EITK-Unit-II Notes

U18MH315 / U18MH415 - ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITION AND KNOWLEDGE Unit - II
U18MH315/U18MH415 ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
Unit – II
Modern Science and Indian Knowledge System:

 Introduction
 Vedas as Basis for Modern Science
 Architectural Developments
 Medicine and its relevance
 Mathematical Sciences in Vedas
 Space and Military related developments
 Chemical Sciences
Unit – II Learning Objective (LO):

This course will develop the student’s knowledge in/on
LO2: Indian perspective of modern science
Unit-II Outcome (CO):
CO CO code Upon completion of this course, the student will be able to…
U18MH315.2/ explain Vedas as principal source of knowledge for scientific inventions
CO2
U18MH415.2
“Vidya dadati vinayam vinayad yati patratam
Patratvad dhanamaapnoti dhanad dharmam
tatah sukham”
Education leads to sensibility,
Sensibility attains character/qualification,
from that comes wealth and
from wealth (one does) good deeds,
from that (comes) joy
-Hitopadesha, Text 6
Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

2.1 Introduction
We live in an age in which science and technology continue their rapid progress that has been
going on almost non-stop for the last two centuries. There are great advances in diverse fields,
from genetics to physics, with practical applications through high tech and computer science
that has reshaped our daily lives in amazing ways.
In spite of all the scientific development, our civilization appears to be sinking further into a
worsening crisis, with increasing ecological disruptions, health and psychological problems,
spreading violence, hatred and brutality.
Science has to have the vision or the compassion necessary to link us to the greater universe and
the whole of life in a meaningful and harmonious manner. If science is not entirely the cause of
our current world problems, it does not seem to have the solution either.
Under the influence of science, we have moved from the age of matter and its solid forms into
the era of subtle energy and information technology. Science has progressively mentalized our
world in the computer age, leaving the fixed realities of time and space far behind as we
communicate quickly and transfer ideas and commodities worldwide in a matter of moments.
While science has done well in terms of physics, its understanding of life and the biological
sciences remains problematical. Its medicine, based largely upon drugs, does not seem able to
create positive health for humanity. Its psychology, also increasingly drug based, seems to be
causing more depression and unhappiness. In addition, the social sciences, including accounts of
human history, remain questionable, caught in an outer model of the human being that lacks
any deep spiritual meaning.
However, the ‘outer’ sciences that dominate our present culture are not the only measure of
human knowledge of the universe. As we push the limits of science, another type of science
is emerging or reemerging — that can grant us a more authentic understanding of the true
nature of ourselves and the vast cosmos in which we live.
Many ancient cultures and spiritual traditions speak of a higher science, an inner ‘self-
knowledge’, through which we can know the cosmic reality not as an outer array of phenomena
but as the very consciousness at the core of our own being. These sacred sciences have probably
been best developed and preserved in India as the ‘yogic’ or ‘Vedic’ sciences, which remain to
the present day well-researched, with clear teachings and practices, an extensive literature,
millennia of experience, and can be made accessible and applicable to all humanity.
Unlike Europe, India was not a country that denied science in favor of religion, contrasting
knowledge and faith as conflicting opposites. India viewed spirituality as the highest science
through which we can directly know the true nature of reality, which itself is conscious and
aware, not simply an inert external object or force. On this basis, even India’s outer sciences
like medicine and astronomy have an inner basis as yogic paths, ways of understanding the
cosmic mind, energy and processes.

The Vedic sciences, on the other hand, open the door to a cosmic intelligence, to a sense of self
and reality that is universal, not bodily based but rooted in awareness, love and bliss. The
Vedas reveal that we are a mini-universe, a microcosm of energy and intelligence, with all the
secret forces of the greater cosmos at work within us and accessible to our greater being. We are
meant to function as a species to evolve a higher consciousness on the planet, not simply to enjoy
ourselves at a mundane level.
Our current science is incomplete, a fragment of a greater way of knowledge. It is not entirely
wrong as far as it goes, but it is but one level or aspect of a greater view. Modern science tends
to pursue outer details and misses out on the underlying wholistic forces that create unity and
individuality.
For example, in pursuing the detailed chemistry of life, we have forgotten the life-force, the
yogic Prana, which is the overall integrating power and intelligence behind these discrete and
transient chemical reactions, weaving their diverse patterns into a consistent and enduring web
of life and consciousness. Without understanding how consciousness can imprint outer
phenomenon with a sense of being, purpose and reality linked to the universal and divine,
merely to gather external data will only increase our confusion about the nature of the whole.
Source: Dr.David Frawley (Pandit Vamadeva Shastri) Director, American Institute of Vedic
Studies; www.vedanet.com
2.1.1 Significant Contributions of Ancient India to World Culture and Science

Marco Polo has written of India as the richest and noblest country in the world. A significant
number of famous writers and high thinkers, such as Emerson, Thoreau, Schopenhauer, and
Sagan, have praised the Vedas and Vedic culture as the inspiration for many of the higher
philosophical and scientific concepts the world has known.
Voltaire, the famous French writer and philosopher, stated that “Pythagoras went to the Ganges
to learn geometry,” and Abraham Seidenberg, author of the authoritative History of Mathematics,
credits the early Sulabha Sutras as inspiring all mathematics of the ancient world from Babylonia
to Egypt to Greece.
Indeed India is credited with the Pythagorean Theorem, the decimal system, the introduction of
zero, and the concept of infinity. Additionally, the binary number system, essential for
computers, was originally used in Vedic verse meters. Also, in South Indian musicology we find
a hashing technique, similar to that used by modern search algorithms, such as Google’s. Noted
scientist and writer Carl Sagan further stated, “Vedic Cosmology is the only one in which the
time scales correspond to those of modern scientific cosmology.

2.1.2 Scientific Verification of Vedic Knowledge

A vast number of statements and materials presented in the ancient Vedic literatures can be
shown to agree with modern scientific findings and they also reveal a highly developed
scientific content in these literatures. The great cultural wealth of this knowledge is highly
relevant in the modern world.
Techniques used to show this agreement include:
• Marine archaeology of underwater sites (such as Dwaraka)
• Satellite imagery of the Indus-Sarasvata River system,
• Carbon and thermo luminescence dating of archaeological artifacts
• Scientific verification of scriptural statements
• Linguistic analysis of scripts found on archaeological artifacts
• A study of cultural continuity in all these categories.
2.1.3 India’s Indigenous Vedic Culture

It can be scientifically proven that the Vedic Culture is indigenous, through the study of cultural
continuity, archaeology, linguistic analysis, and genetic research.
The language and symbolism found on the Harappan seals are very Vedic. We find the Om
symbol, the leaf of the Asvatta or holy banyan tree, as well as the swastika, or sign of
auspiciousness, mentioned throughout the Vedas. Om is mentioned in the Mundaka and Katha
Upanisads as well as Bhagavad- Gita.
The Holy Asvatta tree is mentioned in the Aitareya and Satapata Brahmanas as well as the
Taittiriya Samhita and Katyayana Smrti.
The pictoral script of these Harappan seals has been deciphered as consistently Vedic and
termed “Proto-brahmi,” as a pre-sanskrit script.
This piece of pottery (above right) from the lowest level of Harappan excavations with pre-
harappan writing has been deciphered by some as ila vartate vara, referring to the sacred land
bounded by the Sarasvati River, described in the Rig Veda.
Additionally, other archaeological finds are cul- turally consistent, such as the dancing
girl, whose bracelets are similar to those worn by women of Northwest India today, as
well as the three stone Siva Lingas found in Harappa by M. S. Vats in 1940. The worship of
the Siva Linga is mentioned in the Maha Narayana Upanisad of the Yajur Veda and is still ardently
practiced today.

2.1.4 Renowned Thinkers Who Appreciated Vedas As Origin Of Science

World’s greatest thinkers admired the Vedas as great repositories of advanced knowledge and
high thinking
Arthur Schopenhauer, the famed German philosopher and writer, wrote that: “I ...encounter [in
the Vedas] deep, original, lofty thoughts... suffused with a high and holy seriousness.”
American writer Ralph Waldo Emerson, read the Vedas daily. He wrote: “I owed a magnificent
day to the Bhagavat-Gita.”
Alfred North Whitehead (British mathematician, logician and philosopher), who stated that:
“Vedanta is the most impressive metaphysics the human mind has conceived.”
Julius Robert Oppenheimer, the principle developer of the atomic bomb, stated that “The Vedas
are the greatest privilege of this century.”
Lin Yutang, Chinese scholar and author, wrote that: “India was China’s teacher in trigonometry,
quadratic equations, grammar, phonetics... and so forth.
From these statements we see that many renowned intellectuals believed that the Vedas
provided the origin of scientific thought.
Source: Scientiﬁc Veriﬁcation of Vedic Knowledge-- David Osborn-Science of Sacred
2.1.5 Vedic Science in Pursuit of Truth
Real science consists of an objective pursuit of truth through observation and

experimentation. It occurs apart from any beliefs or preconceptions about what it is going to
find. It is based upon reason and direct perception, in which the reality is allowed to reveal
itself to the unbiased eye.
Besides any knowledge of the external world is the knowledge of the internal world, the
perennial quest for Self-knowledge or knowledge of our true nature, as evidenced by the
most primary and important of all life’s many questions, “Who am I.” This inner quest or
inner science can be very different in approach than the outer sciences.
From an Indian perspective, we can call this inner science of Self-knowledge, ‘yogic science.’
Traditional Yoga and Vedanta also has its goal as the objective pursuit of truth.
This yogic science aims not just at the knowledge of the world but an understanding of
Knower.
2.1.6 Vedas as Basis of Science
In India, science and spirituality have always gone together. Spirituality through Yoga and
Vedanta has always been conceived of as a science, a way of knowledge to be approached
with reason and experimentation through Yoga and meditation leading to the direct
perception of truth.
Vedas constitute what could be called a science in the modern sense of the word and much
more. We can find among the Vedic sciences a whole range of sciences from astronomy and
chemistry to psychology and surgery, extending to astrology and to the science of Yoga

itself. We can call this integral approach to both the spiritual and material sciences as ‘Vedic
science.’
2.1.7 Disciplines of Ancient Indian Knowledge
(Source: Rani Sadasiva Murty “An Introduction to Ancient Indian Knowledge Systems” Veda
Darshini, An International Refereed Quarterly Research Journal, Issue - I : January, 2018)
All the Disciplines of Ancient Indian knowledge are divided into two streams as Injunctive
Sciences and Mundane sciences adapting the methods of expansion of data, compression of
data and encryption of data. While the Injunctive Sciences (The Vedas) regulate the human
behavioral traits the Mundane sciences deal with the nature, scope and purpose of natural
and physical world for the comfortable living of mankind. As a result the following
disciplines through several millennia have been descended down to the modern world from
the lineage of seers of India. The huge volumes of Veda Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas,
Upanishads, Srauta/Grhya/Sulba Sutra Texts, Shadangas, Anukramanika Texts,
Pratisakhyas, 500 Smriti Texts, Six Orthodox Systems of Philosophy, Two Itihasas – The
Ramayana and The Mahabharata, 18 Puranas, Texts on 64 Fine Arts, Agama Texts dealing
with standard architectural techniques, Specialized Lexicons (Kosa granthas) and Various
Sastra Texts dealing with the living crafts of human societ are even today name wise and title
wise are available. In these huge volumes of treatises lot of information is available
pertaining to the modern areas of study such as Astronomy, Acoustics, Agriculture,
Architecture,Botany (with rich etymological notes on thousands of herbal plants),
Mathematics (with its branches of Arithmetic, Algebra, Trigonometry, Spherical
Trigonometry, Binomial Theorem, Geometry) , Metallurgy, Hydrology, Medicine,
Physiological Phonetics,Articulatory Phonetics, Meteorology, Seismology, Dietetics,
Mineralogy, Geology,Environmental Science, Cosmetics, Chemistry, Physics, Animal
Husbandry, Zoology,Cosmology, Psychology, Parapsychology, Moralogy and Management
Studies.
All these knowledge sections can assure the modern world to lead a pollution free long life
for hundred and plus years.
2.2 Branches of Sciences Found in Vedas (Sanskrit)
a. Physical and Chemical Sciences:-
Nyaya and Vaiseshika systems give the earliest reference to the atoms of air,fire,water
and earth. Nyaya Darsana gives some information about preparing lenses. Manusmriti,
Matsya Purana, Ayurvedic and Rasatantra texts present the details of mensuration.
Rasatantra Texts give an abundant information of various metals,chemicals and chemical
processing. An interesting information of constructing a chemistry laboratory is available
in all the famous Rasatantra Granthas.
b. Natural Sciences:-
The texts like Susruta Samhita, Amara kosa and Nirukta recorded the Indian system of
Botanical Taxonomy. Susruta Samhita, Rgveda and Atharva Veda and various Pauranic

Texts give a good amount of information with regard to the Medical Botany. In the texts
on Vastu, some texts on Vrkshayurveda and some epic sources present a detailed account
of Agriculture and Gardening methods. There is a reference to the sense perception of
plants in the Mahabharata. The Ramayana, Smritis and some Vedic texts give vivid
picture of the classification of the animals and make a deep study of their structure and
the methods of curing diseases of different animals.
c. Indian Mathematics:-
Similarly in the field of Mathematics the process of counting numbers fromone to

Parartha in ten multiples is mentioned in Krshna Yajurveda, Ramayana, Brahmanda
Purana and other texts. Lilavati is the text on Algebra. Suryasiddhanta deals with
Trigonometry. Sulba Sutras of Apstambha and others present a detailed study of
Geometry for the purpose of structuring Sacrificial Altars. Halayudha’s commentary on
Pingala’s Chandas furnishes a good information of Binary Arithmetic.
d. Earth and Space Sciences:-
Likewise in the text Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira we have a bulk of information with
regard to the process of finding out underwater currents. Nearly two hundred methods
are presented which can even today be put in practice. Seismology is another interesting
subject available in the Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira. Brahma Siddhanta, Vasistha
Siddnata, Surya Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta and Romaka Siddhanta are the five famous
Astronomical Works with wonderful content pertaining to the Planets, their positions,
moments and their influence over the earth.Texts like Samarangana Sutradhara, Maya
Vastu etc., stand as a concrete proof for the masterly knowledge of our ancient people in
the field of Architecture.
If the process of learning all these branches of knowledge and arts is revived and
introduced in a novel way suitable to the modern times and to meet needs of our
contemporary times it will be of high advantage and the pride of our nation also can be
well protected.
2.2.1 Unification of Modern and Ancient Science
Science is a secular discipline. Here the secular has to be taken in its broadest sense. This
means that the scientific study of the nature is not dependent upon any particular nation,
race, colour of the people, geography, religion, social customs, ways of living, language, and
the era. Thus the scientific exploration of nature may be expressed in different languages, in
different terminology, in different systems of measurements. But internally the laws
pertaining to a given aspect of nature have to be equivalent. From this point of view, really
one cannot classify Western science or Indian science, modern science or ancient science. But
because of long separations of time and distance between the two groups of humanity
exploring nature and expressing in different ways, a distinction of modern science and
Indian ancient science is appropriate.

2.2.2 Different Routes of Modern Science and Indian Ancient Science
(Source: Dr D.N Srivastava ,Control Instrumentation Division ,BARC Mumbai)
http://www.barc.gov.in/publications/nl/2000/200002-02.pdf
There is one very fundamental difference between the routes adopted by modern science for
the exploration of nature, and that adopted in ancient India. These routes have evolved due
to different climatic conditions in the West and India. The main feature of the Western
climate is that their environmental temperature is much lower than the human body
temperature. This made life difficult there and needed plenty of food, strong house, many
layers of clothing and other warming material. In such a situation, arises a basic question:
given difficult conditions, how to make survival easier. This drew their attention to study space,
light and matter. Modern science starts from geometry from the time of Pythagoras to
Euclid; then study of light by Newton, Huygen, and others; then comes atomic theory. This
space-light-matter route can be called horizontal route.
The main feature of the Indian climate had been environmental temperature close to the
human body temperature. So here necessities of life were much less. Here the question was
not how to make the survival easier because it was already easy. Here the question was:
given easy survival, how to make life happier for longer and longer times. Happiness is a mental
phenomenon. And the state of happiness or unhappiness of the mind is most affected by
sound out of the five senses. Hence the Indian study of nature took the route of time-sound-
mind. This may be called vertical route.
On this route evolved the art of achieving harmony in one's life with times of day and night,
and seasons, development of systems of vocal and instrumental music, detailed study of
sound or phonetics, research on sound patterns and finer study of mind through Yoga. The
basic concepts of the two routes are quite different. Even if the same language is used to
describe them, the descriptions that will emerge will not have many common points. This
difference has been the basic cause of wide gap between the two sciences. However, in spite
of these major differences, one should not forget that the apparently sophisticated structure
of any branch of knowledge is built upon small number of basic principles. And one basic
principle of nature is related to another basic principle in some subtle way, due to the inner
harmony of nature. This is an article of scientific faith, about which Einstein says, "Without
the belief in the inner harmony of our world, there could be no science. This belief is and
always will remain the fundamental motive for all scientific creation." So the path of
unification of the two sciences can be found through the fundamental principles. We have to
sort out the fundamental principles of the modern science on one side and comprehend what
order or regularity of nature they describe. Similarly the fundamental principles of the
Indian ancient science have to be sorted out, and they have to be put up into precise
axiomatic language, and the order of nature they point to, has to be found. By the correlation
of these orders, one can hope to bridge the gap between the two.
2.2.3 Indian Contributions to Science
(Source: Vignan Bharathi—Indian Contributions To science)

Advancements in science and technology have been the major reason for the development of
human civilization. India has been contributing to the fields of science and technology since
ancient times. Even today, what we term as ‘traditional knowledge’ is actually based on
scientific reasoning.
2.2.3.1 Pre-Independence Contributions

The history of scientific discoveries and development in India dates back to the Vedic era.
Aryabhatta, the famous mathematician of the Vedic era, invented ‘zero’. It is believed that
ancient Indian scholars had developed geometric theorems before Pythagoras had made them
popular. The concept of squares, rectangles, circles, triangles, fractions, and the ability to
express number 10 to the 12th power, algebraic formulae, and astronomy have all had their
origins in Vedic literature; some are stated to have been known as early as 1500 BCE. The
decimal system was already in use during the Harappan Civilization. This is evident in their
use of weights and measures. Moreover, the concepts of astronomy and metaphysics are all
described in the Rig Veda, an ancient Hindu text of the Vedic era.
From the complex layout of Harappan towns to the existence of the Iron Pillar in Delhi, it is
evident that India’s indigenous technologies had been very sophisticated. They included the
design and planning of water supply, traffic flow, natural air conditioning, complex stone work
and construction engineering. The Indus Valley Civilization was the world’s first to build
planned towns with underground drainage, civil sanitation, hydraulic engineering and air-
cooling architecture. While other ancient civilizations of the world were small towns with one
central complex, the Indus Valley Civilization had the distinction of being spread across a
region about half the size of Europe. Weights and linguistic symbols were standardized across
this vast geography, for a period of over 1000 years, from around 3000 BCE to 1500 BCE.
a. Water Management
Water has been the life blood of most major civilizations. Criss-crossed by many great rivers,
India is no exception to the rule. Indians had been developing water management techniques
even before the Harappan time. Wells, ponds, lakes, dams and canals have been constructed
with advanced technologies throughout the historic timeline of Indian civilization. Water has
been used for storage, drinking and purposes of irrigation. It is estimated that even today, there
are more than a million man-made ponds and lakes in India.
b. Iron and Steel

Iron and steel have literally been the pillars of modern civilization. Ancient India was pioneer in
developing the technology of producing rust-free iron. This metal from India was famous in
contemporary Europe for sword making. The famous Iron Pillar of Delhi is a testimony to that
technology which is almost rust free even today.

c. Farming Technique and Fertilizers

Indian farming technology was mostly indigenously developed and was ahead of its time. It
included soil testing techniques, crop rotation methods, irrigation plans, application of eco
friendly pesticides and fertilizers, storage methods for crops, etc.
d. Physics
The concept of atom can be traced to the Vedic times. The material world was divided into five
elements, namely, earth (Prithvi), fire (Agni), air (Vayu), water (Jal) and ether or space (Akasha).
Paramanu (beyond atom) was considered to be the smallest particle, which cannot be divided
further. Nuclear energy is produced today splitting the same.
e. Medicine and Surgery

Ayurveda (Ayur means life, Veda means knowledge) is probably the oldest structured system
of medical science in the world. Proper knowledge about various ailments, diseases, symptoms,
diagnosis and cure is the basis of Ayurveda. Many scholars like Charaka and Susruta have
made invaluable contribution to Ayurveda by inscribing in written form, as found in ancient
manuscripts.
f. Shipping and Shipbuilding

Shipbuilding was one of India’s major export industries till the British dismantled it and
formally banned it. Medieval Arab sailors purchased boats from India. Even the Portuguese,
instead of buying from Europe, also obtained their boats from India. Some of the world’s largest
and most sophisticated ships were built in India and China. The compass and other navigation
tools were already in use in India, much before Europe. Using their expertise in the science of
maritime travel, Indians participated in the earliest known ocean-based trading system.
2.2.3.2 Post-Independence Contributions

India has witnessed considerable growth in the field of science and technology post
Independence. Significant achievements have been made in the areas of nuclear and space
science, electronics and defense. India has the third largest scientific and technical manpower
in the world. In the field of Missile Launching Technology, India is among the top five
nations of the world. Science and technology was brought into the mainstream of economic
planning, with the establishment of the Department of Science and Technology (DST) in May
1971. DST, today, promotes new areas in science and technology and plays the role of a
nodal department for organizing, coordinating and promoting science and technology in the
country.
Our country’s resources are used to get maximum output in the field of agriculture and
industry. Indian scientists are making path-breaking research in the fields of agriculture,
medicine, biotechnology, cold regions research, communications, environment, industry,
mining, nuclear power, space and transportation. Now, India has the expertise in the fields
of astronomy and astrophysics, liquid crystals, condensed matter physics, molecular biology,

virology, and crystallography, software technology, nuclear power and defense research and
development.
a. Atomic Energy
The main objective of India’s nuclear energy programme is to use it to generate power, and
apply the technology for further progress in agriculture, medicine, industry and research.
India is, today, recognized as one of the most advanced countries in nuclear technology.
Accelerators and nuclear power reactors are now designed and built indigenously.
b. Space
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is the sixth largest space research organization in
the world. It has numerous milestones to its credit since its establishment in 1969. India’s first
satellite Aryabhatta was built by ISRO in 1975. It was followed by many more. In 2008,
Chandrayaan-I became India’s first mission to the moon. The Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO), under the Department of Space (DOS), is responsible for research,
development and operation in the space through satellite communications, remote sensing
for resource survey, environmental monitoring, meteorological services, and so on. India is
the only Third World country to develop its own remote-sensing satellite. Very recently in
July 2019, Chandrayaan-II, the second mission to moon successfully launched by ISRO to unravel the
secrets of moon.
c. Electronics and Information Technology

The Department of Electronics plays promotional role for the development and use of
electronics for socio-economic development. Application of electronics in areas such as
agriculture, health and service sectors has also been receiving special attention. For
upgrading the quality of indigenously manufactured products, a series of tests and
development centres and regional laboratories have been set up. These centres for electronic
design and technology help small and medium electronics units. Information Technology
(IT) is one of the most important industry in the Indian economy. The IT industry of India
has registered huge growth in recent years. India’s IT industry grew from 150 million US
dollars in 1990/91 to a whopping 500 billion US dollars in2006/07. In the last ten years, the
IT industry in India has grown at an average annual rate of 30%.
d. Oceanography
India has a coastline of more than 7,600 km and 1,250 islands. The Department of Ocean
Development was established in 1981 to ensure optimum utilization of living resources,
exploitation of non-living resources such as hydrocarbons and minerals and production of
ocean energy. Two research vessels, FORV Sagar Kanya and FORV Sagar Sampada, are
assessing and evaluating the resource potential.
Surveys and exploration efforts have been directed to assess sea bed topography, and
concentration and quality of mineral nodules. India has sent 13 scientific research
expeditions to Antarctica since 1981, and has established a permanently manned base,
Dakshin Gangotri. A second permanent station, an entirely indigenous effort, was completed
by the eighth expedition. The objective was to study the ozone layer and other important
constituents like optical aurora, geomagnetic pulsation and related phenomena. The National

Institute of Ocean Technology has been set up for the development of ocean-related
technologies.
e. Biotechnology
India has been the frontrunner among the developing countries in promoting
multidisciplinary activities in this area, recognizing the practically unlimited possibility of
their applications in increasing agricultural and industrial production, and in improving
human and animal life. The National Biotechnology Board was formed in 1982. The
Department of Biotechnology was created in 1986. The areas which have been receiving
attention are cattle herd improvement through embryo transfer technology, in vitro
propagation of disease- resistant plant varieties for obtaining higher yields and development
of vaccines for various diseases.
f. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) was established in 1942, and is today
the premier institution for scientific and industrial research. It has a network of 40
laboratories, two cooperative industrial research institutions and more than 100 extensions
and field centres. It plays a leading role in the fulfilment of the technological missions
supported by the government.
2.3 Architectural Developments

At times it becomes very important to be reminded that we are that civilization which has
spanned atleast 4,500 years and which has left its impact on nearly everything in our lives and
society.
UNESCO has listed 830 World Heritage Sites, out of which 26 are in India. This is less than six
other countries. Is this not a tangible proof of the creative genius and industry of this ancient
land, people, and also of the gifts bestowed on it by nature. Be it the Bhimbetka’s pre historic
rock art at one end or the innumerable palaces, mosques, temples, gurudwaras, churches or
tombs and sprawling cities and solemn stupas.
Going through the cities of Delhi, Agra, Jaipur, Mumbai and Calcutta etc. you find many
beautiful buildings. Some are monuments, palaces, temples, churches, mosques and memorials.
Many of them had their foundation before Christ and many after the coming of Christ. Many
generations have been a part of this architecture which stands mighty and lofty reminding us of
that glorious past which has been ours. This is because art and architecture forms an important
part of Indian culture. Many distinctive features that we find in the architecture today
developed throughout the long period of Indian history. The earliest and most remarkable
evidence of Indian architecture is found in the cities of the Harappan Civilization which boast
of a unique town planning. In the post Harappan period architectural styles have been classified
as Hindu, Buddhist and Jain, The medieval period saw the synthesis of Persian and indigenous
styles of architecture. Thereafter the colonial period brought the influence of Western
architectural forms to India.

Thus Indian architecture is a synthesis of indigenous styles and external influences which has
lent it a unique characteristic of its own.
2.3.1 Evolution of Indian Architecture and Developments

The study of architecture reveals to us the cultural diversities and helps us understand the rich
traditions of India.
Indian Architecture evolved in various ages in different parts and regions of the country. Apart
from these natural and obvious evolutions from the pre-historic and historic periods, evolution
of Indian architecture was generally affected by many great and important historic
developments. Naturally, the emergence and decay of great empires and dynasties in the sub-
continent, each in their way influenced the growth and shaped the evolution of Indian
architecture. External influences have also shaped the nature of Indian architecture and so has
the influence of different regions of the country. Let us have a look at the process of evolution of
Indian Architecture.
2.3.2 Harappan Period

The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro and several other sites of the Indus Valley
Civilization revealed the existence of a very modern urban civilization with expert town
planning and engineering skills. The very advanced drainage system along with well planned
roads and houses show that a sophisticated and highly evolved culture existed in India before
the coming of the Aryans. The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were excavated under the
Archaeological Survey of India established by the British.
The Harappan people had constructed mainly three types of buildings-dwelling houses pillared
halls and public baths.
Main features of Harappan remains are:

1. The settlements traced as far back as 3rd millennium BC.
2. Some important settlements were excavated on the banks of the river Indus particularly
at the bends that provided water, easy means of transportation of produce and other
goods and also some protection by way of natural barriers of the river.
3. All the sites consisted of walled cities which provided security to the people.
4. The cities had a rectangular grid pattern of layout with roads that cut each other at right
angles.
5. The Indus Valley people used standardized burnt mud-bricks as building material.
6. There is evidence of building of big dimensions which perhaps were public buildings,
administrative or business centres, pillared halls and courtyards, There is no evidence of
temples.
7. Public buildings include granaries which were used to store grains which give an idea of
an organized collection and distribution system.
8. Along with large public buildings, there is evidence of small one roomed constructions
that appear to be working peoples quarters.

9. The Harappan people were great engineers as is evident from the public bath that was
discovered at Mohenjodaro. The ‘Great Bath’ as it is called, is still functional and there is
no leakage or cracks in the construction. The existence of what appears to be a public
bathing place shows the importance of ritualistic bathing and cleanliness in this culture.
It is significant that most of the houses had private wells and bathrooms.
10. At some sites a dominant citadel was excavated in the western part containing the
public buildings including the granaries. This can perhaps be treated as evidence of
some kind of political authority ruling over the cities.
11. There is evidence also of fortifications with gateways enclosing the walled cities which
show that there may have been a fear of being attacked.
12. Lothal, a site in Gujarat also has the remains of a dockyard proving that trade flourished
in those times by sea.
Another remarkable feature was the existence of a well planned drainage system in the
residential parts of the city. Small drains from the houses were connected to larger ones along
the sides of the main roads. The drains were covered and loose covers were provided for the
purpose of cleaning them. The planning of the residential houses were also meticulous.
Evidence of stairs shows houses were often double storied. Doors were in the side lanes to
prevent dust from entering the houses.
2.3.3 Early Historic Period

An important phase of Indian architecture began with the Mauryan period. The material
prosperity of the Mauryans and a new religious consciousness led to achievements in all fields.
Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador of Selucas Nikator who visited the Mauryan court
described Chandragupta Maurya’s palace as an excellent architectural achievement. It was a
large palace carved out of wood.
In the Mauryan period (322-182 BC) especially under Ashoka architecture saw a great
advancement. Mauryan art and architecture depicted the influence of Persians and Greeks.
During the reign of Ashoka many monolithic stone pillars were erected on which teachings of
‘Dhamma’ were inscribed. The highly polished pillars with animal figures adorning the top
(capitals) are unique and remarkable. The lion capital of the Sarnath pillar has been accepted as
the emblem of the Indian Republic. Each pillar weighs about 50 tonnes and is about 50 ft high.
The stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath are symbols of the achievement of Mauryan architechture.
The gateways of the Sanchi Stupa with the beautiful sculpture depicting scenes from Jataka
stories are specimens of the skill and aesthetic sense of the artisans.

The blending of Greek and Indian art led to the development of Gandhara art which developed
later. The other schools of art and architecture were the indigenous Mathura school and
Amaravati school. The figures of the Mathura school were made of spotted red stone. They had
more of spiritual look in them. Here along with Buddha we find sculptures of Jaina deities also.
The Amaravati school developed under the patronage of the Satavahanas of the Andhra region.
A great stupa was built at Amaravati in the Lower Godavari region. The walls of the stupa are
adorned with bas relief, had carved medallion and decorative panels. Nagarjunkonda is another
place that is famous for Buddhist architecture.
Cave architecture
The development of cave architecture is another unique feature and marks an important phase
in the history of Indian architecture. Famous among these were Ajanta and Ellora caves of
Maharashtra, and Udaygiri cave of Orissa.
Rock-cut temples
Temples were hewn out of huge rocks. The earliest rock-cut temples were excavated in western
Deccan in the early years of the Christian era. Kailash temple at Ellora built by the Rashtrakutas
and the ratha temples of Mahabalipuram built by the Pallavas are other examples of rock-cut
temples.
Ajanta Ellora Cave Temple Udayagir Orissa Cave Temple
2.3.4 Medieval Period Architecture

a. Delhi Sultanate
With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of architecture-
the architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. The engineering features of these
buildings were the domes, arches and minarets. The palaces, mosques and tombs built by the
rulers had these features which were blended with the features of the indigenous architecture
and a new synthesis in architecture was achieved.
b. Regional Kingdoms
With the establishment of regional kingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautiful
buildings having their own style were constructed. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga, the Madarsa of

Mahmud Gawan at Bidar, Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the fort at Golkunda are
just a few famous buildings.
c. Bahamani
The Bahamani sultans borrowed from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and the temples of
Southern India. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is quite well known. The courtyard of this mosque
is covered with a large number of domes and is the only mosque in India which has a covered
courtyard.
d. Mughals
The advent of the Mughals brought a new era in architecture. The architecture of Mughal style
started during Akbar’s rule. The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. In
this magnificent building red stone was used. It has a main gateway and the tomb is placed in
the midst of a garden. Many consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal. Akbar built forts at Agra
and Fatehpur Sikri. The Bulund Darwaza reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal empire.
This building was made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. The Arch of the Buland
Darwaja is about 41 m high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb
of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s House and other buildings at
Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements.
Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of
Delhi and above all the Taj Mahal are some of the buildings built by Shahjahan. The Taj Mahal,
the tomb of Shahjahan’s wife, is built in marble and reflects all the architectural features that
were developed during the Mughal period.
Next came the British who ruled the country for 200 years and left behind a legacy of colonial
style architecture in their buildings.
Portuguese built many churches at Goa.
Greek and Roman influence can be observed in the colonnades or pillared buildings. Parliament
House and Connaught Place in Delhi are good examples.
The architect Lutyens, designed Rashtrapati Bhavan, formerly the Viceroy’s residence. It is built
of sandstone and has design features like canopies and jaali from Rajasthan. The Victoria
Memorial in Calcutta, the former capital of British India, is a huge edifice in marble.
2.3.5 Medicine and Its Relevance in Vedas

A high quality of Medical Knowledge was prevalent in ancient India. The present day
Archaeological evidences of Mohenjodaro and Harappa imparts the high civilization in matters
of sanitation and hygiene. An analysis of the material in the Vedas reveals that, all the four
Vedas replete the references regarding various aspects of medicine. The Atharva Veda is
deemed to be an encyclopaedia for medicine "Interalia" and Ayurveda (the science of life) is
considered as Upa Veda (supplementarysubject) of the Atharva Veda.
A few glimpses of medical Science as prevalent in the ancient India have been presented here.
Ayurveda, the Science of life was one of the sciences, which earned great fame for India and
which influenced considerably the knowledge of medicine of other ancient nations of the world
also.

The earliest sources of our knowledge of Indian Philosophy and medicine are the four Vedas,
the sacred books of Knowledge belonging to the period of 1500 to 800 B.C. Ayurveda is
considered to be the Upa-veda or supplementary subject of the Atharva Veda.
An analysis of the material in the Vedas reveals that all the four Vedas are replete with
references to various aspects of medicine.
Source: A. Narayana Medical Science In Ancient Indian Culture With Special Reference To Atharva
Veda, Research officer (Ay.). Indian Institute of History of Medicine, O.M.C. bldgs., Putlibowli
Hyderabad - 500195, Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XXV p.p 100 to 110,.
2.3.5.1 Eight branches of Ancient Indian Medicine

The history of medicine in India spans a period of several thousand years, definitely dating
back to a few centuries before the Common Era. There is evidence that the earliest textbooks of
Ayurveda like Caraka Saṃhitā (General Medicine), Suśruta Saṃhitā (Surgery), and Kāśyapa
Saṃhitā (Paediatrics) were edited and revised several times over a thousand years. They
attained their current form in the first few centuries of the Common Era. It is an amazing fact
that so early, Sanskrit texts were composed dealing exclusively with specialties like Paediatrics,
Surgery, Ophthalmology, ENT and so on. In these texts, Ayurveda is already seen in a
developed form specialized into eight branches: General Medicine, Surgery, Ophthalmology-
ENT-Dentistry, Paediatrics, Psychiatry, Toxicology, Rejuvenative Medicine and Reproductive
Medicine. Around the 6th or 7th centuries CE, the renowned physician Vāgbhaṭa compiled the
specialized knowledge of the eight branches of Ayurveda into one compendium; the larger
version is known as Aṣṭāṅga Saṃgraha and the shorter version is called Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya.
2.3.5.2 The Tradition of Surgery

The tradition of surgery in Ayurveda has a long history. Researchers at the University of
Missouri-Columbia discovered that physicians in ancient India had developed technology to
drill teeth and remove decay 8,000 to 9,000 years ago. Study of fossils from Mehrgarh, now in
Pakistan, revealed tiny holes drilled into teeth on the biting surface of male molars. Evidence
has also been unearthed from Harappa and Lothal revealing an ancient surgical practice on a
Bronze Age skull dating back to nearly 4,300 years ago. Trepanation, a common means of
surgery practised in prehistoric societies starting with the Stone Age, involved drilling or
cutting through the skull vault, often to treat head injury or to remove bone splinters or blood
clots caused by a blow to the head.
A mesolithic (15,000 – 6,000 BCE) rock painting from Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh seems to depict
surgery being performed on a subject’s head or eye.

The saga of Indian surgery continued to flourish and reached its acme in the time of Suśruta,
who is believed to have lived in the 2nd century BCE. Suśruta is now revered as the father of
surgery and advocated a thorough study of anatomy by dissecting the dead body. He
introduced the method of sterilizing surgical instruments to prevent sepsis after surgical
procedures. The compendium of Suśruta describes hundreds of sharp and blunt surgical
instruments and many of them resemble instruments used by surgeons today. Suśruta is
recognized for having developed innovative surgical procedures like reconstruction of the nose
or rhinoplasty through plastic surgery, use of a specific species of ants as dissolvable sutures to
close the intestines, surgical removal of cataract, and surgical management of urinary calculi.
Medical and surgical implements of 19th century origin from India.

(Courtesy: Science Museum, London)
This painting shows Suśruta’s disciples learning surgery by working on vegetables
2.3.5.3 Drugs mentioned in Vedic Literature

RIGVEDA- Kimsuka, Khadira, Durva, Kamala, Somala, Pippali, Amalki, Karanja
YAJURVEDA- Saktu, Parivapa, Madhu, Godhuma, Masura, Mudga, Masha, Tila, Priyangu
ATHARVAVEDA- Apamarga, Arka, Aswattha, Arjuna, Khadira, Tila, Yava, Pippali,Prisniparni,
Bilwa, Udumbra, Ikshu, Laksha, Sahadeva, Soma, Guggulu, Munja.

Modern medicine
The evolution of modern medicine in India is blurred. There has been many scientists,
researchers and physicians who have constantly tried to upgrade the knowledge of medicine
and science of healing the sick. A few of them are mentioned below:
a. UPENDRANATH BRAHMACHARI (1873-1946)

UN Brahmachari was born in 1873 in Jamalpur, Bihar,where his father Nilmony Brahmachari
was a doctor with the East Indian Railway. He started out to become a mathematician, and
passed his BA in mathematics in 1893. Then he completed masters in Chemistry, before he
joined Calcutta Medical College to obtain Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery degree in 1899.
Subsequently, he worked with single minded determination in a small ill equipped room in the
Campbell Hospital (presently NRS Medical College) to discover a new drug to cure Kalaazar.
After 5 years of toiling, Urea Stibamine was discovered, which quickly became essential for the
treatment of Kalaazar.
b. RAMNATH CHOPRA (1882-1973)

Ram Nath Chopra was born on August 17, 1882 at Gujranwala, Punjab. He had his early
education at Jammu and Srinagar and collegiate studies at Government College, Lahore. After
studying in England, he returned India to be the first professor of pharmacology in the newly
established Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine in 1921. In his tenure, he conducted various
studies on general pharmacology and pharmacotherapy, alongwith surveys on drug addiction.
Professor Chopra was the 1st to establish a centre of study and research in pharmacology in
India, at the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine. His work encouraged research on Indian
medicinal plants at different institutions. Certain indigenous substances like ispaghula, kurchi,
rauwol, psoralea, cobra venom,etc. were included in Indian Pharmocopia by him. The books by
Chopra and associates entitled “Indigenous Drugs of India”, “Glossary of Medicinal Plants of
India” and “Poisonous Plants of India” had been popular encyclopedia of Indian medicinal
plants.
c. YELLAPRAGADA SUBBAROW (1895-1948)

SubbaRow can best be described as an unfortunate scientist who did not get his due
recognition. Born in 1895, he worked at Harvard Medical School until 1940,when he went to
Lederle Laboratories for research. His research led to the discovery of Polymyxin, an agent used
even today. Aureomycin, the first of tetracycline, was also discovered by him. Fiske-SubbaRow
method of colorimetric estimation of organic, inorganic and lopoid phosphorous in blood and
urine has been one of the 100 most cited papers. Also, the discovery of folic acid, aminopterin
and anti-pernicious factor (Vitamin B12) is credited to him. Methotrexate, the derivative of
aminopterin, is still being used in various conditions.
d. SUBHASH MUKHOPADHYAY (1931-1981)

A physician from Calcutta, Dr. Mukhopadhyay was the first one to create India’s first test tube
baby in 1978, but never got due recognition of the same. Unfortunately, all the bureaucratic
interventions and false accusations were too much for this eminent researcher. Finally, tired of
being targeted for no reason whatsoever, he decided to take his own life in 1981.
e. RONALD ROSS (1857-1932)

Sir Ronald Ross was born in Almora, India in 1857 to Sir C.C.G. Ross who was a general in the
Indian army. In 1892 he became interested in malaria and on 20 August 1897, in Secunderabad,
Ross made his landmark discovery. While dissecting the stomach tissue of an anopheline
mosquito fed four days previously on a malarious patient, he found the malaria parasite and
went on to prove the role of Anopheles mosquitoes in the transmission of malaria parasites in
humans. By July 1898, he had demonstrated that mosquitoes could serve as intermediate hosts
for bird malaria. After feeding mosquitoes on infected birds, he found that the malaria parasites
could develop in the mosquitoes and migrate to the insects› salivary glands, allowing the
mosquitoes to infect other birds during subsequent blood meals. Located on the Northern wall
of the Presidency General (PG) Hospital, lies a arch shaped memorial dedicated to Ronald Ross,
Nobel Prize winner of Medicine in 1902. Sadly, very few people from Kolkata are aware of this
memorial.14,15
f. HARGOVIND KHORANA (1922-2011)

Born in Raipur, Punjab, he completed his MSc and went to the University of Liverpool for his
PhD degree. At the age of 46, Hargovind Khorana shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology and
Medicine in 1968 with Robert W Holley and Marshall W. Nierenberg for contributions towards
elucidating the genetic code. In 1972, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Hargovind’s
team described a monumental achievement in chemical biology- the total chemical synthesis of
a functional tRNA gene of yeast. Khorana’s methods of extension of DNA polymers into
synthetic gene, using polymerase and ligase enzymes that link pieces of DNA together as well
as methods that anticipated the invention of PCR, are widely used in biology laboratories for
sequencing, cloning and engineering new organisms.
g. DWARKANATH KOTNIS
An Indian doctor from Solapur, Dr Kotnis gave up a bright career to join five other doctors to
serve the sick and war driven in China during the Sino-Japanese war of 1938. He was affected
by the mysterious disease which was affecting the Chinese soldiers and for which he was trying
to find a cure, and he died in 1942.After these eminent scientists, there was a long period of void
when the contribution of India to the medical science became negligible. New researches and
newer molecules were out of sight then. But recently, newer drugs and Indian research
molecules like Saroglitazaar for Diabetes and Arterolane Maleate and Piperaquine Phosphate
(Synriam) for treatment of Malaria are showing rays of hope. Also, the biosimilar drugs being
manufactured are probably the cheapest in India. The cheap price of the drugs, alongwith
modern medical facilities being developed, is rapidly converting India into a favorite spot for
medical tourism. Unfortunately, India had also contributed something which is not so good.
The rampant sale of over the counter medications without any control is definitely not
something to be proud of. Also, the indiscriminate use of antibiotics has resulted in India being
the forefront in producing resistant bugs. The New Delhi metallo-betalactamase 1 (NDM-1)
enzyme, which makes a bacteria resistant to carbapenems, was first found in a Swedish patient
treated in India. Although later the editor of Lancet apologized the naming, still it is well
known that there is every possibility that some resistant strains are contribution of India.

India has a rich cultural heritage, a strong social base and an impressive history. Her
contributions to medical science over ages cannot be underestimated. But today, we seem to
have lost our zeal to contribute. Very few medical students are going for a full-fledged research,
and very few contributions are made to the medical science. Let us try to rectify it, and try to
contribute something for the sick. Only then can claim to be true descendants of Charaka and
Sushruta.
2.6 Mathematical Sciences in Vedas

Mathematics, in its early stages, developed mainly along two broad overlapping traditions: (i)
the geometric and (ii) the arithmetical and algebraic.
Among the pre Greek ancient civilizations, it is in India that we see a strong emphasis on both
these great streams of mathematics. Other ancient civilizations like the Egyptian and the
Babylonian had progressed essentially along the computational tradition. A Seidenberg, an
eminent algebraist and historian of mathematics, traced the origin of sophisticated mathematics
to the originators of the Rig Vedic rituals.
The oldest known mathematics texts in existence are the Sulba-sutras of Baudhayana,
Apastamba and Katyayana which form part of the literature of the Sutra period of the later
Vedic age. The Sulbasutras had been estimated to have been composed around 800 BC (some
recent researchers are suggesting earlier dates). But the mathematical knowledge recorded in
these sutras (aphorisms) are much more ancient; for the Sulba authors emphasise that they were
merely stating facts already known to the composers of the Brahmanas and Samhitas of the
early Vedic age.
The Śulbasūtras, for instance, are the earliest texts of geometry offering a general statement, in
geometric form, of the so-called Pythagoras theorem (which was in fact formulated by Euclid
around 300 BCE). They spelt out elaborate geometric methods to construct a square resulting
from the addition or subtraction of two other squares,
The geometrical expression of the Pythagoras theorem found in the Śulbasūtras.
All these procedures were purely geometrical, but led to interesting corollaries; for instance, √2
was given a rational approximation which is correct to the fifth decimal.

The Śulbasūtras also introduced a system of linear units, most of them based on dimensions of
the human body; they were later slightly modified and became the traditional units used across
India. The chief units were:
14 aṇus (grain of common millet) = 1 aṅgula (a digit)
12 aṅgulas = 1 prādeśa (the span of a hand, later vitasti)
15 aṅgulas = 1 pada (or big foot)
24 aṅgulas = 1 aratni (or cubit, later also hasta)
30 aṅgulas = 1 prakrama (or step)
120 aṅgulas = 1 puruṣa (or the height of a man with his arm extended over his head)
A few centuries later, Piṅgala’s Chandasūtras, a text on Sanskrit prosody, made use of a binary
system to classify the metres of Vedic hymns, whose syllables may be either light (laghu) or
heavy (guru); rules of calculation were worked out to relate all possible combinations of light
and heavy syllables, expressed in binary notation, to numbers in one-to-one relationships,
which of course worked both ways. In the course of those calculations, Piṅgala referred to the
symbol for śūnya or zero.
About the same time, Jaina texts indulged in cosmological speculations involving colossal
numbers, and dealt with geometry, combinations and permutations, fractions, square and cube
powers; they were the first in India to come up with the notion of an unknown (yāvat-tāvat), and
introduced a value of π equal to √10, which remained popular in India for quite a few centuries.
Numerals as they appeared in early inscriptions, from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE. Note
that they do not yet follow a decimal positional system; for instance, in the first column, 40 is written as
‘20, 20’, 60 as ‘20, 20, 20’. (Adapted from INSA)

With the appearance of the Brāhmī script a few centuries BCE, we come across India’s first
numerals, on Ashoka’s edicts in particular, but as yet without any decimal positional value.
These numerals will evolve in shape; eventually borrowed by Arabs scholars, they will be
transmitted, with further alterations, to Europe and become our modern ‘Arabic’ numerals.
Evolution of Indian numerals, as evidenced by inscriptions. The first script, Brāhmī, was used by Aśoka
in his Edicts; the last is an antecedent of the Devanagari script. (Adapted from J.J. O’Connor & E.F.
Robertson)
About 499 CE, living near what is today Patna, Āryabhaṭa-I (born 476 CE) authored the
Āryabhaṭīya, the first extant siddhānta (or treatise) attempting a systematic review of the
knowledge of mathematics and astronomy prevailing in his days. The text is so concise (just 121
verses) as to be often obscure, but between the 6th and the 16th century, no fewer than twelve
major commentaries were authored to explicate and build upon its contents. It was eventually
translated into Arabic about 800 CE (under the title Zīj al-Ārjabhar), which in turn led to a Latin
translation in the 13th century (in which Āryabhaṭa was called ‘Ardubarius’).

Āryabhaṭa introduced the notion of a half-chord, a substantial advance over Greek trigonometry, which
considered the full chord of an arc of circle.
The mathematical content of Āryabhaṭīya ranges from a very precise table of sines and an equally
precise value for π (3.1416, stated to be ‘approximate’) to the area of a triangle, the sums of finite
arithmetic progressions, algorithms for the extraction of square and cube roots, and an elaborate
algorithm called kuṭṭaka (‘pulverizing’) to solve indeterminate equations of the first degree with
two unknowns: ax + c = by.
By ‘indeterminate’ is meant that solutions should be integers alone, which rules out direct
algebraic methods; such equations came up in astronomical problems, for example to calculate a
whole number of revolutions of a planet in a given number of years.
2.6.1 Brahmagupta’s Classical Period

Born in 598 CE, Brahmagupta was an imposing figure, with considerable achievements in
mathematics. In his Brahmasphuta Siddhānta, he studied cyclic quadrilaterals (i.e., inscribed in a
circle) and supplied the formula for their area (a formula rediscovered in 17th-century Europe):
if ABCD has sides of lengths a, b, c, and d, and the semi-perimeter is
s = (a + b +c + d)/2, then the area is given by: Area ABCD = √[(s – a) (s –b) (s – c) (s – a)]
Brahmagupta boldly introduced the notion of negative numbers and ventured to define the
mathematical infinite as khacheda or ‘that which is divided by kha’, kha being one of the many
names for zero. He discovered the bhāvanā algorithm for integral solutions to second-order
indeterminate equations (called varga prakriti)of the type Nx2 +1 = y2. He was in many ways
one of the founders of modern algebra, and his works were translated into Persian and later
Latin.

BHĀSKARA-I, a contemporary of Brahmagupta, who did pioneering work in trigonometry

(proposing a remarkably accurate rational approximation for the sine function), Śrīdhara and
Mahāvīra. The last, a Jain scholar who lived in the 9th century in the court of a Rashtrakuta king
(in today’s Karnataka), authored the first work of mathematics that was not as part of a text on
astronomy. In it, Mahāvīra dealt with finite series, expansions of fractions, permutations and
combinations (working out, for the first time, some of the standard formulas in the field), linear
equations with two unknowns, quadratic equations, and a remarkably close approximation for
the circumference of an ellipse, among other important results.
Graph showing the high accuracy of Bhāskara I’s rational approximation for the sine function
from 0° to 180° (in blue). The sine function (in read) had to be shifted upward by 0.05 to make
the two curves distinguishable.
The first part of Bhāskarācārya’s(Bhaskara-II) Siddhāntaśiromani is a collection of mathematical
problems called Līlāvatī, named after an unknown lady to whom Bhāskara puts problems in an
often poetical language. Līlāvatī became so popular with students of mathematics across India
that four centuries later, Akbar had it translated into Persian by a court poet.
Mādhava (c. 1340–1425), laid some of the foundations of calculus by working out power series
expansions for the sine and cosine functions (the so-called Newton series), and by spelling out
this fundamental expansion of π:
This is known as the Gregory–Leibniz series, but ought one day to be named after Mādhava. He
went on to propose a more rapidly convergent series for π:

which enabled him to calculate π to 11 correct decimals.

Nīlakaṇṭha Somayāji (c. 1444–1545) and Jyeṣṭhadeva (c. 1500–1600) built on such results and
considerably enriched what might be called the Indian foundations of calculus. The latter, for
instance, worked out the binomial expansion:
2.6.2 Features Of Indian Mathematics

As elsewhere, mathematics in India arose from practical needs: constructing fire altars
according to precise specifications, tracking the motion of planets, predicting eclipses, etc. But
India’s approach remained essentially pragmatic: rather than developing an axiomatic method
such as that of the Greek (famously introduced by Euclid for geometry), it focused on obtaining
formulas and algorithms that yielded precise and reliable results.
Nevertheless, Indian mathematicians did often provide logically rigorous justifications for their
results, especially in the longer texts. Indeed, Bhāskarācārya states that presenting proofs
(upapattis) is part of the teaching tradition, and Jyeṣṭhadeva devotes considerable space to them
in his Yukti Bhāṣā. The shorter texts, on the other hand, often dispensed with the development
of proofs. In the same spirit, the celebrated S. Ramanujan produced many important theorems
but did not take time to supply proofs for them, leaving this for others to do!
Whether those specificities limited the further growth of Indian mathematics is open to debate.
Other factors have been discussed by historians of science, such as historical disruptions of
centres and networks of learning (especially in north India), limited royal patronage, or the
absence of a conquering impulse (which, in Europe, did fuel the growth of science and
technology). Be that as it may, India’s contribution in the field was enormous by any standard.
Through the Arabs, many Indian inputs, from the decimal place-value system of numeral
notation to some of the foundations of algebra and analysis, travelled on to Europe and
provided crucial ingredients to the development of modern mathematics.
2.7 Space and Military Sciences
2.7.1 Dhanurveda/Warcraft in ancient India

Ancient India bequethed to us a good number of works (sastras) on statecraft as well as
warcraft. The warcraft or military science, called Dhanurveda, provides enough informtion in
this discipline.
Ancient Indian authorities held that a state had seven prakrtis (constituents elements), viz., the
king, the minister, the treasury, the territory, the fortified city, the army and the ally.Magha
regarded the seven elements as the limbs of a vijiglsu {prakrtyango parthivah). Out of the seven
constituents mentioned above, svami (the king) and amatyas (the ministers) constituted the
Central Government, which exercised the sovereign powers and imparted the central unity. The

raspra (territory), durga (forts), bala (army) and kosa (treasury) constituted the resources of the
state.
The army (bala or danda) occupies a very significant position in the state-organism. The
authorities on statecraft, however, seem to have place the prakrtis (the seven elements) of state
organism in order of relative importance, and thus army (bala or danda), is placed sixth in the
order, after kosa (the treasury).
Kautilya, in his' Arthasastra, holds a discussion on this, and preferred kosa to bala or danda when
he says, “The army indeed is rooted in the treasury. In the absence of a treasury, the army goes
over to the enemy or kills the king. And the treasury, ensuring the success of all endeavours, is
the means of observing virtuous acts and of enjoying desires”. In the Kamandaklya Nltisara,
however, one may find a more positive inclination to idolise the army. As for instance,
Kamandaka says that, “even the foes of a king, possessing an efficient army, are turned into
friends; a king with a strong army rules the earth unhampered’’.
Four-fold Army (caturarigabala) :

There are evidence to show that army was organised even in the Vedic period as may culled
from the Vedic literature. In the Vedic period the army appears to have consisted of two
divisions, viz., foot-soldiers (patti) and car-warriors (ratiiin). During the post Vedic period,
however, two more corps, viz., of horse and elephants, were incorporated, and thus there came
into vogue a new category, i.e. the four-fold army (caturangabala or caturangacamu). The
expression caturangabala implies that the army consisted of four types of fighting units, viz.,
infantry, cavalry, chariot and elephant divisions. Magha in his Sisupalavadha mentioned
caturangabala when he depicts the dvanda-yuddha of Sisupala and Airavata, the elephant of Indra;
as Sisupala himself was very strong and brave,he even leaves behind the caturangabala while
fighting with Indra.
By caturarigabala Magha perhaps indicated the four types of fighting units, stated above. And by
caturdanta he meant the elephant Airavata which is known to have four tusks. Kautilya in his
Arthasastra mentioned that each of the four divisions of fighting units has an Adhyaksa, who is
concerned with the equipment and training of his unit as well as recruiting efficient men into it.
Kautilya offered a discussion in the Arthasastra as to the duties of the Asvadhyaksa,
Hastyadhyaksa, Rathadhyaksa and Pattyadhyaksa. Magha, in his Sisupalavadha makes mention
of caturarigavahini.
It may be noted here that the same practice of associating predatory tribes with the army
continued in later ages among the Marathas and the Moghuls. It is well known that the
Pindaries often accompanied the Maratha army in its expeditions, and were employed not so
much for fighting as for plundering the country through which they passed. In the same way,
privileged and recognised theives, called ‘Bederia’ were also known for their march with the
Moghul army. These were the first to invade the enemy’s territory, where they plunder
everything they find.
2.7.2 The Recruitment and Training of the Armed-Forces

As in today, recruitment and training of personnel of the services are two important aspects of
militarism for all times and climes, and ancient India could not be an exception to this.

However, we have no reliable concrete evidence as regards the recruitment and training of the
troops in the early Vedic times nor we have any reliable evidence to show whether rulers or the
states concerned of the time of the early periods had maintained any sort of a regular or
standing army.
2.7.3 Space Sciences
2.7.3.1 Vedic Cosmology

Vedic Cosmology is yet another ancient Vedic science which can be confirmed by modern
scientific findings and this is acknowledged by well known scientists and authors, such as Carl
Sagan and Count Maurice Maeterlinck, who recognized that the cosmology of the Vedas closely
parallels recent scientific observations and calculations.
Carl Sagan stated, “Vedic Cosmology is the only one in which the time scales correspond to
those of modern scientific cosmology.”
French astronomer Jean-Claude Bailly corroborated the antiquity and accuracy of the Vedic
astronomical measurements as “more ancient than those of the Greeks or Egyptians.” And that,
“the movements of the stars calculated 4,500 years ago, does not differ by a minute from the
tables of today.”
The ninety foot tall astronomical instrument known as Samrat Yantra (pictured above right),
built by the learned King Suwai Jai Singh of Jaipur, measures time to within two seconds per
day.
Cosmology and other scientific accomplishments of ancient India spread to other countries
along with mercantile and cultural exchanges. There are almost one hundred references in the
Rig Veda alone to the ocean and maritime activity. This is confirmed by Indian historian R. C.
Majumdar, who stated that the people of the Indus-Sarasvata Civilization engaged in trade with
Sooma and centers of culture in western Asia and Crete.
2.7.4 Indian Space Programme

India is one of the few countries that have taken up the challenge of exploring space and
utilizing space for the benefits of the common man. For this, the country has developed various
technologies which few other countries have done.

India’s achievements in space today are the result of the far-sightedness of Dr Vikram Sarabhai,
one of the greatest sons of India. Sarabhai was a great dreamer and showed the path to realize
those dreams. He had firm belief in the power of space technology to bring about rapid and
overall development of India.
Professor Satish Dhawan, who succeeded Dr Sarabhai as the head of the Indian space
programme, made immense contributions to the Indian space programme by assigning great
importance to developing and mastering space technologies through indigenous efforts. He also
laid emphasis on the involvement of the Indian industry to meet the needs of the country’s
space programme. Professor U.R. Rao, Dr K. Kasturirangan, Dr G. Madhavan Nair and Dr K.
Radhakrishnan, who succeeded Professor Dhawan, have made their own unique contributions
to the Indian space programme.
2.7.5 Launch of 20 Satellites through a Single Rocket

An Example of Frugal Engineering
ISRO crossed a milestone on 22 June 2016 by launching 20 satellites through a single rocket. It
crossed its own record of launching 10 satellites in a single mission. ISRO is second to Russian
rocket launching a record of 37 satellites in a single mission in 2004. In this major milestone
mission, besides the primary Cartosat-2 series satellite, the PSLV C-34 rocket launched two
satellites from Indian Universities (Sathyabhama University, Chennai and College of
Engineering, Pune) and 17 foreign satellites including one for a Google Company. The 725.5 kg
Cartosat- 2 series of satellite will be for Earth observations and its imagery would be useful for
cartographic applications, urban and rural applications, coastal land use and regulation and
utility management like road networking.
There are 35 Indian satellites in the orbit and about 70 satellites are needed in the next five
years, besides the contracts signed with foreign companies. Hence, ISRO will go for more
multiple launch missions than single mission.
Indian Space Programme is one of the important sources of foreign revenue. ISRO’s commercial
branch generated a revenue of about Rs 1800 crore during the last fiscal year ,and a major share
of revenue was obtained by leasing out transponders. During 2016–17 more multiple satellite
launching will take place from Sriharikota.
Indian Space Programme is attractive to foreign firms since the mission has low budget in
comparison with those of the other countries. Engineering programme with minimum budget
providing maximum gain is called frugal engineering. Indian Space Programme is the best
example of frugal engineering.
The success of Chandrayaan mission initiated the quest for Mars through the Mars Orbitor
Mission or the Mangalyaan. India became the only country to orbit Mars in the first attempt.
The success of Mangalyaan put India on the elite club of nations to have achieved
interplanetary missions.
The successful testing of air-breather propulsion system and the scramjet rocket engine has put
India among the space technology giants of the globe. With Antrix Corporation bagging deals
of foreign satellite launches, it is certain that in future ISRO is set to rise as the most sought after
governmental space agency.
******

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U18MH315 / U18MH415 - ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITION AND KNOWLEDGE Unit - II

U18MH315/U18MH415 ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE

Modern Science and Indian Knowledge System:

Unit – II Learning Objective (LO):

Unit-II Outcome (CO):

“Vidya dadati vinayam vinayad yati patratam

Patratvad dhanamaapnoti dhanad dharmam

Education leads to sensibility,

Sensibility attains character/qualification,

from that comes wealth and

from wealth (one does) good deeds,

from that (comes) joy

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

2.1.1 Significant Contributions of Ancient India to World Culture and Science

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

2.1.2 Scientific Verification of Vedic Knowledge

2.1.3 India’s Indigenous Vedic Culture

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

2.1.4 Renowned Thinkers Who Appreciated Vedas As Origin Of Science

Source: Scientiﬁc Veriﬁcation of Vedic Knowledge-- David Osborn-Science of Sacred

2.1.5 Vedic Science in Pursuit of Truth

Real science consists of an objective pursuit of truth through observation and

2.1.6 Vedas as Basis of Science

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

2.1.7 Disciplines of Ancient Indian Knowledge

2.2 Branches of Sciences Found in Vedas (Sanskrit)

a. Physical and Chemical Sciences:-

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Similarly in the field of Mathematics the process of counting numbers fromone to

d. Earth and Space Sciences:-

2.2.1 Unification of Modern and Ancient Science

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

2.2.2 Different Routes of Modern Science and Indian Ancient Science

(Source: Dr D.N Srivastava ,Control Instrumentation Division ,BARC Mumbai)

2.2.3 Indian Contributions to Science

(Source: Vignan Bharathi—Indian Contributions To science)

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

2.2.3.1 Pre-Independence Contributions

b. Iron and Steel

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

c. Farming Technique and Fertilizers

e. Medicine and Surgery

f. Shipping and Shipbuilding

2.2.3.2 Post-Independence Contributions

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c. Electronics and Information Technology

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

f. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

2.3 Architectural Developments

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

2.3.1 Evolution of Indian Architecture and Developments

2.3.2 Harappan Period

Main features of Harappan remains are:

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2.3.3 Early Historic Period

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

Ajanta Ellora Cave Temple Udayagir Orissa Cave Temple

2.3.4 Medieval Period Architecture

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2.3.5 Medicine and Its Relevance in Vedas

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

2.3.5.1 Eight branches of Ancient Indian Medicine