer system, most devices need a device driver or BIOS as
an interface between the device and the OS. In addition, the device might require applications
software and system resources including an IRQ, a DMA channel, some I/O addresses, and some
upper memory addresses (for 16-bit BIOS or software). If the device is Plug and Play installed in
a Windows OSs system, in most situations, the Plug-and-Play BIOS assigns the system resources
to the device without your involvement. If the device uses older 16-bit BIOS on board the device
expansion card or 16-bit device drivers installed from CONFIG.SYS, then the firmware or
software might dictate the system resources that it requires. Jumpers or DIP switches on these
legacy devices can sometimes be set to use alternate resources in the event there is a conflict
between two devices that require the same resource.
Resource conflicts are most likely to occur with legacy devices using 16-bit BIOS and device
drivers, which inform system BIOS at startup what system resources they are set to use. When
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two devices request the same resources, both devices may not work. You must force one or both
devices to use a different resource.
When installing a new device in a system, first determine what resources the system has
available. Look for empty expansion slots or ports. Internal devices can be installed in ISA or
PCI expansion slots or external devices can use serial, parallel, or USB ports on the system
board. SCSI devices can be internal or external and require a SCSI host adapter to interface with
the CPU and a SCSI ID on the SCSI bus system.
Plug-and-Play devices are easier to install because resources are assigned by the device at startup
based on the overall needs of the system as determined by Plug-and-Play BIOS. When installing
a device, protect the system against ESD as you work. Remove the computer case and install the
expansion card in an expansion slot, or, for external devices, plug the device into the port. For
Windows OSs, allow the OS to automatically detect the new device at startup.
Windows will give you the opportunity to use a Windows device driver or install a driver from
the device manufacturer. Unless you have reason to do otherwise, use the manufacturer driver.
After the driver and device are installed, install applications software to use the device.
Keyboards typically use either a 5-pin DIN connector or a 6-pin smaller PS/2 connector although
keyboards using a USB port have recently become available. Because all systems require a
keyboard, the IRQ 1 used by the keyboard is never used by other devices, so you seldom need to
be concerned about conflicts with the keyboard.
A keyboard requires no I/O addresses because the CPU does not send output to the keyboard.
Keyboards are so inexpensive that, when one gives a problem, most often the solution is to
simply replace it. There are many pointing devices on the market; the most common is the mouse
which can be either a serial mouse, system-board mouse or bus mouse. A mouse can use PS/2 or
DIN connector, a serial port or a USB port.
A system-board mouse will most likely use IRQ 12 and a serial port mouse will use the IRQ
assigned to the serial port. A video subsystem requires a video card, video cable and monitor.
Newer system boards have an AGP slot for the video card, but, for older system boards, use a
PCI slot for the video card. Use video RAM on the video card to speed up video display.
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For a DOS system, to know what system resources (IRQ, DMA, I/O addresses, and upper
memory addresses) are currently used by the system, run
1. FORMAT
2. MSD
3. Device Manager
4. SYS
When a device needs the attention of the CPU, it raises its IRQ line.
1. True
2. False
Which system resource can be used by an I/O device to speed up the transfer of data?
Answer:_______________
With Windows OSs, use ______ to know what system resources are currently in use.
1. Windows Explorer
2. Add/Remove Hardware under Control Panel
3. MSD
4. Device Manager
Use Device Manager to enable or disable PCI bus IRQ steering.
1. True
2. False
If two legacy devices require the same I/O addresses and IRQ and neither device can use an
alternate resource, then what is true?
Answer:___________
To verify that a device is installed correctly under Windows OSs, use
1. The Add/Remove Hardware icon in Control Panel
2. Device Manager
3. The WinDevice utility in the Run dialog box
4. The system board documentation
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If two devices have a resource conflict, only one of the devices will not run properly.
1. True
2. False
SCSI-1, SCSI-2 and Fast SCSI all use a connection with ____ pins.
Answer:______________
A example of a type of RAM used on video cards is
1. SIMM
2. DIMM
3. SGRAM
4. SDRAM
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References
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
10: 0977320626 ISBN-13: 978-0977320622 - See more at:
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Unit 10: Multimedia Technologies
10.0 Introduction
This unit covers multimedia technologies. It starts by explaining the multimedia technologies
then finishes with the cooling systems.
10.1 Objectives
By end of the unit you should be able to:
 Know the fundamental working of multimedia technologies;
 The multimedia industrial standards; and
 Identify the cooling system inside the computer
10.2 Multimedia
Multimedia such as sound, video, and traditional photographs are analog in nature and computers
are digital or binary. The process of converting analog data to binary data (0s and 1s) is called
digitizing, and the process of taking samples of analog data to digitize is called sampling. The
number of samples taken and the accuracy of each digitized sample determine how accurate the
representation of analog data will be when interpreted by a computer as well as the size of the
file holding the digital data. The Pentium MMX CPU was one of the first processors that
contained technology specifically geared to handle multimedia data. Software must be written to
take advantage of this technology. Newer CPUs use SSE technology, which can handle 3-D
graphics, speech recognition, and MPEG better than MMX technology can.
Most PCs today are commonly used for things like spreadsheets, databases, and desktop-
publishing. However, before purchasing a PC you should understand your needs and then
research which hardware and software will best suit them. Read trade magazines, ask friends and
search the Internet - this will save you from costly mistakes. The purpose of desktop publishing
is to produce a camera-ready printout or file of a document, ready for the print shop to
reproduce. When financing is limited, spend your money on the computer itself (processor,
RAM, hard drive). You can always buy or upgrade peripherals later.
10.2.1 Bits are Still Bits
Just as with every other component of a microcomputer, multimedia devices represent data as a
series of 0s and 1s. For example, a black and white scanner sends a light beam across the object
to be scanned and reads the object in a series of black and white dots. These black and white dots
are communicated in a series of one`s and zero`s to the graphics application which assembles the
bits to form an image file called a bit map file. Remember that when working with a peripheral
device, no matter how complex it may seem, the device still communicates with the CPU in a
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series of bits, it still requires memory, and most devices still require an IRQ or DMA. Don`t be
intimidated by the seeming complexity of a device.
10.3 Multimedia PC
A multimedia PC presents information in more than one medium such as motion video, stereo
sound, digital photographs and animation. In the evolution of PCs, the hardware must evolve
before the software; MMX is an excellent example of multimedia hardware evolution. The goal
of multimedia technology is to reproduce sound and images as life-like as possible.
Computers are inherently digital, whereas sound is analog. This poses a unique problem to a
multimedia system, which will attempt to reproduce the analog sound by converting it to a digital
format and then playing back the sound in a digital format that is designed to emulate analog
sound. Sampling is the process of converting sound or video from analog to digital format,
whereby a sound wave or image is measured at uniform time intervals and saved as a series of
smaller representative blocks. Refer to Figure 10.1 for a visual representation:
Sample size is the amount of storage allocated to storing a single measurement of a single
sample. The number of samples and the accuracy of each sample determine the amount of
storage needed. PCs have the ability to take many samples with a high degree of accuracy.
However, the high accuracy samples that are taken often require more storage space. Repetitive
looping is repeating the same action or calculation over and over again, such as the process of
recording samples.
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10.3.1 Multimedia PC Requirements
The standardization of multimedia PCs helps to ensure that hardware and software are
compatible with each other. MPC stands for Multimedia Marketing Council - this council
establishes guidelines for the multimedia market. Three multimedia standards defined by the
MPC are:
1. MPC1 - This was the first multimedia standard that was created by the MPC and
contains a substantial amount of Legacy hardware.
2. MPC2. - This is the second multimedia standard created by the MPC, and also contains a
substantial amount of Legacy hardware.
3. MPC3 - This is the most current standard released by the MPC. Note: MPC3 is
sometimes referred to as Multimedia PC Level 3.
10.3.2 MPC3 Specifications
MPEG is an international standard for the data compression of motion pictures. Note: this
standard was developed by the Moving Pictures Experts Group. Interpolative scaling is a
method used to fill in the gaps in an image to produce a more realistic-looking display when a
small video window is enlarged to full-screen size. Color space conversion is a method of
converting the way a color is stored on a file into a format that a video card can understand.
CODEC stands for COder/DECoder, a method of compressing and later decompressing sound,
animation, and video files. MPEG is a common example of CODEC. PCM stands for Pulse
Code Modulation, a method of sampling sound in a reduced, digitized format, by recording
differences between successive digital samples instead of their full values. A wavetable is a
table of stored sample sounds used to synthesize sound by reconstructing the sound from digital
data using actual samples of sounds from real instruments. TAPI is a standard developed by Intel
and Microsoft that can be used by 32-bit Windows OSs communications programs for
communicating over phone lines.
What CPU MMX and SSE Technology Does for Multimedia
MMX technology was designed to speed up the repetitive looping needed by multimedia
software. The following three features make-up MMX technology:
1. New Instructions - Intel added 57 new instructions to the CPU designed to handle the
parallel, repetitive processing found in multimedia software.
2. SIMD Process - SIMD was added to the CPU, this is a process that allows the CPU to
execute a single instruction on multiple pieces of data.
3. Increased Cache - Intel added internal cache to their MMX processors. The total amount
of internal cache for a MMX processor is 32K.
SSE (Streaming SIMD extension) is a technology used by the Intel Pentium III designed to
improve performance of multimedia software. For multimedia software to fully take advantage
of MMX technology it must be specifically designed for an MMX processor.
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10.3.3 Sound Cards
Sound Blaster Compatible means that the sound card can accept the same set of commands as a
Sound Blaster sound card. Sound Blaster has become industry standard for sound cards. ADC
stands for Analog-to-Digital Converter. This type of converter is used by most sound cards to
convert analog sound to digital sound. The sampling rate is the rate of samples taken of an
analog signal over a period of time, usually expressed as samples per second or Hertz. For
example, 44,100 Hz is the sampling rate used for 16-bit stereo. Note that the sample rate is
usually expressed in hertz. A human can detect up to about 22,000 hertz. Music CDs are
normally recorded at 44,100 hertz or 44.1 kHz. A sound card interprets sound in ranges from
positive to negative. An 8-bit sound card uses 8-bits to store one sample, whereas a 16-bit sound
card uses 16-bits to store one sample. Note: An 8-bit card has a sample size range of 256. A 16-
bit sound card has a sample size range of 65,536. Sound cards are typically referred to by their
sample size (for example, 8-bit sound card, 16-bit sound card).
Storing Sound Files: There are two methods typically used to store sound in files: MIDI and
WAV. Most game music is stored in MIDI files, but most multimedia sound is stored in WAV
files, so look for a sound card that can handle both as well as music CDs.
Digital-to-Analog Conversion: FM synthesis stands for Frequency modulation synthesis. FM

synthesis creates a sound by artificially creating a wavetable that is close to the sound recorded.
Wavetable synthesis produces sound by using a sample recording of the sound. Note that
wavetable synthesis produces a higher quality sound than FM does.
Sound Playback: Computer speakers are magnetically shielded to protect your computer
equipment, and most have built-in amplifiers.
MPC3 Specifications for Sound Cards: The MPC3 sound card standards are a set of hardware
standards that define recommended capabilities for sound cards.
10.3.4 Digital Cameras
Think of a digital camera as a portable scanner, it can scan images into memory and save them to
be later uploaded to your PC. Digital camera technology works much like scanner technology,
except that it is much faster. It essentially scans the field of image set by the picture taker, and
translates the light signals into digital values, recorded as a file, which can later be uploaded to
you PC.
TWAIN stands for Technology Without An Interesting Name. TWAIN is the format used to
transfer images between digital cameras and PCs. How is the signal chain used by a digital
camera? First the image sensor captures the light reflected off of the subject. Second, the light is
converted into a serial stream of small DC voltages. Next the voltages move through the DC
clamping and gain stages, which is where the signals are amplified and buffered. Then the
signals enter the ADC where digitizing takes place. Finally, the digital signals are processed by
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the image processor and sent to the storage device via the I/O process. Figure 10-26 illustrates
the signal chain used by a digital camera:
10.3.5 Video-Capturing Card
A video capturing card is a device that allows you to capture images from a camcorder or
television. Genlock is a term that refers to a video capture card with the ability to capture single
complete video frames.
10.4 Cooling methods and devices
10.4.1 Heat sinks

In earlier PC's it was possible to cool most components using
convection (passive cooling), more efficient cooling has become a necessity
on many components. To cool these components, fans are used to move heated air
away from the components and draw cooler air over them. Fans attached to components
are usually used in combination with a heatsink to increase the surface area
available for heat conduction, thereby improving the efficiency of cooling.
Heat sink: A device that absorbs and dissipates heat produced

by an electrical component, such as an integrated circuit, to prevent overheating.
Heat sinks are usually made of metal and often have fins that assist in transferring
heat to the atmosphere.
Figure 10.2 CPU topped by heat sink and fan
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10.4.2 CPU and case fans
Areas where cooling fans may be used:
 Power Supply (PSU) fans : often play a double role, not only keeping the PSU itself
from overheating, but also removing warm air from inside the case.
 CPU fan: Used to cool the CPU (central processing unit).
 Case fans: move air through the case, usually drawing cooler outside air in through the
front and over the internal motherboard components expelling it through the rear.
 Chipset fan: Used to cool the northbridge of a motherboard's chipset.
 Graphics card fan: Used to cool the GPU and/or memory on graphics cards.
 PCI slot fan: A fan mounted in one of the PCI slots, usually to supply additional cooling
to the PCI and/or graphics cards.
 Hard disk fan: A fan mounted next to or on a hard disk drive.
10.5 Summary
Multimedia such as sound, video, and traditional photographs are analog in nature and computers
are digital or binary. The process of converting analog data to binary data (0s and 1s) is called
digitizing, and the process of taking samples of analog data to digitize is called sampling. The
number of samples taken and the accuracy of each digitized sample determine how accurate the
representation of analog data will be when interpreted by a computer as well as the size of the
file holding the digital data. The Pentium MMX CPU was one of the first processors that
contained technology specifically geared to handle multimedia data. Software must be written to
take advantage of this technology. Newer CPUs use SSE technology, which can handle 3-D
graphics, speech recognition, and MPEG better than MMX technology can.
An important early attempt to standardize multimedia technology is the MPC specifications
which still affect the industry today. One example of MPC specifications is MPEG, a technology
that stores and compresses video and audio data into MPEG files. Another example is MIDI, a
standard used to digitize sound. Compressing data is important because multimedia data is high
volume. Two types of compression is lossless compression and lossy compression. Video
standards include interpolative scaling, a method used to enhance an image when it is enlarged,
and color space conversion, a method of string color information in files. MPC specifications
also include standards that an OS can use to make a telephone connection called TAPI
(Telephony Application Programming Interface).
The type of data processing most used when processing multimedia data is
1. Compute-intensive data processing
2. Repetitive looping data processing
3. Low volume data processing
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4. Complex calculations data processing
A staircase is essentially digital compared to a ramp, which is essentially analog.
1. True
2. False
The first CPU to use SSE (streaming SIMD extension) technology to improve processing
multimedia data was the ________.
Answer:_______________
Which of the following statements about MPEG is false?
1. MPEG is a type of lossy compression
2. MPEG only compresses video and not audio
3. MPEG compression can yield a compression ratio up to 100:1
4. MPEG is part of the MPC specifications
All audio and video data when stored in a computer is stored as 0s and 1s.
1. True
2. False
MPC specifications require that there be an audio cord inside a computer to connect the sound
card to the _________.
Answer:___________
A common compression method used to store photographs is
1. MPEG
2. JPEG
3. MIDI
4. WAVE
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References
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
10: 0977320626 ISBN-13: 978-0977320622 - See more at:
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Unit 11: Electricity and Power Supply
11.0 Introduction
This unit looks at the electricity and power supply which are the critical components needed by a
PC. It starts at looking at how electricity is measured then looks at how the power is supplied to
the power supply of a PC. Finally it looks at how computer systems can be protected from power
surge.
11.1 Objectives
By the end of unit you should be able to:

 know how electricity is measured;
 learn how to measure voltage output of the power supplier;
 change the power supplier; and
 carry out protection in case of power surge
11.2 Introduction to Basic Electricity
Electricity is energy that has different properties that can be measured in various ways. Voltage
(V) is a measure of the potential difference between the electrical charges on either side of an
electrical device in an electrical system. Amps (A) is a measure of electrical current. Ohms is a
measure of electrical resistance, and watts is a measure of electrical power. Some electrical
measurements as they apply to computers include: A 17-inch monitor requires less than 2 A to
operate. A computer power supply is rated at 200 to 600 watts. An AT power supply supplies
four separate voltages: +12 V, -12 V, +5 V, and -5 V.
11.2.1 Terms
Voltage: Voltage is the measure of the electrical force that drives electrons through a system.
The difference in “electrical pressure" between two points is called the voltage and is measured
in volts.
AMPS: It is important to understand that although water pressure changes at different points in
the water system, the amount of water in the system stays the same. Amperes is the measure of
electrical "current". Like the water system, an electrical system maintains the same amount of
"current" throughout the whole system. The measurement of this "current" is called amperes, or
AMPS for short.
The Relationship Between Voltage and Current: To increase the amount of water flow
through the water system you simply increase the water pressure. The same holds true for
electricity: to increase the amount of electrical "current" (AMPS), you simply increase the
amount of electrical "pressure" (Volts).
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OHMS: Resistance is the force that opposes the flow of electricity. An OHM is the electrical
measurement for resistance. A resistor controls electricity by resisting its natural flow.
Relationships Among Voltage, Current, and Resistance: The ohms law states that there is an
inverse relationship between resistance, current and voltage. This means that as resistance
increases, voltage and AMPS (current) decrease.
Wattage: Wattage is the measurement of the total amount of power needed to operate an
electrical device. To determine wattage, use the following formula: Volts x Amps = Wattage
(watts)
AC and DC Current: AC stands for alternating current. This is a type of electrical current that
cycles back and forth, rather than traveling in only one direction. AC current is the type used in
most homes today (wall sockets etc). DC stands for direct current. Direct current travels in only
one direction. DC is the type of current required for computers. A rectifier is a device used to
convert AC to DC. A transformer is a device used to change the ratio of amps (current) to
voltage. A computer power supply acts as both a transformer and a rectifier. First the power
supply converts the house voltage from 110 volts to 5 or 12 volts, which the computer can use.
Then, the power supply converts the alternating current to a direct current, which is required by
the computer and peripherals.
Hot, Neutral and Ground: How are hot lines and neutral lines used in residential homes? When
AC current comes from the power station to your house, it travels from the power source at the
power station to your house on a hot line, and completes the circuit from your house back to the
power source on a neutral line. A short occurs when the electricity is allowed to flow
uncontrolled from the hot line to the neutral line or from the hot line to ground. A fuse is a
component included in a circuit that is designed to prevent too much current from flowing
through at any one time. In most home wiring, green or bare wire is used for ground, white for
neutral and black for hot. However, in most PC wiring the black is used for ground, red for hot
and green for neutral.
Some Common Electronic Components
Materials that easily conduct electricity, such as gold or copper, are often referred to as
conductors. Materials that resist the flow of electricity, such as glass or ceramic, are often
referred to as insulators. Materials with an ability to conduct electricity, such as silicon, fall into
a category between that of conductors and insulators called semiconductors. A transformer is a
device that changes the ratio of current to voltage. A computer power supply is basically a
transformer and a rectifier. A capacitor is an electronic device that can maintain an electrical
charge for a period of time and is used to smooth out the flow of electrical current. A diode is an
electronic device that allows electricity to flow in only one direction. Diodes are used in a
rectifier circuit
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ESD and EMI
EMI (Electromagnetic interference) is a magnetic field produced as a side effect from the flow of
electricity. EMI can cause corrupted data in data lines that are not properly shielded.
11.3 Measuring the voltage of a power supplier
11.3.1 Using A Multimeter
A multimeter is a device used to measure either voltage, amperage, or resistance, and test for
continuity. Note that multimeters are sometime referred to as DVMs (digital volt meters).
Multimeters come in a range of sizes and capabilities. Some examples include desktop
multimeters that are not designed to be moved, handheld portable multimeters and multimeters
that may or may not measure amperage. Before using a multimeter you must set the following
three parameters:
1. What to measure (voltage, current or resistance)
2. Type of current (AC, DC)
3. The range of electricity it should expect (high voltage or low voltage)
Some multimeters can sense the amount of electricity and adjust accordingly. These types of
meters are called autoranging meters. To measure voltage, you simply place the positive probe
(the red probe) to a positive point within the circuit and then attach the negative probe (the black
probe) to a ground portion of the circuit. In order to measure AMPS, the multimeter must
become part of the circuit. To test for continuity, turn the power off and place one probe at either
end of the circuit you wish to test.
11.3.2 How to Measure the Voltage of a Power Supply
A short circuit, or short, occurs when a side circuit of very low resistance is connected to a
circuit of a higher resistance and the electricity is diverted through the side circuit. Ground is
always the same. For example, the ground wire for the system board connector should be the
same as the ground connector for the hard drive.
11.4 Problem with the power supply
Connecting too many devices to the same power outlet can create power problems. For example,
a copier, computer, and a laser printer connected to the same power strip will most likely
produce errors on all three devices. The following are two possible reasons why a fan on a power
supply would stop working:
1. The fan or power supply is broken.
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2. There is a problem with one or more of the components connected to the power supply.
If you are troubleshooting a system and notice that the power supply fan is not working, this
could be a sign of other problems. This is a good time to use the divide and conquer
troubleshooting method. To divide and conquer, complete the following steps:
 Unplug everything from the power supply. With only the power supply plugged into the
wall, turn on the PC. If the fan on the power supply begins to turn, then you know that the
power supply is not broken, but there is a problem with one of the components that was
plugged into it.
 If one of the other hardware components is the culprit, begin adding pieces back to the
power supply one at a time. Test each piece as you go to verify that the power supply fan
still works.
 After discovering the faulty hardware, replace the part.
Note: A system board should never be replaced without first verifying that the power supply is
functioning properly.
11.4.1 Upgrading the Power Supply
Power supplies need to be upgraded when they can no longer supply enough power or watts for
the system to operate normally. Power supplies are rated in watts. The power supply for your
system should be rated 50% higher than your system needs. The standard desktop PC normally
uses a power supply rated at 200 watts.
11.4.2 Installing a New Power Supply
To test a replacement power supply, verify that it will be able to power the system before
removing the old power supply. This is done by placing the new power supply on top of the old
one and plugging the new one into the system components.
11.5 Surge protection and battery back-up
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The following are three categories of backup power and conditioning devices: surge suppressors,
power conditioners, and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS). A surge suppressor or surge
protector is a device that provides power outlets, which are protected from an over-voltage of
AC power. Inside a surge protector is a fuse that is used to protect the devices plugged into it.
The problem with surge protectors is that when the fuse is blown, everything will continue to
function properly except you will no longer be protected from power spikes (over-voltages). For
this reason it is best to replace surge protectors every six months.
What is let-through? Let-through is the maximum voltage allowed through a surge protector to
the devices it is protecting. A joule is a measure of energy that takes into account both voltage
and current over a one-second interval. The difference between a shunt surge protector and a
series surge protector is that a shunt surge protector is designed to absorb a power spike,
whereas a series surge protector uses a series of blocks to control a power spike. Note that
some surge protectors use both methods to control power spikes. Clamping voltage is the
measurement used for a shunt surge suppressor`s let-through voltage. A data line protector is a
feature included in some surge protectors that provides power spike protection for a phone line
(analog line).
11.5.1 Measuring Power Ranges of Devices
VA stands for volt amperes. VA is the measurement used to rate power conditioners and
uninterruptible power supplies. To determine the VA required for your system, multiply the
amperage of each component by 120 volts and add the results together. Note that a standard
Pentium PC requires about 500VA. A power conditioner is a device that regulates power
voltage to protect against power spikes and brownouts. A Ferro resonant regulator is a device
that contains a magnetic coil and can retain charges of power to be used to raise the voltage
during a brownout. A low-cost power conditioner uses a stepped transformer to control the
conditioner`s output voltage. The higher-priced conditioners use a Ferro resonant regulator to
control its output voltage.
11.5.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that provides power conditioning as well as
backup power in the event that the AC current fails. A UPS is rated by the amount of VA it
provides and the length of time it can provide power in the case of a blackout. There are two
types of uninterruptible power supplies:
1. Standby uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
2. In-line uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
A standby UPS has an AC circuit and a DC circuit. Under normal conditions the UPS uses only
the AC circuit. However, when power to the AC circuit is lost, the UPS switches to the DC
circuit to continue to supply power for the devices it is protecting. In older PCs the time it took
for this type of UPS to switch circuits created a problem, sometimes causing the PC to reboot.
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This problem has been resolved by changing the design of modern power supplies so that they
can supply power for the one or two seconds it will take a UPS to switch circuits.
An in-line UPS has an AC circuit and a DC circuit. Under normal conditions the UPS uses only
the DC circuit. When the UPS is plugged-in, power travels from the wall socket to the internal
battery for charging. The battery always supplies the computer with power, ensuring that the
voltage is consistent. Double-conversion is the process of converting electricity from AC to DC
current and then back to AC current. Note that in-line UPS` use double conversion because
electricity must be converted to DC in order to charge their battery. The only time the AC circuit
is used in an in-line UPS is when the device has detected an error in the DC circuit. The
disadvantage of using an in-line UPS is that their batteries wear-out quickly.
A line-interactive UPS is a variation of the standby UPS. A line-interactive UPS shortens the
time required to switch from AC to DC by keeping the inverter always active. An inverter is a
device used to covert DC to AC. During normal operations a line-interactive UPS uses its
inverter as a rectifier, and in the case of a power outage it quickly switches roles. A buck-boost
is a voltage regulator used to lower, or buck, the voltage in the event of a power spike, and boost
the voltage in the event of a brownout. Note that line-interactive UPS' use a buck-boost to
control electrical quality.
An intelligent UPS can perform the same functions as one of the previously discussed UPS', but
has the added capability of software communication. Note that most intelligent UPS' use a COM
port to communicate with the PC. When purchasing a UPS consider the following:
 The VA rating of the UPS

 The amount of line conditioning the UPS provides
 The warranty and service policies
 The length of time the battery backup will last
You should buy an in-line UPS that doesn`t run at full capacity - this is because if the UPS
charger runs at full capacity, it will create so much heat that it could potentially, decrease the life
of the battery.
11.5.3 Fire Extinguishers
The three classes of fires are:
1. Class A: A fire that is fuelled by ordinary combustible materials such as wood trash or
clothes.
2. Class B: A fire that is fuelled by flammable liquids such as oil, gasoline, kerosene, propane
gas, and some plastics.
3. Class C: A fire that is ignited and heated by electricity.
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Remember P-A-S-S when working will fire extinguishers. Pull the pin, Aim low at the base of
the fire, Squeeze the handle of the extinguisher, Sweep back and forth across the base of the fire.
11.6 Summary
Electricity is energy that has different properties that can be measured in various ways. Voltage
(V) is a measure of the potential difference between the electrical charges on either side of an
electrical device in an electrical system. Amps (A) is a measure of electrical current. Ohms is a
measure of electrical resistance, and watts is a measure of electrical power. Some electrical
measurements as they apply to computers include: A 17-inch monitor requires less than 2 A to
operate. A computer power supply is rated at 200 to 600 watts. An AT power supply supplies
four separate voltages: +12 V, -12 V, +5 V, and -5 V.
To eliminate the power supply as a source of a problem with a computer, measure the voltage
output using a multimeter. A multimeter has two probes, one for ground (black) and one for hot
(red), and a digital or analogy display. With the power turned on, put the black probe on ground
and the red probe on the circuit being measured. For an AT power supply, measure the voltages
of 7 leads coming from the P8 and P9 connections. For an ATX power supply, measure the
voltages of 5 leads coming from the P1 connection. Acceptable ranges are plus or minus 5% of
the voltages expected.
If you suspect that a power supply is faulty, the best course of action is to replace it rather than
repair it. If you are not sure the power supply is faulty, you can place a new one on top the
computer case and connect the PC devices to the new power supply. If the problem is solved,
then assume the old power supply is faulty. Turn off the power, remove the cover, disconnect all
power cords, examine the system to determine which components must be removed in order to
get the power supply out, and remove them. Remove the power supply and put the new one in
position. Reassemble the system. Turn on the system and measure the voltage output of the new
power supply. Replace the cover.
There is a wide range of devices that filter the AC input to computers and their peripherals to
eliminate highs and lows in current and provide backup when the power fails. These devices fall
into three general categories: surge suppressors, power conditioners, and uninterruptible power
supplies (UPSs). A surge suppressor protects equipment against overvoltage or spikes. A power
conditioner protects against spikes and also conditions or regulates the power providing
continuous voltage during brownouts. A UPS provides a backup power supply in the event the
AC current fails completely. When buying a UPS, the amount of current you need the device to
provide as well as the length of time you want it to work affect both size and price.
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The condition of low resistance that allows a current to flow is called
1. Voltage
2. Continuity
3. Electrical power
4. Static electricity
One volt drives a current of one amp through a resistance of one ohm.
1. True
2. False
A device that converts alternating current to direct current is a(n) _________.
Answer:_______________
The expected voltages for an AT power supply are .
1. + 5 V, + 12 V, and +3.3 V
2. +5 V and -5 V
3. - 12 V, - 5 V, and -3.3 V
4. +12 V, -12 V, +5 V, and -5 V
Voltage of a power supply is measured with the power turned on.
1. True
2. False
Why should you always check the power supply voltage before replacing a system board that has
failed?
Answer:___________
A power supply for a PC should provide about how much power?
1. 1000 - 1500 watts
2. 200 - 600 watts
3. 10 - 20 watts
4. 110-120 volts
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References
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
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Unit 12: Supporting Windows OSs
12.0 Introduction
This unit looks at the supporting windows operating systems. It starts at windows installation
process then followed by windows OSs management. It then looks at the windows registry and
diagnostic process as well as the trouble shooting task.
12.1 Objective
 By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Know how to carry out Windows installation process and its customization;
 Learn how to install application software;
 Manage Windows, hard drive and memory; and
 Carry out diagnostic and troubleshooting tasks
12.2 Installing Windows OSs
Before installing Windows OSs on a system that already has an OS installed, prepare the hard
drive by running Scandisk and Chkdsk to remove lost and cross-linked clusters and defragment
the disk. Remove any extraneous commands from Config.sys and Autoexec.bat. If you have a
problem with the installation, try the Setup /I option and scan the hard drive for viruses. For
Windows OSs, begin with the Windows OSs CD for an upgrade or reinstall. If the installation
fails, perform a hard boot and try again. Windows will pick up in the installation where it left off,
bypassing the step that caused the failure.
The Windows OSs Registry is a database of system configurations, user settings, applications
software settings, hardware settings, and so forth. The Registry is stored in two files in the
\Windows folder, System.dat and User.dat. Use Regedit to edit the Registry and Registry
Checker to check and repair a corrupted Registry. If the Registry is too corrupted for Windows
OSs to load properly, Windows will load in Safe Mode and attempt to recover the Registry from
backups.
Third party diagnostic software that can be used with Windows OSs include Nuts & Bolts and
anti-virus software or other utilities. Windows OSs offers several diagnostic tools including
Automatic Skip Driver Agent, Microsoft System Information, Registry Checker, System
Configuration Utility, System File Checker, and System Monitor. Most of these tools are
available by selecting Start, Programs, Accessories, System Tools and System Information or
through the control panel.
Plug and Play (PnP) is a set of design specifications for both hardware and software that work
toward effortless hardware installations. For a system to be truly Plug and Play, all these
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components must be PnP: the system BIOS, all hardware devices, expansion cards, the operating
system and device drivers for the hardware. When installing a new device that is Plug and Play,
any jumpers or DIP switches on the device should be set to use Plug and Play rather than specify
system resources to be used by the device. When a system boots, the PnP BIOS receives requests
for system resources from legacy devices first and then begins the process of assigning the
remaining resources to the Plug and Play devices present. It then presents to Windows OSs
details about the process for Windows to complete the assignments.
Because companies and individuals use software for many years, PC support technicians need to
know how to support old as well as new software. There are still computers in use running DOS
and Windows XP or lower versions in many companies because it works well with the older
hardware and applications still in use, and people are familiar and comfortable with it.
12.2.1 Shortcut Keys in Windows
Some of the more commonly used shortcut keys in the Windows environment are outlined in
table 12-1, below:
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Problems During the Installation: Some of the following are common Windows OSs
installation problems:
 Setup does not list the hardware you have on your system. Try to substitute a generic
device or get a Windows OSs driver from the manufacturer.
 You don`t have enough hard drive space. You will need to free some space on the
destination drive.
 Setup hangs during the installation. Try to run setup again but this time, use the /I
switch to tell setup to run a custom installation that will bypass the hardware search.
 Windows will not boot after the installation. Boot to the DOS C prompt. Change
directories to the Windows directory and enter Setup at the DOS prompt.
(C:\windows\setup )
 After the installation, the mouse does not work in Windows. Verify that the mouse
works properly in DOS and then check the CONFIG.SYS or AUTOEXEC.BAT file for
the mouse driver statement.
After the Installation is Complete: Windows OSs includes five .WRI files in the Windows
directory that document updates, printer settings, network settings and detailed information about
the SYSTEM.INI and WIN.INI files.
Conflicts and Problems with Applications Software in a Windows Environment
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12.2.2 Installing Applications Software
The following steps summarize the software installation process:
 Check available resources. Ensure that you have enough hard drive space, RAM and a
fast enough CPU.
 Protect the original CD-ROM. Write protect the disks, and don`t scratch the CD-ROM.
 Back up your system configuration files. Examples include the CONFIG.SYS,
AUTOEXEC.BAT, WIN.INI, PROGMAN.INI and SYSTEM.INI.
 Install the software. Follow the software installation instructions.
 Test the software. Try using the software to confirm that the installation was successful.
Below are some possible software installation problems and solutions:
 Windows does not allow software to be installed. Check the PROGMAN.INI file under
the [Restrictions] section and verify that the software you are trying to install is not listed.
 There is not enough hard drive space. You will need to remove old programs or files
from the destination drive.
 Error: Environmental variable not found. Try moving the SET command to the
beginning of the AUTOEXEC.BAT.
 Software just doesn`t work. Try to uninstall the program and reinstall it, looking for
errors during the installation.
12.2.3 Problems with Software Conflicts
DLL stands for Dynamic Link Library. DLLs are library files that store various programming
routines that are used and shared by applications. An application conflict occurs when an old
application uses a DLL that was recently updated by a newer application and the update is not
compatible with the old software.
Back up the \windows\system Directory: Backing-up the System directory will save the
current DLLs, this should be done prior to any software upgrade.
Monitor the Files being Updated During the Installation Process: Third party applications
like In Control and Norton Utilities can run the application installation and monitor which files
are modified. This can be helpful if troubleshooting becomes necessary.
Know What DLLs an Application Uses: DLL Unloader is used to view all the DLLs your
system has loaded into memory. It also includes the unique feature of being able to unload any
DLLs from memory by simply selecting the DLL and selecting the Unload button. DLL
Unloader can be used for application troubleshooting by launching DLL Unloader then executing
the troublesome application. This will allow you to view supporting DLL files as they are loaded
into memory for a particular application.
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12.2.4 Memory management
Windows organizes memory into heaps. A heap is an area of memory set aside for programs to
use for their data. The following are the five memory heaps maintained by Windows:
1. The System heap. The system heap includes both RAM and virtual memory, which is
reserved for allocation to programs or system overhead.
2. GDI heap. The GDI heap is reserved for graphical items such as fonts, icons, mouse pointers,
etc.
3. Menu heap. The menu heap is reserved for menus and their associated data.
4. Text string heap. The text string heap contains Windows text.
5. User heap. The User heap contains information about the desktop.
12.2.5 Memory
Memory Errors: Protected-mode memory addressing is controlled by the operating system

whereas real-mode memory addressing allows applications to address memory directly. A
General Protection Fault (GPF) no longer refers to just memory errors. GPFs can now include a
host of other problems relating to the application.
Insufficient Memory: An insufficient memory error tells the user that there is not enough free
memory in one of the heaps to execute a particular command. Windows OSs are limited to a
specific amount of memory that can be allocated to each heap. Windows NT does not have this
limitation. Third party software, like the Nuts & Bolts software, can be used to view system
resources.
Memory Leaks: A memory leak occurs when a program fails to release its assigned memory
addresses after it is unloaded. Note that memory leaks will cause "Out of Memory" error
messages. If you are troubleshooting an Out of Memory error message, third-party software can
be used to decipher which application has the memory leak.
Latest Windows OSs like Windows 7 or 8 differs from old Windows OSs in that it introduces the
following features:
 32-bit programming
 Virtual machines
 Memory paging
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The three core portions of Windows OSs are:
1. The Kernel portion, which uses mostly 32-bit code and retains 16-bit code only as an entry
point into the kernel.
2. The user portion, which uses mostly 16-bit code because it requires less memory than its 32-
bit equivalent.
3. The GDI portion which uses a mix of 16-bit and 32-bit code in order to maintain backwards
compatibility.
Table 12-2 illustrates the core components and their functions:
12.3 The Windows OSs Architecture
Windows OSs utilizes the following components:
 VMM - Virtual Memory Manager

 IFS - Installable File System
 WDM - Win32 driver model
12.3.1 16-bit, 32-bit and 64 bit programming
DOS is a 16-bit OS. All portions of the OS are written using 16-bit code, and DOS will only
support 16-bit drivers and 16-bit application programs. Windows 3x also will only support 16-bit
applications (but does contain a small amount of 32-bit code. Windows OSs accommodates both
16-bit and 32-bit programming because Windows OSs is a hybrid between 16-bit and 32-bit
code. Although it prefers 32-bit code, Windows OSs still supports 16-bit. 32-bit code is faster
than 16-bit code but requires more memory.
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12.3.2 Virtual Machines
Another important difference between Windows OSs and previous versions is that Windows OSs
enhances the application of virtual machines. A virtual machine should be thought of as an
emulation of an entire computer. This emulation includes both virtual hardware and virtual
memory addresses. Windows OSs always maintains at least one virtual machine, called the
system virtual machine. The system virtual machine contains the operating system and the virtual
machines for both 16 and 32-bit applications.
16-bit or 32 bit Windows applications do not require full control of their hardware - they do
however require the ability to communicate with each other. To accomplish this task Windows
OSs puts these programs together in their own memory space so they can share memory
addresses, in effect, putting them in their own virtual machine.
12.3.3 Memory Paging
Memory paging is the process by which the virtual memory manager provides virtual memory
to DOS and 16-bit Windows applications. The virtual memory manager is the portion of
Windows OSs that controls the page table. The page table contains the physical memory
addresses for all virtual memory addresses assigned to applications and processes. The virtual
memory manager controls the page table by swapping 4K pages (segments of memory) between
RAM and the hard drive. A page fault is generated when the virtual memory manager knows
that a requested page is not stored in RAM. The terms page-in and page-out refer to the process
the memory manager uses to move the 4K pages in and out of physical memory. Disk thrashing
refers to excessive paging, which can cause premature hard drive failure. Note that to correct
disk thrashing, you would add more RAM to the system.
12.3.4 Microsoft Windows OSs Startup Menu
The following are boot options in the Windows OSs Startup Menu:
 Normal mode. This option starts Windows OSs in its standard configuration.
 Logged. This option starts Window 95 and logs a text file tracking the startup activities.
 Safe mode. This will start Windows OSs with the minimum default configuration.
 Safe mode with network support. This option allows access to the network when
booting into Safe mode.
 Step-by-step confirmation. This option asks for confirmation before executing each
command.
 Command prompt. This option executes the contents of the AUTOEXEC.BAT and the
CONFIG.SYS but does not start Windows.
 Safe mode command prompt. This option boots to a command without executing the
AUTOEXEC.BAT and the CONFIG.SYS.
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 Previous version of MS-DOS. This option loads a previous version of DOS if one is
present.
Managing the Windows OSs Desktop
What is a shortcut? A shortcut is an icon that points to a program or file. Just like in most
Windows OSs, the Startup group in Windows OSs gives the user the ability to have a program
executed every time Windows is started.
12.3.5 Installing and Configuring Windows OSs
What does Windows OSs Setup do behind the scenes? Initially Setup begins in real mode. It runs
diagnostics, looks for previous versions of Windows and loads the extended memory device
driver. Second, Setup switches to protected mode. It then creates the registry and searches for
hardware. Last, Setup modifies the boot record and restarts the computer. The boot record
modification is done last to ensure that you will be able to boot into your previous environment,
should Setup stop responding. Setup uses the following log files:
 DETLOG.TXT - This detection log keeps a record of all hardware detected during
setup.
 DETCRASH.LOG - This detection log tracks which device was being detected when
Setup crashed. Note that when Setup is restarted after a crash, Setup will look for this log
file and skip detection of the device that caused the crash.
Configuring the Windows OSs Startup with MSDOS.SYS: What steps should you take for a
dual boot installation of Windows OSs? First, backup the DOS directory. Second, install
Windows OSs in a new directory. Edit the MSDOS.SYS file, modifying the following lines to
read: BootMulti=1, BootMenu=1. Last, restore your old DOS directory and reboot.
Customizing the Installation with MSDOS.SYS: Windows OSs uses the MSDOS.SYS file
like an INI file to set environmental parameters.
Some advantages to overwriting a previous Windows OSs installation are:
 Less drive space is required

 Setup will attempt to migrate current applications
 Setup will attempt to create icons for migrated applications on the start menu.
One advantage to installing Windows OSs in a separate directory is you will be able to create a
dual-boot system. However, if Windows OSs is installed in a separate directory, you will need to
reinstall your applications. See Unit 7 for more details about dual booting between operating
systems.
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12.4 Plug-and-Play
Plug-and-Play (PnP) is a set of design specifications for both hardware and software that work
toward effortless hardware installation. For a system to be truly Plug-and-Play, it must meet the
following criteria:
1. The system BIOS must be PnP
2. All hardware devices and expansion cards must be PnP-compliant
3. The OS must be Windows OSs or another OS that supports PnP
A Plug and Play OS, like Windows OSs, provides two main services:
1. Resource management. This occurs at startup and refers to system resources being allocated
to devices.
2. Runtime configuration. This is an ongoing process that monitors changes to system devices,
like removing a PC card from a notebook or the docking and undocking of a notebook.
The four components Windows OSs uses to implement PnP are:
1. The configuration manager controls the configuration process of all devices.
2. The hardware tree is a database of installed components and their resources, which is built
each time Windows OSs starts.
3. The bus enumerator locates all devices on a bus and inventories the resource requirements
for these devices.
4. The resource arbitrator decides which resources get assigned to which devices.
When a PnP system is started, the BIOS begins the boot process by sending a list of devices to
Windows OSs. Then, the configuration manager communicates with the resource arbitrator to
assign resources. Finally, the bus enumerator collectively builds the hardware tree. Note that a
new hardware tree is built each time Windows OSs is started.
12.4.1 Plug-and-Play BIOS
A PnP BIOS interacts with Windows OSs in the following way: a PnP BIOS gathers resource
configuration information prior to loading Windows OSs, and then communicates these details to
Windows OSs. ESCD stands for Extended System Configuration Data. An ESCD BIOS
creates a list of configuration changes, which you have that you have manually made and stores
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that list on the BIOS chip. If your BIOS is not PnP you can still use Windows OSs and PnP
devices, however, you may need to manually configure the resources.
12.4.2 Installing New Hardware
The following three common problems can arise during hardware installations. :
1. Unsupported devices - Try to install manually (with the hardware wizard) or use a substitute
device.
2. 16-bit drivers - Try to install the driver using a Windows OSs driver.
3. Legacy cards - Try changing the DIP switches or jumpers on the card to use different
resources.
12.4.3 The Windows OSs Registry
The design goals of the Windows OSs Registry are:
 It replaces many INI (initialization) files used under Windows OSs

 It is organized in a hierarchical database with a tree-like, top to bottom design
 It stores information for system configuration. Examples include user settings, the Device
Manager, application settings, and information about the current hardware configuration.
How the Registry is organized
The Registry is divided into branches.
A registry key is a folder, similar to the bracketed section of an INI file, used to simplify the
organization of the registry. A data value is a parameter stored in the registry. With the Registry
Editor you can view and make changes to the Registry. Keys or Sub-keys can be seen in the left
window, and the value name and data are shown in the right window. The Registry is stored in
two files, the SYSTEM.DAT and USER.DAT, located in the Windows directory.
12.4.4 Recovering from a Corrupted Registry
Each time Windows OSs is successfully started, it backs-up a copy of the registry by creating
two files and naming them SYSTEM.DA0 and USER.DA0. If the registry is damaged or
missing, it is necessary to restore it from a backup copy. One of the easiest ways to restore the
registry from backup is by copying the USER.DA0 and SYSTEM.DA0 files to the windows
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directory and renaming them to USER.DAT and SYSTEM.DAT. Third party software packages
like Nuts & Bolts have the capability of backing-up the registry to disk. Note that when doing a
system backup you should include the registry.
12.4.5 Modifying and Editing the Registry
The best way to modify the registry is to use the Control Panel or Device Manger. Using the
registry editor should be a last resort, and if you are going to use it you should first backup the
registry. You can use the registry editor to do the following:
 Search for a value

 Create a key
 Edit a value
 Delete a value
 Delete a key
There are several third party utilities you can use to track changes made to the Registry and INI
files. Some examples include In Control 3 and Norton Utilities Registry Tracker.
12.4.6 Supporting Applications Software with Windows OSs
Before installing software you should always make sure that you have a current backup copy of
your registry. Microsoft recommends using the Add/Remove Programs applet in Control Panel
to install and remove third-party software. Table 12-3 lists the system monitoring tools included
with the Windows OSs operating system:
Table 12.3 Tools used from troubleshooting and to monitor and improve system performance
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12.5 Summary
Before installing Windows OS on a system that already has an OS installed, prepare the hard
drive by running Scandisk and Chkdsk to remove lost and cross-linked clusters and defragment
the disk or simply format it. Remove any extraneous commands from Config.sys and
Autoexec.bat. If the installation fails, perform a hard boot and try again. Windows will pick up in
the installation where it left off, bypassing the step that caused the failure.
Windows OSs can make better use of memory than did DOS because it relies on 32-bit device
drivers that can be loaded into extended memory instead of using limited upper memory.
Windows 32-bit applications are also placed in extended memory. Windows OSs make use of
virtual memory called swap files and also uses a better approach to hard drive management.
The Windows OSs Registry is a database of system configurations, user settings, applications
software settings, hardware settings, and so forth. The Registry is stored in two files in the
\Windows folder, System.dat and User.dat. Use Regedit to edit the Registry and Registry
Checker to check and repair a corrupted Registry.
Third party diagnostic software that can be used with Windows OSs include Nuts & Bolts and
various Utilities. Windows OSs offers several diagnostic tools including Automatic Skip Driver
Agent, Microsoft System Information, Registry Checker, System Configuration Utility, System
File Checker, and System Monitor. Most of these tools are available by selecting Start,
Programs, Accessories, System Tools and System Information. System File Checker is especially
useful to scan for corrupted or altered system files and restore those files from the Windows OSs
CD or DVD.
Plug and Play (PnP) is a set of design specifications for both hardware and software that work
toward effortless hardware installations. For a system to be truly Plug and Play, all these
components must be PnP: the system BIOS, all hardware devices, expansion cards, the operating
system and device drivers for the hardware. When installing a new device that is Plug and Play,
any jumpers or DIP switches on the device should be set to use Plug and Play rather than specify
system resources to be used by the device. When a system boots, the PnP BIOS receives requests
for system resources from legacy devices first and then begins the process of assigning the
remaining resources to the Plug and Play devices present. It then presents to Windows OSs
details about the process for Windows to complete the assignments.
After applications software is installed and loaded, it gives the error message that an
environmental variable is not defined. Your next step should be to look for a problem with a(n)
____ command in Autoexec.bat.
Answer:___________
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When Windows OSs Virtual Memory Manager spends excessive time moving pages in and out
of RAM, which can cause excessive hard drive use and decrease overall system performance, the
situation is called
1. Hard drive crashing
2. Disk thrashing
3. General protection fault
4. Cross linked clusters
Most recent Windows OSs supports the FAT32 file system.
1. True
2. False
When configuring a PC for a dual boot so that the PC supports both Windows &
7 and Linux, BootMulti=1 is added to the _____ file.
Answer:______________
A possible cause of an error message, "Insufficient memory", is too many applications open at
the same time.
1. True
2. False
The Windows OSs Registry is organized into keys that contain
1. Sections
2. Clusters
3. Values
4. Sectors
There are four major branches or keys of the Windows OSs Registry.
1. True
2. False
System File Checker comes as a component of Windows 95.
1. True
2. False
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One way you can know if your BIOS is Plug and Play is look for PnP written on the top of the
BIOS chip.
1. True
2. False
A legacy PC hardware device is a device that is not _______
Answer:______________
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References
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
10: 0977320626 ISBN-13: 978-0977320622 - See more at:
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Unit 13: Laptop Hardware Management and basic security concepts
and technologies
13.0 Introduction
This unit looks at the installation and management of laptop hardware as well as to the basic
principles to security and technologies that are needed by a technician in the general operation of
IT equipment.
13.1 Objectives
By end of this unit you should be able to:

 identify the expansion slots on a laptop;
 identify and use the docking station and port replicator;
 know and how to use the communication connectors; and
 explain the basic principles of security and technologies
13.2 Expansion devices
13.2.1 PCMCIA cards

PCMCIA is the form factor of a peripheral interface designed for laptop computers. It was
originally for memory expansion, but the existence of a usable general standard for notebook
peripherals led to all manner of devices being made available in this form.
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Fig 13.1 Wireless PC card in slot
All PC cards use same connecting interface with 68 pins. All are 85.6 mm long and 54.0 mm
wide. The original standard was defined for both 5 volt and 3.3 volt cards. The 3.3 V cards have
a key on the side to protect them from being damaged by being put into a 5 V-only slot. Some
cards and some slots operate at both voltages as needed.
Type I: The original specification cards (version 1.x) are Type I and feature a 16 bit interface.
Type I cards are used only for memory expansion. They had a single row of connector pins and
are 3.3 mm thick. They are primarily used for adding RAM to a notebook PC.
Type II: PC cards feature a 16 or 32 bit interface, using two rows of pins. They are 5.0 mm
thick. Type II cards introduced I/O support, allowing PC cards to attach an array of peripherals
or to provide connectors/slots to interfaces for which the PC/laptop had no built-in support. For
example, many modem, network and TV cards use this form factor. Due to their thinness, most
type II interface cards feature miniature interface connectors on the card which are used together
with a dongle; a short cable that adapts from the card's miniature connector to an external full-
size connector.
The Type III: PC cards are 16 or 32 bit, using two rows of pins. These cards are 10.5 mm thick,
allowing them to accommodate devices with components that would not fit type I or type II
height. Examples are hard disk drive cards, and interface cards with full-size connectors that do
not require dongles (as is commonly required with type II interface cards).
CardBus: are PCMCIA 5.0 or later 32-bit PCMCIA cards, and is effectively a 32-bit, 33 MHz
PCI bus in the PC card form factor. CardBus includes bus mastering, which allows a controller
on the bus to talk to other devices or memory without going through the CPU. Many chipsets are
available for both PCI and CardBus, such as those that support Wi-Fi.
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13.2.2 PCI Express cards
Is a hardware standard replacing CardBus PC cards, both developed by the PCMCIA, which
strongly encourages future product designs to utilize the ExpressCard interface. However, many
notebook computers as of late 2006 still shipped with PC card capabilities, while most newer
models are shipping with only ExpressCard slots.
These cards are hot-pluggable and the ExpressCard standard uses lower voltages, 1.5V and 3.3V
and thus less power than the previous CardBus slots which use 3.3V and 5.0V.
ExpressCard supports two form factors, ExpressCard 34 (34 mm wide) and ExpressCard 54 (54
mm wide, in an L-shape) — the connector is the same width (34 mm) on both. Standard cards
are 75 mm long (10.6 mm shorter than CardBus) and 5 mm thick, but may be thicker on sections
that extend outside the standard form factor — for antennas, sockets, etc. The 34 mm form factor
cards fit into both 34 mm and 54 mm card slots via a diagonal guide in the rear of the 54 mm slot
that guides the card to the connector. The 54 mm card will only fit in a 54 mm slot.
The major benefit of ExpressCard technology over the CardBus PC card is a big increase in
bandwidth, afforded by the fact that the ExpressCard has a direct connection to the system bus
over a PCI Express x1 lane or USB 2.0, whereas CardBus utilizes an interface controller that
only interfaces with PCI. The ExpressCard has a maximum throughput of 2.5 Gbit/s through PCI
Express or 480 Mbit/s through USB 2.0 dedicated for each slot, versus CardBus's shared 1066
Mbit/s bandwidth.
The host device supports both PCI Express and USB 2.0 connectivity through the ExpressCard
slot.
Fig 13.2 PCI Express

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Mini PCI slot: is a 32bit, 33MHz PCI slot. Mini PCI is a standard bus for attaching peripheral
devices to a computer motherboard and is an adaptation of the Peripheral Component
Interconnect (PCI) bus.
There are three card form-factors: Type I, Type II, and Type III cards. The card connector used
for each type include: Type I and II use a 100-pin stacking connector, while Type III uses a 124-
pin edge connector, i.e. connector for Type I and II differ from Type III, which supports a card
edge (like SO-DIMM). The additional 24 pins provide the extra signals required to route I/O
back through the system connector (Audio, AC-Link, LAN, Phone-Line interface). Type II cards
have an RJ11 and RJ45 mounted connectors. These cards must be located at the edge of the
computer or docking station so that the RJ11 and RJ45 ports can be mounted for external access.
As it is functionally equivalent to PCI version 2.2, it is a 32-bit, 33 MHz bus with powered
connections (3.3 V only) and support for bus mastering and DMA. Mini PCI cards supports
CLKRUN# PCI signal used for start and stop the PCI clock for power management purposes.
The standard size for Mini PCI cards is approximately 1/4 of their full-sized counterparts. Given
that there is no external access to the card in the same manner that there is for desktop PCI cards,
Mini PCI cards are generally limited in the functions they may perform. Mini PCI cards have a
2W maximum power consumption, which also limits the functionality that can be implemented
in this form factor.
Many Mini PCI devices are available today: WiFi, modems, sound cards, SCSI, IDE/ATA and
SATA controllers. And because Mini PCI and PCI are cousins, you can use regular PCI cards
with your Mini PCI-equipped hardware and vice-versa, using Mini PCI-to-PCI and PCI-to-Mini
PCI converters.
PCI Express Mini Card is a replacement for the Mini PCI form factor based on PCI Express. It
is developed by the PCI-SIG. The host device supports both PCI Express and USB 2.0
connectivity. PCI Express Mini Cards are 30 x 56 mm. There is a 52 pin edge connector. A half-
length card is also specified 30 x 31.9 mm
13.2.3 Docking station

A docking station is a part of a portable computer that remains on a desk, containing hardware
that is not needed when on the road, while a smaller section detaches to provide a lighter laptop.
Docking stations are often used to outfit a light-weight ultraportable so that it is more of a
desktop replacement, for use at home. Docking stations provide for extra connections like slots
for expansion cards but a port replicator does not. Extra devices that a docking station can
support include: hard drive bays, optical drive bays, keyboard/mouse connectors (PS/2 ports),
additional USB ports, PC Card slots, external display connectors, and a variety of other devices
that are deemed to be unnecessary on a laptop and/or add weight and decrease portabilty.
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Fig 13.3 Docking Station
Docking or undocking of portable computers can be done either hot or cold. In a cold dock or
undock, the computer is shut down before it is inserted into or removed from the docking station.
In a hot dock or undock, the computer is running, with or without programs and documents open,
when it is inserted into or removed from the docking station. Computer manufacturers can design
the docking stations and BIOS of their mobile computers in different ways resulting in different
docking and undocking behaviors.
Recent docking station designs use the laptop screen rather than an external monitor as the
primary screen. This type of docking station is also referred to by some as a laptop stand. Most
examples offer a connection to peripherals such as keyboards and mice and networks via an
internal USB hub. This type of dock was first introduced in 2002 as the Oysterdock referencing
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the way the dock clamps around the laptop when it is docked. It also allows users to place their
laptop screen in an ergonomically correct position.
13.2.4 Port Replicator

A port replicator is a convenient way to attach external devices such as a monitor, a full-size
keyboard, or an AC power adapter. Although devices can be attached directly to the connectors
on the computer rear panel, the port replicator lets you make all of those connections in one step.
The port replicator also gives you access to additional connectors not found on the laptop rear
panel.
When a notebook is docked, the docking station / port replicator must be connected to AC power
to function properly.
Fig 13.4 Port Replicator
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Fig 13.5 Rear view of a Gateway port replicator.
Component Description
A. PS/2 keyboard port Plug a PS/2 keyboard into this port.
B. PS/2 mouse port Plug a PS/2 mouse into this port.
C. USB ports Plug USB devices, such as a USB printer, scanner, or camera, into these ports.
D. S-Video out jack Plug a standard S–Video cable into this jack and the jack on an S–Video device.
E. Monitor port Plug an analog VGA monitor into this port.
F. Parallel port Plug a parallel device, such as a printer, into this port.
G. Serial port Plug a serial device, such as a digital camera, into this port.
H. Modem jack Plug a modem cable into this jack.
I. Ethernet jack Supports 10/100 LAN up to 1 Gigabit LAN.
J. Power connector This power connector is for future use.
K. S/PDIF digital audio Plug an optical Toslink digital audio cable into this jack.
jack
L. Headphone jack Plug amplified speakers or headphones into this jack. The built–in speakers on the
portable computer are turned off when speakers or headphones are plugged into
this jack. This jack is turned off when headphones are plugged into the portable
computer's headphone jack.
M. Line in jack Connect an external audio input source, such as a stereo, to this jack so that you
can record sound on your computer or play sound through the computer speakers.
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13.3 Communication connections
13.3.1 Bluetooth
Bluetooth wireless technology is a convenient, wire-free, short-range communication between
devices. It is a globally available standard that wirelessly connects mobile phones, portable
computers, cars, stereo headsets, MP3 players, and more. The low power consumption, small
size and low cost of the chipset solution enables Bluetooth technology to be used in the tiniest of
devices. The technology combines small-form factor radio, low power, low cost, built-in
security, robustness, ease-of-use, and ad hoc networking abilities.
Fig 13.6 Bluetooth USB Adapter
Bluetooth technology is an ad hoc technology that requires no fixed infrastructure and is simple
to install and set up. You do not need wires to get connected. Bluetooth enabled products do not
need to install driver software and since Bluetooth technology operates in the 2.4 GHz, (one of
the unlicensed industrial, scientific, medical (ISM) radio bands,) there is no cost for the use of
Bluetooth technology.
13.3.2 Infrared
Infrared (IR) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength longer than that of visible
light, but shorter than that of microwave radiation. The name means "below red" (from the Latin
infra, "below"), red being the color of visible light of longest wavelength.
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Table 13.1 Infrared Properties
802.11 802.11x Infrared Bluetooth
Speed 500 Kbps 802.11a > 54 Mbps 115.2 Kbps 1.2 > 720 Kbps
802.11b > 11 Mbps 2.0 > 2.1 Mbps
802.11g > 54 Mbps
Frequency Radio Radio Wave Light Wave Radio Wave

Wave
802.11a > 5 GHz 2.45 GHz. In order to avoid interfering
with other protocols which use the 2.45
802.11b > 2.4 GHz GHz band, the Bluetooth protocol divides
the band into 79 channels (each 1 MHz
802.11g > 2.4 GHz wide) and changes channels up to 1600
times per second.
Transmission FHSS DSSS and OFDM Light (modulated, FHSS
switched on and off, to
encode the data.)
Topology Various Various Various Various
13.3.3 Cellular WAN

A wide area network (WAN) for data that is typically provided by the cellular carriers. Also
called "wireless broadband" or "broadband wireless," wireless WANs (WWANs) use cellular
towers to transmit a wireless signal over a range of several miles to a mobile device compared to
wireless Wi-Fi LANs (WLANs), which span only a few hundred feet and generally to only
stationary devices.
Fig 13.7 Cellular Modem PC Card
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13.3.4 Wifi Adapters
Table 13.2 Wifi Adapters
Desktop Wifi PCI Card Laptop wireless mini PCI card
Laptop Wifi Cardbus Adapter
Wifi Notebook ExpressCard
Wireless USB Adapter for both Desktop and Laptop
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13.4 Power and electrical input devices
Auto-switching
Fixed input power supplies
13.4.1 Batteries
Most current notebooks use lithium ion and more recently lithium polymer batteries, which have
replaced the older nickel metal-hydride technology. Typical battery life for most laptops is two
to five hours with light-duty use, but may drop to as little as one hour with intensive use.
Batteries gradually deteriorate over time and eventually need to be replaced in one to five years,
depending on the charging and discharging pattern.
Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad) batteries were the first type of battery commonly used in laptop
computers, and older laptops sometimes still use them.
 Have a life of approximately two hours between charges.
 Battery life decreases with each charge based on the 'memory effect'. (Gas bubbles form
in the cell plates, reducing the total amount of available cell space for recharge). Only
way around this is to discharge the battery completely before recharging it.
 If the battery charges too long, it can explode.
Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) batteries are the bridge between NiCad and the newer Lithium-
Ion (LiIon) batteries.
 Last longer between charges than NiCad but overall have a shorter total lifespan.
 Suffer from the 'memory effect', but to a lesser extent than NiCad batteries.
Li-Ion batteries (Lithium-ion) The current standard for laptop computers.

 Are light, one of the best energy-to-weight ratios
 Have long life spans, Can last for anything from about 950 up to 1200 charges.
 Do not suffer from the 'memory effect', can be charged randomly, and won't overheat if
overcharged.
 Are thinner than any other battery available for laptops, making them ideal for the new
ultra-thin notebooks.
Lithium polymer batteries (Li-poly) are rechargeable batteries which have technologically
evolved from lithium ion batteries. There are many advantages of this design over the classic
lithium ion design, including the fact that the solid polymer electrolyte is not flammable (unlike
the organic solvent that the Li-Ion cell uses).
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Li-poly batteries are also gaining ground in PDAs and laptop computers, such as Apple's
MacBook and small digital music devices such as iPods and other MP3 players, as well as
portable gaming devices like the Sony PSP or Nintendo's Game Boy Advance SP, where small
form factors and energy density outweigh cost considerations .
13.4.2 Stylus / digitizer and Function keys

Function (Fn) keys: Fn is a modifier key on PC keyboards used in a compact layout to combine
keys which are usually kept separate. It is typically found on laptops, since a full sized keyboard
would be difficult to fit in a laptop chassis. It is also found in many full-sized 'multimedia' and
'office' keyboards, named F Lock key.
Unlike other modifier keys such as Shift , the control processor inside the keyboard typically
sends out a different keycode depending on whether the Fn key is depressed. This allows the
keyboard to emulate a full sized keyboard.
In addition to being mapped to standard keyboard keys like Scroll Lock and Num Lock, the Fn
key combinations may also be mapped to control system interfaces to change the LCD
brightness, VGA output, or speaker volume on most laptop computers.
13.4.3 Touchpad
It is an input device commonly used in laptop computers. They are used to move the cursor,
using motions of the user's finger. They are a substitute for a computer mouse, some touchpads
can emulate multiple mouse buttons by either tapping in a special corner of the pad, or by
tapping with two or more fingers. Touchpads vary in size but are rarely made larger than 20
square centimetres (about 3 square inches).
Fig 13.8 Touchpad and a Pointing stick
Pointing Stick: (trademarked by IBM as the TrackPoint) is used to control the position of the
cursor on the screen. The pointing stick is usually a rubber dot that is located between the G, H
and B keys on the laptop keyboard. To navigate the cursor, pressure is applied in the direction
intended to move.
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13.5 Explain the basic principles of security concepts and technologies
13.5.1 Security Online: How to Think About e-Business Security

First and foremost, you should think of Internet security as part of the overall risk management
strategy. Internet security tools are like any other security system in your organization. They help
minimize the risk of serious damage in the event of trouble. Traditional common sense and
business principles still apply in the online environment.
Physical stores are equipped with locks, alarm systems, bars on the windows, security cameras
and, in some cases, guards posted at the doors. Even with all these elements in place, companies
still feel the need to purchase theft insurance to protect their investments. They understand the
limits of all physical security and therefore plan accordingly.
The same holds true for Internet security, which should be considered an extension of physical
security. Simply put, some things are important to secure regardless of whether you are dealing
in a physical or electronic environment (for example credit card numbers, employee information,
business records, etc.) and these areas must be individually identified and addressed.
Understanding and treating Internet security as an extension of your physical business security is
essential. The rationale for security in the physical marketplace is the same as in the electronic
marketplace, only the means are different. Done correctly, online credit card processing can be
much safer than providing or receiving a credit card number over the phone or giving your credit
card to a server in a restaurant.
13.5.2 Key Security Concerns
Understanding the major types of security concerns described in this section will help you assess
your security needs and the potential responses.
Consumer and business concerns over Internet security fall into the following categories:
Privacy and Confidentiality: Is my information secure and my privacy protected?
To protect electronic records, files and communications from unauthorized access, transmission
and data storage must remain secure and only be accessible to the intended recipient. In the
paper world, a sealed envelope prevents others from viewing information in transit and a locked
office limits unauthorized access to stored information, while tools such as encryption and
firewalls manage electronic security.
Authenticity: Are you really who you say you are?
When sending and receiving a message, placing an order, or submitting a payment electronically,
both parties want to validate that the other party is who they claim to be. Each party wants to
know the identity of the other to avoid fraud and misrepresentation. One way to ensure
authenticity is to limit remote access to a network (for example from home or from a separate
corporate location) to trusted parties by using Virtual Private Network (VPN) technology.
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There are a variety of ways to authenticate parties by checking "something you know",
"something you have" or "something you are".
 Something you know: such as a password or personal identification number (PIN)
 Something you have: such as digital certificates issued by a company or trusted third
parties
 Something you are: such as digital signatures or voice recognition technologies
In general, authenticity is established to a higher degree of certainty when a combination of
techniques are used. For example, In the case of establishing authenticity for online credit card
transactions, most companies now protect themselves from fraud by using Visa's Card
Verification Value (CVV) or MasterCard's Card Validation Code (CVC) "something you
have" and the actual credit card number "something you know" to increase the degree of
certainty that the purchaser is who they say they are.
Data integrity: Can my information be changed or corrupted in any way?
A message received should be identical to the message that was sent. A business needs to be
guaranteed that data is not changed in transit, whether deliberately or by accident. A sealed
envelope prevents tampering with paper documents and the nature of the printed page makes it
difficult to alter without detection. On the Internet, digital signature technology can create virtual
envelopes that can be verified by the recipient to ensure that no unapproved changes have been
made. To ensure the integrity of stored data, firewalls are used to guard against unauthorized
access and anti-virus software protects against virus invasion. In addition, data backups and
infrastructure redundancy allow recovery in the event that data or equipment is damaged.
Non-repudiation: What proof do I have of the transaction?
A business needs to be certain that the receiving party cannot deny that a transaction has
occurred. In physical transactions, receipts, signatures and third party witnesses are used for this
purpose. In electronic transactions there must also be a transaction record that links the sender
and receiver. Digital signatures, digital certificates and strong authentication procedures are
emerging as the means to address non-repudiation.
Access Control: Will only authorized parties have access to the information or service?
When access to electronic resources is limited to authorized parties only, a business must be sure
that no others can access the systems or information. In the non-digital world, access control is
provided by lock and key. In the digital world, a variety of techniques are used to control access:
firewalls, access privileges, network traffic monitoring, Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS), user
identification and authentication techniques (such as passwords and digital certificates) and
Virtual Private Networks (VPN).
Availability: Will the information or service be available when I need it?
If a business relies on electronic information or services, it must be available when customers
need it. Messages must be delivered reliably, and information stored and retrieved as required.
Availability of service is important for all Web sites, but vital for Internet services that are
180
mission critical to a company. In the paper world, registered mail or a courier may be used to
ensure that a package is delivered and is protected against damage, theft or accidental loss.
Similar measures provide digital security, but additional steps must be taken to prevent
disruption of service by power outages, damage to physical infrastructure or failure of systems
and communication networks. Data backup, fire-suppression systems, Uninterrupted Power
Supply (UPS) systems, virus protection, sufficient capacity to handle the demands posed by
heavy network traffic and redundant server computers can help to ensure availability.
13.5.3 Defining Security Needs

Security is a critical concern for consumers and businesses. Establishing trust between all parties
in an online transaction is vital for the success of e-commerce. The public wants full assurance
that the information they supply is going to the company they think it's going to, will not be
misused by that company, and that credit card information or other payment mechanisms are
confidential and secure. Businesses share these concerns but also demand that their systems be
protected from fraudulent use, intrusion and tampering.
When examining Internet security or when considering the purchase of any Internet security
system, there are a few basic factors to consider:
 What information, processes, records and communications need to be protected?
 What are the threats to these assets and what are the risks that the threats will occur?
 Given these needs, what are the potential strengths and limitations of available Internet
security options?
 How will the security system interact with other applications currently in use?
 What other equipment (hardware or software) will be needed to make it as secure as
possible?
 What type of training will employees need to ensure that the system functions properly?
Answering these questions will help to identify specific Internet security needs, while assessing
the strengths and limitations of e-security tools that are being considered. This approach will
translate directly into a better understanding of the impact of security issues on a business, which
in turn will enable the business to address partner and client concerns. Once an understanding of
e-security needs is established, the appropriate solutions can be selected.
13.5.4 Security Solutions

In response to the threats to online businesses, computer hardware and software companies and
financial institutions have developed tools to minimize online risks and help build trust between
firms offering e-business services, their customers and business partners.
Robust solutions to Internet security concerns are rapidly emerging, driven by major software
developers, corporations and banking institutions that have a strong interest in developing a
vibrant climate for electronic commerce. Consequently, the Internet has never been a safer place
181
to conduct business. The main challenges remaining are to ensure that solutions are simple and
inexpensive enough to implement, while strengthening public confidence.
The following tools are applicable to the needs of small or medium-sized enterprises
implementing e-business. While it is vital to ensure as high a level of security as possible to
promote an overall e-commerce environment that builds trust between all parties, it is also
important to balance the costs and usability with the actual anticipated threats.
13.6Access and Data Integrity
These tools include anti-virus software, firewalls, network traffic monitoring, Intrusion Detection
Systems (IDS), and Virtual Private Networks (VPN).
13.6.1 Anti-Virus Software

Anti-virus software ensures the integrity of the information and data that is received and keeps the
data sent clean. Regularly updated anti-virus software is an inexpensive but extremely effective
security tool.
Anti-virus software scans your personal computer's hard disk for known viruses and can remove
or quarantine them once they are found. Most anti-virus software will use heuristic scanning to
detect or protect against unknown viruses. Heuristic scanning looks for certain instructions or
commands that are not found in typical application programs. As a result, a heuristic engine is
able to detect potentially malicious functionality such as the replication mechanism of a virus,
the distribution routine of a worm or the payload of a Trojan. These programs can also scan
incoming and outgoing email messages to ensure that they do not contain infected data.
Most anti-virus programs include an auto-update feature that enables the program to download
profiles of new viruses from the Internet or a designated server so that it can continue to protect
against new viruses.
13.6.2 Firewalls and Wireless Network Protection

A firewall is a device consisting of hardware and/or software that controls access between a
private network such as a company's internal Local Area Network (LAN) and a public network
such as the Internet. Besides providing a secure bridge between internal and external networks, a
firewall can also provide a number of other important security mechanisms. A firewall can
perform audit and alarm functions that record all access attempts to and from the network, as
well as real-time notification of incidents that network administrators determine to be important.
Firewalls are widely used to ensure the privacy and protection of internal processes, data and
communications. Moreover, firewalls are a key tool to ensure data integrity by limiting access by
unauthorized third parties.
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Wireless network protection is important in environments that use Wi-Fi (short for "wireless
fidelity") or a wireless local area network (WLAN). Where a wired local area network is
generally protected by physical security mechanisms and firewalls, WLANs require extra
security precautions because a WLANs radio waves are not necessarily bound by the walls
containing the network and are therefore not protected by network firewalls. Any business that
has a WLAN should use security safeguards such as the Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), Internet
Protocol Security (IPsec), or a virtual private network (VPN) all of which use a combination of
encryption and user authentication to protect network traffic. Network perimeter protection may
even be necessary in LAN environments if there is a significant risk of internal users attaching
their own commercial Wi-Fi routers to the network as a convenience option.
WLAN security experts advocate 24/7 monitoring of the airwaves to secure WLANs by
identifying rogue WLANs, detecting intruders and impending threats and enforcing WLAN
security policies.
13.6.3 Intrusion Detection Systems

An Intrusion Detection System (IDS) analyses internal network traffic and reports any detected
anomalies in real time. An IDS is often used in tandem with a firewall to ensure maximum
network security. In the case of wireless network protection, intrusion detection can be
performed by setting up lightly protected fake or dummy hot spots (wireless network access
points) to entice eavesdroppers to attempt to gain access, thereby revealing their activity.
The two major differences between a firewall and an IDS are:
 A firewall is designed to prevent intrusions while an IDS reacts to suspected intrusions;
 An IDS monitors internal network activity.
13.6.4 Private Networks

Internet Protocol Virtual Private Networks (IP VPNs) provide secure transmission of private
communications over the Internet. These systems are called "virtual" private networks because
messages are transmitted over the public Internet, but are exchanged by parties using compatible
security techniques as though the messages were on a private network. IP VPN combines
encryption tools and Internet protocol tunnelling to ensure user authentication.
IP VPNs are used primarily when an enterprise wishes to provide mobile or remote workers with
secure access to company data that is only accessible over internal company networks.
13.7 Encryption
Encryption involves scrambling a message using a code or "key", so that the message can only
be unscrambled with a matching code or key. This ensures messages can be kept private and
183
viewed only by the intended recipient. Encryption (or more correctly "cryptography") is the basis
of other technologies such as digital certificates and digital signatures.
Encryption is part of a larger process of encoding and decoding messages to keep information
secure. This process, though commonly called encryption, is more correctly called cryptography,
is the use of mathematical transformations to protect data.
Cryptography is primarily a software-based solution and, in most cases, should not include
significant hardware costs. It is a key tool in protecting privacy as it allows only authorized
parties to view the data. Encryption is also used to ensure data integrity, as it protects data from
being modified or corrupted.
13.7.1 Key Elements in Cryptography

There are the four essential elements in cryptography:
 Encryption: the process of encoding the data — transforming the plain text or an original
message into "cipher text", which is unintelligible.
 Decryption: the process of decoding the data — transforming the cipher text back to plain
text or the original message, thereby making it understandable again.
 Algorithm: the mathematical formula applied to the message that both encrypts and
decrypts the data.
 Key: a particular code that, when applied to an algorithm, encrypts and decrypts the data
in a way that allows the data to be traced to a particular person or company.
13.7.2 Private and Public Key Encryption
In traditional cryptography, the same key is used to both encrypt and decrypt a communication.
This is known as "private key" encryption. It is a symmetrical system because both encoding and
decoding parties have the same key. The challenge is in giving the recipient the key to decode
the message safely. To meet this challenge, public key systems were developed. They use two
separate keys, one public and one private. This has proven to be well suited to Internet use, as it
avoids the difficulty of transmitting the symmetrical key securely. The public key can be
published and distributed widely with no need to expose the private key.
13.7.3 Public Key Encryption

In public key or asymmetrical cryptography, one key is made public, and the other is held in
private. Data encrypted with a public key can only be decrypted using the private key.
The standard procedure for this type of encryption is:
 The intended recipient generates a public and private key.
 The intended recipient transmits their public key to the sender.
 The sender encrypts and transmits a document to the intended recipient using the public
key.
184
 The intended recipient decrypts the document with their matching private key.
The public key can be publicly distributed at will, often by posting it to Web sites, placing it in a
central network directory or emailing it to potential users. The private key is held in confidence
and protected by its owner.
For practical purposes, if the encrypted document is intercepted, the code can't be cracked.
While, in theory, the code could be cracked, in reality the hardware and time required to crack a
512-bit encrypted code is so great that it is not feasible. The level of encryption should be
proportional to the sensitivity of the data.
13.7.4 Implementing Encryption

Companies wishing to use public key encryption systems can purchase key generation software
and certificate management servers, or outsource these functions to a vendor. Outsourcing may
be the fastest to set up and the most cost-effective solution for smaller organizations. Purchasing
a server may be most appealing for large Intranet applications because it avoids per-certificate
charges and may provide more flexibility in managing directory-based access for employees.
13.7.5 Certificate Authority

The use of the public key encryption ensures privacy and data integrity. No one can read or
tamper with the message en route or in storage until it is decrypted. But there is one other
important step in the use of public key encryption: authentication. The person using a public key
wants to be certain that the person with whom they want to communicate is holding the private
key.
Authentication is done by having public/private key pairs registered with a Certificate Authority
who, like a notary public in the paper world, bears the responsibility for verifying that a certain
public key belongs to a specific individual, and issues a digital certificate to that effect.
Web users wishing to use public key encryption can obtain key pairs for general use and register
them by visiting the Web site of a certificate authority then following their online procedure.
Generally, there is no cost for personal use, but there is a fee for the administration of certificates
for commercial purposes. Users may require several certificates, for example, one issued in
association with a credit card for secure purchases on the Internet, one for a Web browser, one
for signing and securing email, and another for logging in to a company network. There is
software, such as digital wallets and browser plug-ins, for managing digital certificates and key
pairs.
185
13.8 Digital Certificates
Digital certificates validate that the person or organization using a particular cryptographic key is
who they claim to be. The digital certificate provides information about the user of the key that
can be used to authenticate the user and ensure non-repudiation.
A digital certificate identifies its owner to someone who needs proof of the bearer's identity, just
like a passport is used as proof of identity. This makes them a valuable tool for Internet security
with a wide variety of applications:
 They can be used to sign an email document to positively identify and authenticate the
sender.
 Certificates can be used to replace passwords and log-in IDs anywhere that access is to be
restricted to certain users, such as registered customers. In many applications, certificates
may replace "cookies," which have proven unpopular with many Web users.
 Companies can issue digital certificates to their employees and use the certificates as the
basis to allow access to network resources, replacing passwords and log in names.
 Employees accessing company networks from home or when traveling can use digital
certificates to identify themselves to the corporate firewall.
 Certificates can be exchanged between Web browsers and Web servers using the Secure
Sockets Layer (SSL) protocol to identify both the user of the Web browser and the
provider of the information or services on the Web server.
Digital certificates involve the use of public key encryption, but they offer a different type of
security. While encryption addresses the issues of confidentiality and data integrity, on its own it
does not ensure authenticity. Encryption techniques are used to produce a digital certificate that
contains critical information (i.e., name, serial number, etc.). The certificate can then accompany
messages or transaction information to establish the identity of the sender.
13.8.1 Levels of Certification

A certification authority provides the digital certificate. The authority is responsible for
establishing that a given public key does indeed belong to a given individual. The level of
confidence that can be placed in a certificate depends on the rigour of the process used to verify
identity when the certificate is issued. For most commercial applications the existence of the
entity will be verified along with the relationship of the administrator to the business.
13.8.2 Limitations of Digital Certificates

Although versatile, the certificates rely on an infrastructure of services to issue and revoke them,
store them and verify their status and ownership. Digital certificates are not yet fully
standardized and interoperable. Many different issuing bodies exist and a certificate issued for
one popular browser may not work with another one. Each application has its own way of
handling the certificates and not all certificates can be exchanged between all applications. This
186
leads to the nuisance and complexity of obtaining and managing numerous digital certificates.
The process of getting and using certificates is still difficult and confusing for people, although
major players and the browser vendors understand this and are attempting to make the process
easier, while also conducting publicity campaigns to increase consumer awareness and
confidence.
13.9 Digital Signatures
Digital signatures are the electronic equivalent of a personal physical signature. They don't look
the same, but they authenticate the identity of the signer. They are not images of signatures but
encrypted information attached by the sender to his message.
A digital signature provides a means by which information cannot be repudiated because it binds
the communication to the person who signed it. In addition, any change to the information after
the digital signature is affixed can be detected, thereby establishing the reliability and integrity of
the information contained in the digitally signed file.
Digital signatures are created by using public key cryptography and message digests. A message
digest is a value generated for a message (or document) that is unique to that message. A
message digest is generated by passing the message through a one-way cryptographic function;
that is, one that cannot be reversed. When the digest of a message is encrypted using the sender's
private key and is appended to the original message, the result is known as the digital signature
of the message. The recipient of the digital signature can be sure that the message really came
from the sender. Changing even one character in the message changes the message digest in an
unpredictable way.
Public key encryption can also be used for digital signatures to ensure authenticity. This involves
two sets of public and private keys. The sender uses their private key to sign a document and
encrypt the message with the recipient's public key. The recipient uses their private key to
decrypt the document then the public key of the sender to verify the signature. If the document
decodes properly when the public key is applied, then it is authentic.
13.10 Summary
A laptop has various hardware components and expansion slots such as PCMCIAcards, PCI
expansion cards as well as docking and connections devices. There are a number of connection
devices such as Bluetooth devices, infrared connections and Wifi adapters now commonly used.
In addition power supply components includes different types of batteries and how they store
power.
The unit also covered the basic security and technologies involved in security at different levels.
This involves how to define security needs and security solutions in any organization. There are
187
various tools for security that include anti-virus software, firewalls, network traffic monitoring,
Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS), and Virtual Private Networks (VPN).
Data security involves the use of encryption, digital signatures and digital certificates that have
its own advantages and disadvantages.
Question 1
Considering commerce and marketing, which of the following present the most significant
obstacle to developing IT security?
 There is no direct return on investment in building security systems
 Security systems are detrimental to usability and can make IT systems less functional,
and therefore less attractive to the consumer
 There is pressure to reduce the time it takes to get a new IT product or system onto the
market, so security systems are sacrificed in order to reduce the time-to-market
 All of the above
Question 2
Threats to IT systems can be classified in many ways; in this unit three different categories of
threat are listed. According to this classification, which of the following would be classified as a
'Failure'?
 Security systems were not adequate to protect the system against attack from a hacking
group, and sensitive data was lost
 There is a programming error in the software which causes the system to perform badly
 All of the above
 The IT system has failed due to a random unexpected event, such as a tsunami which
destroys key electronic equipment.
Question 3
What is 'malware'?
 A virus or worm
 A Trojan horse
 A hacker tool
 A corrupted program
188
Question 4
What is meant by the term 'cyber-crime'?
 Any crime that that uses computers to jeopardise or attempt to jeopardise national
security
 The use of computer networks to commit financial or identity fraud
 The theft of digital information
 Any crime that involves computers and networks
Questions 5
What do understand by hacking? Explain Ethical & Non ethical hacking.
Question 6
How can you ensure and maintain privacy, security in electronic payment.
189
References
Flowcharts.html#sthash.ekmFEmYP.dpuf14.11.16
0072255595) ISBN-13: 9780072255591 - See more at:
to-Building-a-Computer.html#sthash.psmiWvaO.dpuf19.11.16
Desktop-PC.html#sthash.slofeq8P.dpuf19.11.16
10: 0977320626 ISBN-13: 978-0977320622 - See more at:
190
 "PC Maintenance Handbook - 2nd Edition" :Improve your PC's performance, speed,
and reliability. With this free eBook you will also receive updates detailing additional
Windows tools, help, and guides in your email courtesy of MintyWhite. Offered Free
by: Windows Guides
 Other Resources from:Windows Guides- See more at:
http://freecomputerbooks.tradepub.com/free/w_winb03/?p=w_winb03#sthash.y4UKmzm
x.dpuf 19.11.16
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ZIMBABWE OPEN UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

BACHELOR OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, AND SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

COMPUTER REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE

Author: Taurayi Rupere

Reviewer: Peace Muyambo

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Hardware is the physical components of the computer and is tangible.

1.3 Hardware and its Connections

1.3.2 Hardware inside the Computer Case

1.3.3 The System board

1.3.4 Components Used Primarily for Processing

1. CPU - A microprocessor housed on the system board.

1.4 Storage devices

1.4.1 Temporary (Primary) Storage Devices

1.4.2 Permanent (Secondary) Storage Devices

1.5 System board Components

1.5.1 System Board Components Used for Communication among Devices

The three most commonly used expansion card types are:

1.5.3 The Electrical System

1.5.4 Instructions and Data Stored on the System Board

Three Types of Software and What They Do

The three types of software are:

1.6.1 Firmware or BIOS

 Step 1. The application makes a request to the operating system

How Software Manages and Shares Information

1.6.2 Operating Systems

Starting Up the Operating System

Interfacing with the Operating System

How an Operating System Manages an Application

 Conventional or base memory 0 to 640K

1.6.3 Applications Software

Loading Applications Software using Windows 7/8

1.7 Troubleshooting Windows

Temporary storage is also known as secondary storage.

Computers need two different operating systems to function properly.

DIMM stands for

By the end of this Unit, you should able to:

 explain the booting, startup and process works;

2.3 Booting or Startup Process

2.3.2 The Boot Process, Step by Step

Step 1: Power - On Self-Test (POST)

Step 3: The OS Completes the Boot Process

Booting with Windows 7/8

2.4.1 Memory Addresses

2.4.3 Input/Output Addresses

2.4.4 DMA Controller Chip

Tying It All Together

2.5 Protecting Data, Software, and Hardware

2.8 Review Questions

3.2 Types of System Boards

 Type and speed of the CPU.

3 DIMM1~2 - 240-pin DDR2 SDRAM slots 15 WOL1 - Wake On LAN connector

4 IRDA - Infrared header 16 S/PDIF - SPDIF out header

6 ATX1 - Standard 24-pin ATX power 18 AUX_IN - Auxiliary In connector

12 1394a - IEEE 1394a header

3.3 CPU and the Chip Set

CPU`s are rated using the following guidelines:

 CPU speed measured in megahertz

3.3.2 The Earlier Intel CPU`s

3.3.3 The Pentium and Its Competitors

Bus speed x multiplier = clock speed

3.3.4 Other Components Found in CPUs