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Wilson M. E. J. — Cenozoic carbonates in

Southeast Asia: implications for equatorial
carbonate development. Sedimentary
Geology 147 (3–4)
ARTICLE in SEDIMENTARY GEOLOGY · MARCH 2002

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Sedimentary Geology 147 (2002) 295 – 428
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Cenozoic carbonates in Southeast Asia: implications for

equatorial carbonate development
Moyra E.J. Wilson*
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Durham, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
Received 26 June 2000; accepted 18 September 2001
Abstract
Cenozoic equatorial carbonate production was at its most extensive and diverse in the seas of Southeast Asia, yet the
carbonates of this region remain poorly documented. This paper presents the first published review of carbonate deposition
during the Cenozoic, collating sedimentological data for carbonate successions throughout the region. Current models of warm-
water carbonate platform evolution, sedimentation and facies distribution, inspired by studies of the classic (sub)tropical areas,
provide inadequate analogues for the evaluation of modern or Cenozoic equatorial carbonates in Southeast Asia. The equatorial
carbonates differ in being dominated by bioclasts. Coated grains and associations with evaporites or dolomites are rare. The
carbonate systems occur in a range of depositional settings which were often affected by coeval tectonism, siliciclastic input or
volcanism. An understanding of the carbonate depositional environments, spatial facies distributions and controls on deposition
and diagenesis is essential in order to characterize equatorial carbonate development and to evaluate their considerable
economic potential. D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Equatorial carbonates; Southeast Asia; Evolution; Sedimentology; Depositional facies; Platforms; Tectonics
1. Introduction ogous to the present day. Despite the fact that this
region has the most extensive Cenozoic equatorial
Modern equatorial carbonate production is most carbonate development in the world, these deposits,
prolific in the clear shallow-waters of Southeast Asia with the exception of reservoir studies on individual
and almost half the world’s coral reefs and the greatest formations, have received little attention to date (cf.
species diversity of corals occurs in this area (cf. Pulunggono, 1976; Nayoan et al., 1981; Siemers et al.,
Umbgrove, 1947; Salm and Halim, 1984; Tomascik 1992b). In the past, researchers trying to understand
et al., 1997). Carbonate production was also extensive the development of individual carbonate formations in
in the shallow-marine seas of Southeast Asia during the area, often made comparisons with well-studied
the Cenozoic and outcrop studies reveal that the modern carbonate environments, such as the Bahamas
ancient carbonate depositional environments are anal- or Persian Gulf. However, it is shown in this review
that equatorial carbonates in Southeast Asia are quite
different from their (sub) tropical-counterparts and that
*
Fax: +44-191-374-2510. these and similar equatorial carbonates should be re-
E-mail address: moyra.wilson@durham.ac.uk (M.E.J. Wilson). examined as distinct depositional systems. Although
0037-0738/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 3 7 - 0 7 3 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 2 8 - 7
296 M.E.J. Wilson / Sedimentary Geology 147 (2002) 295–428
Southeast Asian carbonates occur in a greater diversity ground to help understand and quantify controlling
of tectonic settings and depositional systems, similar- influences on carbonate development.
ities can be seen with areas such as the Great Barrier
Reef, Belize or the Pacific atolls, offering insights into 2.3. Implications for regional basin evolution and
Cenozoic equatorial carbonate development. tectonics
This paper is the first comprehensive review pub-
lished detailing carbonate development in Southeast Southeast Asia is a tectonically and volcanically
Asia throughout the Cenozoic. The first part of the active area with a wide variety of sedimentary basins
manuscript summarises the importance of Southeast (Daly et al., 1987, 1991; Hall, 1996). Consequently,
Asian Cenozoic carbonates in a global context and initiation and subsequent development of many Cen-
their importance as economic resources within South- ozoic platforms was influenced by pre-existing struc-
east Asia. The bulk of this paper presents a compilation tures, tectonic activity or volcanism, and study of these
of information on carbonate successions in different carbonates helps in elucidating basin evolution (cf.
parts of Southeast Asia. This database of these poorly Pigram et al., 1990; Wilson, 2000; Wilson et al., 2000).
documented carbonates provides a reference point for
any researcher interested in this field. The final sec- 2.4. Implications for marine biodiversity and evolu-
tions of the paper briefly summarize depositional tion
environments and characteristics of equatorial carbo-
nates. A further paper (Wilson, in preparation) will Although Southeast Asia possesses the most diverse
discuss regional sequence development and diagenesis marine ecosystems in the world, reasons for this ‘centre
of Southeast Asian carbonates during the Cenozoic, of diversity’ remain contentious. Wilson and Rosen
and implications this has for hydrocarbon exploration. (1998), have shown that although apparently habitable
shallow-marine areas were present throughout the
Cenozoic in Southeast Asia, reefal corals only became
2. Global importance of Cenozoic carbonates in dominant carbonate producers during the latest Oligo-
Southeast Asia cene and Miocene (cf. Umbgrove, 1946). The present
high diversity of reefal corals in Southeast Asia is
2.1. Global implications therefore inferred to be a predominantly Neogene
phenomenon, and one, which probably owes its origins
A better understanding of factors such as carbonate to ‘origination, accumulation and survival’.
development, and carbon budgets on a global scale
will only be obtained through study of, and compar- 2.5. Climatic studies
ison between, equatorial, (sub)tropical and temperate
carbonates. Continuous carbonate sedimentation throughout
the Cenozoic in different parts of Southeast Asia has
2.2. Controls on carbonate sedimentation recorded palaeoclimatic and palaeoceanographic
changes, which will help us to better understand
Cenozoic carbonates in the region developed in all global atmospheric and oceanic changes and their
kinds of tectonic settings, including forearc, backarc, effects on the equatorial regions. Palaeoclimatic and
intraarc, foreland and passive margins areas (cf. Fulth- palaeoceanographic changes in Southeast Asia may be
orpe and Schlanger, 1989). These differ from other related to development of the East Asian Monsoon,
equatorial carbonates such as Belize, the Great Barrier changes in marine water chemistry, oceanographic or
Reef or Pacific atolls which developed predominantly ecological variations related to closure of the seaway
along passive margins or faulted/volcanic highs. A between Asia and Australia (cf. Pigram et al., 1990).
huge variety of factors, such as tectonics, terrestrial Records of global warming events, eustatic variations,
runoff, volcaniclastic input, eustasy and different oce- development of polar icecaps and the transition from
anographic regimes have influenced equatorial carbo- calcitic to aragonitic seas may also be preserved in
nates. Southeast Asia provides us with a natural testing Southeast Asian carbonates.
M.E.J. Wilson / Sedimentary Geology 147 (2002) 295–428 297
2.6. Economic importance of the stable cratonic area of Asia/Sundaland (Fig. 1).
North directed subduction of Indian Oceanic crust
Carbonates of Cenozoic age are of considerable influenced island arc and associated basin evolution
economic importance in Southeast Asia as hydro- and the development of a presently active major
carbon reservoirs, as raw materials for the construc- strike – slip system (Fig. 1; McCarthy and Elders,
tion and pharmaceutical industries, for their role in the 1997). During much of the Paleogene, there was a
hydrological cycle, and as unique natural habitats. land connection across the Sunda Shelf between land-
However, if the economic potential of these deposits masses in Sumatra and mainland Asia. Tertiary sed-
is to be realised, it is necessary to understand their imentation in Sumatra follows a period of latest
evolution and diagenesis. Studies of modern carbo- Cretaceous to earliest Tertiary convergence resulting
nates and Tertiary outcrops provide the best analogues in erosion and non-deposition. Horst and graben
for subsurface reservoirs. These studies are essential development during the latest Eocene and Oligocene
for hydrocarbon exploration as the industry focuses on in backarc areas was mostly infilled by lacustrine and
improving recovery from existing fields and exploring fluvial sediments, although there was some marine
for new reservoirs (cf. Park et al., 1995). sedimentation in the North Sumatra Basin (Fig. 3; de
Smet, 1992; Cameron et al., 1980). Active Tertiary
volcanism in Sumatra is associated with oblique
3. Cenozoic carbonate development in Southeast subduction of the Indian Oceanic Plate to the south
Asia of the island, and volcaniclastic sediments are com-
mon in both backarc and forearc areas. Oligo-Miocene
Outlined below is a compilation of information on subsidence, particularly in backarc areas, resulted in
Cenozoic carbonates in Southeast Asia, derived from thick initial terrestrial deposits overlain by marine
published literature and current research. The carbo- lithologies, and the Early –Middle Miocene is the time
nate successions are discussed from six areas. These of most extensive carbonate development in Sumatra
are from west to east: (1) Sumatra, (2) Java and Bali, (Fig. 2). During the Middle Miocene, uplift and
(3) Borneo and southern South China Sea, (4) Sula- erosion in the Barisan Mountains area resulted in
wesi, Nusa Tenggara and the Moluccas, (5) the increased clastic sedimentation into surrounding areas
Philippines and (6) New Guinea (Fig. 1). After setting and gradual expansion of the terrestrial environment
the tectonic context, the Cenozoic and modern carbo- (de Smet, 1992). The history of the forearc basin is
nate development is described for each region. similar to the backarc areas, although marine condi-
Depending on whether temporal or spatial carbonate tions are more prevalent throughout the Tertiary (Fig.
variations prevailed in each region, carbonate devel- 3; de Smet, 1992; Samuel et al., 1997).
opment has either been described sequentially or by
local areas. For individual limestone units, the loca- 4.2. Eocene to Early Oligocene
tion, age, thickness, tectonic setting and depositional
setting is presented on maps and tables accompanying Eocene and lower Oligocene carbonates are rare in
the text (Figs. 2 – 19 and Tables 1 – 6). Details of Sumatra due to the prevalence of terrestrial conditions
lithologies, biota, controls on deposition, diagenesis, and clastic sedimentation. An exception to this is the
economic potential and principal references for each Eocene to lower Oligocene Tampur Limestone of the
formation are also tabulated. North Sumatra Basin, which reaches a thickness of up
to 1 km (Figs. 2 and 3). This formation has been partly
metamorphosed, but contains abundant larger benthic
4. Sumatra foraminifera, some corals and coaly plant remains
(Cameron et al., 1980). An open, shallow-marine shelf
4.1. Tectonic context of Sumatra setting close to land is inferred for these deposits.
Other Eocene to lower Oligocene limestones include
Sumatra is the most westerly island in the Malay the Nummulites Limestone from southern Sumatra.
Archipelago and comprises the southwestern margin Reworked limestone clasts containing Nummulites in
298
M.E.J. Wilson / Sedimentary Geology 147 (2002) 295–428
Fig. 1. Tectonic map of Southeast Asia showing the main geographic areas.
Fig. 2. Map showing the distribution of Cenozoic carbonates in and around Sumatra.
Fig. 3. Major tectono-stratigraphic features of Sumatra during the Tertiary and stratigraphic correlation (from de Smet, 1992 and references in
diagram).
Oligocene melange in the forearc islands suggests that High, carbonate shelves flanked emergent islands
Eocene-Oligocene carbonate production also took (Fig. 4). However, post-depositional erosion has
place in this area (de Smet, 1992; Samuel et al., removed shallow-water carbonates from other struc-
1997). These limestones, containing abundant larger tural highs, such as the Cunda High where only
benthic foraminifera, were probably deposited as bathyal carbonates remain along the eastern flank
shallow-water shoals. (Burnaman et al., 1985).
Lithologies of the Miocene buildups often contain
4.3. Oligo-Miocene carbonates in backarc areas abundant micrite suggesting deposition under rela-
tively low-energy conditions. The biota present in-
Oligo-Miocene subsidence in backarc areas resulted cludes corals, coralline algae, larger benthic
in transgression and by latest Oligocene to Early foraminifera, molluscs, echinoiderms and bryozoa. A
Miocene times marine conditions prevailed (Fig. 3). variety of facies have been identified from the different
Within the backarc areas, carbonates commonly devel- buildups and skeletal packstones, wackestones, coral-
oped on structural highs, often trending north – south, gal framestones and rudstones as well as micritic
related to faulting, and shielded from clastic input (Fig. mudstones are all commonly reported. These are
4). Initiation of carbonate production was diachronous inferred to have accumulated in reefal, near-reefal
and began in the latest Oligocene or Early Miocene and lagoonal shallow-water areas. The Arun Platform
(Burnaman et al., 1985). Various names have been is interpreted as developing from patch reefs which
assigned to these predominantly lower to middle coalesced to form a larger reef complex (Abdullah and
Miocene limestones because they are time transgres- Jordan, 1987). In the Ramba –Rawa buildups of South
sive and developed on separate structural highs. In the Sumatra (Fig. 4), micritic-rich skeletal wackestones
North Sumatra Backarc Basin, the carbonates are and packstones with common branching corals and
commonly referred to as the Peutu Limestone or Lime- benthic foraminifera make up much of the Batu Raja
stone Member of the Peutu Formation. However, other Formation. Storm reworking into near-reef areas (Sit-
common names used for carbonates formed on specific umeang et al., 1992) and/or trapping of lime mud by
structural highs include the Malacca Limestone Mem- seagrass or non-calcareous algae is inferred on low-
ber (of the Belumai Formation), the Arun Limestone, relief banks (Longman et al., 1987). Development of
the Cunda Limestone, Western High Limestone and many buildups or banks was influenced by repeated
the Peusangan Limestone (Fig. 2). In southern Suma- subaerial exposure, possibly related to fourth- or fifth-
tra, and offshore northwest Java, the lower to middle order Early Miocene sea level fluctuations (Park et al.,
Miocene limestones are commonly known as the Batu 1995). Subaerial exposure resulted in leaching and
Raja Formation. The Batu Raja Formation is at least enhanced reservoir quality. Surrounding, and overly-
partly equivalent to the Basal Limestone Member of ing, the shallow-water banks and buildups, argilla-
the Telisa Formation and the Ombilin Limestone ceous limestones containing abundant planktonic
Member in central Sumatra (Fig. 2). In the subsurface foraminifera were deposited in deeper water settings.
major gas, condensate and oil discoveries have been Cessation of carbonate production in the Early –Mid-
found in these deposits. Due to extensive exploration dle Miocene was diachronous (Pannetier, 1994), and
and production from these carbonates their subsurface associated with increased subsidence and clastic influx.
evolution, diagenesis and reservoir quality is well
documented (Table 1 and Fig. 4). 4.4. Late Cenozoic carbonates of the forearc area
In the subsurface the buildups are typically up to a
few hundred metres thick, with the thickest reported A number of upper Oligocene to Recent carbonates
being 520 m. Buildup shape varies from circular to formed in the forearc area of Sumatra. The upper
elliptical, with conical, flat-topped or domal profiles. Oligocene to lower Miocene Peunasu Formation of
Buildups vary in size and the Arun structure at 18 5 Banda Aceh (Fig. 2) interdigitates with clastics and
km is one of the largest, with an estimated field size of has been interpreted as a near-shore barrier reef
42,000 acres (Abdullah and Jordan, 1987; Graves and complex which can be traced southeastwards into
Weegar, 1973). On some highs, such as the Krisna lagoonal deposits (Bennett et al., 1981b). Two phases
Fig. 4. Depositional setting and models for carbonate development in Sumatra.

of carbonate development during the Middle and Late the development of east – west trending basins sepa-
Miocene have been documented from the subsurface rated by block-faulted highs (Sujanto and Sumantri,
of the northern Sibolga Basin (Rose, 1983). In the 1977). Tertiary carbonates developed along the basin
area of the forearc islands a range of Miocene to margins or on the faulted highs. In areas proximal to
Pleistocene carbonates developed in a range of depo- volcanic activity, carbonates commonly interdigitate
sitional settings. These include the shelf limestones of with volcaniclastics, and volcanic detritus locally
the lower to middle Miocene Olodano Formation in hindered or strongly affected carbonate development.
Nias, which developed on basement highs. Reefal Marine conditions developed in the East Java Sea in
limestones of the upper Pliocene to Pleistocene the Eocene, but, only spread to the backarc basins of
Gunung Sitoli Limestone formed on a clastic shelf western Java as these areas subsided in the Oligo-
and interdigitate with coastal mangrove deposits. Miocene (Fig. 6). The most extensive carbonate
development around Java was therefore during the
4.5. Modern Neogene (Fig. 5), and buildups in backarc areas
comprise prolific hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Sumatra has a coastal length of 4500 km excluding A variety of companies have undertaken explora-
the numerous offshore islands, yet carbonate production of areas onshore and offshore Java and conse-
ing environments around the island are poorly known quently a confusing array of names and age inter-
or documented (Tomascik et al., 1997). Extensive pretations exist for stratigraphic units (Table 2). Due to
fringing reefs have developed along the coast of Aceh, the tectonic complexity of the area, and the common
and around offshore islands in the forearc (Fig. 2). interdigitation of different sedimentary rocks, many of
Evidence for extensive Holocene fringing reef devel- the carbonates are time transgressive, have been
opment is reflected in numerous raised young reef assigned lithostratigraphic names, or are only locally
terraces along the west and north coast of Sumatra developed.
(Tomascik et al., 1997). The south-western coast of
Sumatra is rugged and strongly affected by onshore 5.2. Paleocene? and Eocene localised carbonates
directed winds and swell from the Indian Ocean. This
high-energy coast with numerous bays and islands is During the Paleocene and Eocene land areas
ideal for fringing reef development where surface existed across northern and western Java. Uncon-
seawater temperatures range from 26 to 30 °C and firmed Paleocene carbonates, Eocene carbonates of
salinities vary between 33 and 34 psu (Tomascik et the Wungkal/Gamping Beds, Nummulites Limestone,
al., 1997). Extensive mangrove forests and tidal or Cipageur Member and Eocene –Oligocene lime-
swamps dominate much of the East coast of Sumatra stone lens within the Nanggulan Formation developed
and fringing reefs have not been reported from this in central and south Java. These limestones are
coastline. However, fringing reefs and patch reefs dominated by larger benthic foraminifera, although
have been described from the turbid water along the rare non-reefal corals are present. The depositional
coast of Malaysia and around islands in the Malacca setting is inferred to have been localised foraminiferal
Straits (Mohammed and Badaruddin, 1991). shoals on clastic or mixed carbonate-clastic shelves
(Sumarso and Ismoyowati, 1975). Some redeposition
of shallow-water biota into deeper water environments
5. Java and Bali has been suggested in the Wungkal/Gamping Beds
(Rahardjo, 1982).
5.1. Tectonic context East of Madura, in the East Java Sea, extensive
shallow-water carbonates of the Ngimbang Formation
The Indo-Australian Plate is presently subducting formed on an east –west trending, fault-bounded high.
towards the north under southern Java (Fig. 6). These predominantly upper Eocene limestones ini-
Inferred southward movement of the subduction tially formed as a broad low-relief platform, but later
trench during the Tertiary resulted in changes in the developed into more than twenty buildups. The Ngim-
location of the associated volcanic arc in Java, and in bang carbonates include abundant larger benthic fora-
Table 1
Cenozoic carbonates in and around Sumatra
Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting
Arun Limestone (AL). Onshore N Sumatra, Early Miocene – 6 – 300 m, thickest Onshore N Sumatra, Carbonate platform on
Equiv. Limestone on Arun or Lho Middle Miocene in centre thins Backarc area, N – S antecedent high.
member of Peutu Sukon high (Tf1 and poss Te5), on flanks N – S trending Developed from patch
Formation, etc. N8 – N5, diachronous Arun High reefs coalesced to form
larger reef complex.
Reef, near reef and
lagoonal environments
Batu Raja S Sumatra and Late Early to Middle Varies, average S Sumatra and Shallow water on and
Formation (BR) offshore NW Java Miocene (N4 – N8). buildup 150 m, offshore NW Java, around platforms and
Diachronism of up to 520 m Backarc highs. Platform
drowning limestone, and/or reefal
buildups upper part
developed on local fault
controlled highs. Distal
parts of basin, open
marine shales and thin
limestones
(Middle Miocene) Northern Sibolga Middle to ?Late 300 m? Sumatran Forearc Shelfal limestones,
Carbonate unit Basin, offshore Miocene lower part contains
(MM) Sumatra abundant terrigenous
material. Reefs present
(Late Miocene) Northern Sibolga early Late Miocene 500 m? Sumatran Forearc Shelfal limestones,
Carbonate-Clastic Basin, offshore interdigitate with
Unit (UM) Sumatra mudstones and
quartzose sandstones
Cunda Limestone Onshore N Sumatra Late Oligocene to 100 m of limestone Onshore N Sumatra, Sublittoral to upper
(CL). Equiv. on Cunda High to Early Miocene E flank Cunda Backarc area bathyal carbonates
Bampo/Peutu W of Arun High Cunda High preserved on E of N – S
structural high, Olig
and Early Miocene
shallow water carbs.
may have been eroded
from high
Gunung Bala Batu Islands Early to Middle >100 m Sumatran Forearc Shallow marine?
Formation (GB) (Gunung Bala on Pliocene Islands
Tanahbala)
Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

deposition potential
Reef facies (coral Corals, coralline Antecedent Microporosity, chalky 4 35 md Graves and Weegar,
and coralline algal algae, molluscs, topographic, high, intercrystalline permeability. 1973; Houpt and
boundstone), near larger benthic accommodation (fresh water Permeability best Kersting, 1976; Siagian
reef (foram/skeletal foraminifera, space, rapid recrystallization lime in upper part of and Stone, 1976;
packstones, coral absence of Middle Miocene sea mud), vuggy and reef, giant gas field Abdullah and Jordan,
rudstones) and planktonic level rise—reef mouldic dissolution 1987; Sprunt, 1987;
lagoonal facies foraminifera nearly drowned, then some dolomites Wirjodihardjo, 1992
(foram packstone/ SL fall subaerial
skeletal packstone) exposure
Reef limestone Coral, larger Rel sea level change, Porosity, mouldic, Oil and gas Basuki and Pane, 1976;
(skeletal packstones, foraminifera, drowning, subaerial vuggy, intraskeletal, reservoirs in Hadi and Simbolon,
wackestone, coral- coralline algae (rare) exposure. Local intraparticle, buildups, porosity 1976; Scheidecker and
algal boundstones), erosion partly intercrystalline and best developed in Taiclet, 1976; Wight
glauconitic removed sequence microporosity. upper part. and Hardian, 1982;
packstones, Freshwater meteoric Porosities up to Ardila, 1983; Djuanda,
wackestones, leaching, caliche and 30 – 40% 1985; Youens, 1986;
calcarenite and fracturing. Longman et al., 1987,
calcareous shales and Neomorphism. Six 1992; Poggiagliolmi
marls, conglomerate, phases of cementation, et al., 1988; Crumb,
oolitic grainstone two phases of 1989; Situmeang et al.,
dissolution 1992; Tonkin et al.,
1992; Pannetier, 1994;
Park et al., 1995;
Wicaksono et al., 1995;
Welker-Haddock et al.,
1996; Hutapea, 1998
Microcrystalline to Corals Clastic influx, Not described No information Rose, 1983
chalky limestone water depth given
overlain by
interbedded micrite
and bioclastic
limestone. Reefs
present
Interbedded micrite Corals Clastic influx, Not described No information Rose, 1983
and bioclastic water depth given
packstone with
buildups and reefs
at top of unit
Lower part upper Coralline algae, Antecedent topography, Gas reservoir Burnaman et al., 1985
Oligocene inner abraded biochems rel. sea level rise, fall Cunda-A2 well,
sublittoral to from high energy, (erosion) then rise flowed 10.5 MMCFD
shallow middle foraminifera
sublittoral, upper
part Early Miocene-
outer sublittoral to
upper bathyal
packstones
Biocalcarenite Molluscs, Unknown Not described No information Nas and Supandjono,
foraminifera, corals, given 1991
echinoids
(continued on next page)
Table 1 (continued)
Gunung Sitoli (GS) Nias Late Pliocene to 300 m Sumatran Forearc Reefal limestone in
Pleistocene Islands clastic sequence, inter-
bedded with coastal
mangrove deposits
Malacca Lst. Malacca Straits Early to Middle Up to 330 m Offshore N. Sumatra, Over 70 carbonate
Member-Belumai Miocene. 87/86Sr Backarc buildups developed on
Formation (BF). range 7 – 23Ma antecedent highs. Cir-
Equiv. Arun, etc. cular or elongate, and
conical, flat-topped or
domal buildups. Reef
and intereef deposits
(including forereef)
Malakoni Formation. Enggano, Forearc Pliocene to Late Unknown Sumatran Forearc Shallow marine reefal
(ML) Equiv. Pleistocene Island limestone
Simatobat
Formation
Lahomie Limestone Nias Latest Early Miocene 50 – 4 m Sumatran Forearc Limestones in clastic,
Member (LL) (or Middle Miocene) Islands diatomite and tuff suc-
to Early Pliocene cession
(NN5 – NN12)
Lam Kabue Banda Aceh, Forearc Plio-Pleistocene 20 – 30 m Sumatran Forearc Shallow marine reefal
Limestone (LK) limestones
(Seulimeum
Formation)
Nummulites Marginal Bengkulu Eocene to Early Not given S Sumatra Forearc. Open marine foraminif-
Limestone (not Basin Oligocene N.B. Forearc islands eral shoals?
shown on map as reworked clasts with
occurs in melange) Nummulites in
melange (Olig)
Olodano Formation Nias and Banyak Early to Middle up to 250 – 500 m Sumatran Forearc Shallow marine,
(OL) Islands Miocene Islands predominantly inner
to middle shelf
Ombilin Limestone Ombilin Basin, Late Early to Middle Up to 150 m Barisan Mountains Shallow marine lime-
Member (OF). Barisan Mountains Miocene area—intermontane stone
Equiv Batu Raja basin
Table 1 (continued)

Boundstone and Coral Clastic input, Not described No information Samuel et al., 1997
rudstones, water depth given
packstones and
wackestones
Basal part Massive and Antecedent Dissolution Commercial gas and Peter and Achmad,
interbedded branching corals, topography. rel. sea (mouldic porosity), oil reservoirs 1976; McArthur and
clastics and binding and level change— recrystallization, (more common in Helm, 1982; Mundt,
carbonates. Coral encrusting coralline subsidence and chalkification S buildups). Gas 1982, 1983; Sulitra,
framestones, algae, bivalves, eustasy (assoc. freshwater flow rates 11 1991
packstones, echinoids, foraminifera leaching) and late MMCFD. 4 buildups
wackestones, and gastropods dolomitization. 2 TCF. Gas 1.5% H2S
grainstones. Porosity up to 30%. and up to 31% CO2.
Commonly Fracturing and Crude in NSB-L1
dolomitized in cavernous porosity.
lower part Best porosity subaerial
exposure
Reef limestone Corals, molluscs, Water depth Not described No information Amin et al., 1986
(rudstones and larger benthic given
boundstone?), foraminifera and
calcirudites and bryozoa
calcarenites and
fragmental
limestones
Packstones and Larger benthic Rel. sea level Not described No information Samuel et al., 1997
marls foraminifera, corals change, differential given
subsidence. Deepening
in environment
Coral-rich reefal Corals Water depth Not described No information Bennett et al., 1981b
limestones given
(prob rudstones and
framestones)
Limestones containing Larger benthic Accommodation Not described No information Gafoer and
Nummulites foraminifera space given Purbo-Hadiwidjoyo,
(Packstones/ 1986; de Smet, 1992
Rudstones?)
Floatstones, Porites, Platy corals, Water depth, formed Not described No information Samuel et al., 1997
rudstones, Coralline algae, on basement highs given
bafflestones, larger foraminifera
framestones,
wackestones,
packstones,
grainstones, and
basal limestone
conglomerate
Poorly bedded sandy Not described Rel sea level change Not described No information de Smet, 1992
and fossiliferous and transgression, given
limestone clastic input

Table 1 (continued)
Peunasu Formation Peunasu Late Oligocene to Unknown North Sumatra, Paralic to fluviatile,
(PF) (Banda Aceh) Early Miocene Forearc, near open marine sublittoral,
(N1 – N4) land area towards top clastics.
Limestones interpreted
as barrier reef
sequences which can be
traced SE into lagoonal
mudstone
Peusangan Limestone/ Offshore N Sumatra Early to Middle Up to 220 m Offshore N Sumatra, Carbonate buildups on
Sigili Limestone on Peusangan/ Miocene Backarc N – S antecedent struc-
(Member Baro Fm) Western High tural highs (N extension
(PS). Equiv. Peutu/ and Sigili Highs of Cunda/Arun High
Arun Limestone and Sigili High to W).
Peusangan, steep to
west and N, gradual to
S and E
Peutu Formation Northern Sumatra, Early to Middle Not given, total Backarc Basin Shallow marine, some
Limestone Member Takengon, Langsa Miocene thickness Peutu Fm. buildups on faulted
(LP). Equiv. Arun 1000 m. Subsurface highs. Lho Sukon – N –
Lst., W High Lst., < 300 m (880’) S oriented reefal com-
Telaga Lst and plex and flank deposits
Malacca Lst. (near-reef) and lagoonal
deposits surrounded by
deeper platformal and
basinal deposits. Lower
part deeper platform,
upper part buildups
Sibigo Limestone/ Simeulue, Forearc Middle Miocene 100 m – 350 m + Sumatran Forearc Shelfal limestones with
Ai Manis (SB) Island Island reefal development
Simatobat Formation South Pagai Forearc Probably Pleistocene 500 m Sumatran Forearc Shallow marine
(ST) Island Islands
Tampur Limestone Northern Sumatra, Probably Eocene – Up to 1000 m, Margins of Sunda Shallow shelf, open
Formation (TM). Langsa and Medan Early Oligocene but mostly thin craton, prior to marine, adjacent to land
Equiv. limestones backarc basin area
in mainly clastic formation
Meucampli
Formation
Table 1 (continued)

Echinoid rich reefal Echinoids, corals? Water depth, clastic Not described No information Bennett et al., 1981b;
limestones overlying influx given de Smet, 1992
micaceous
sandstones, also
congs. Siltstones
and mudstones
Upper part porous Antecedent Cavernous porosity. Loss circulation in Walker and Maas,
reefal limestone. topography, rel. sea Fault segmentation reef, karstification 1986; Hinton et al.,
Lower part tight, level change of reef 1987; Wang et al.,
dense dolomitic 1989; de Smet, 1992
limestone
Fossiliferous Abundant coral Antecedent basement Micritization, Gas in subsurface Bennett et al., 1981a;
calcarenites and (in place and topography, leaching of S Lho Sukon Cameron et al., 1983;
calcilutites, reworked) and Organisms, faulting aragonite, some (Langsa). Lateral Rory, 1990; Maliki and
locally reefal. foraminifera. Also (pre and post reef), later equant heterogeneities. Soenarwi, 1991; de
Boundstones, algae, echinoids, eustasy. Hypersalinity cements. SLS-D 520 Smet, 1992; Sunaryo
rudstones, molluscs and in lagoonal areas Microfractures. MMCFPD of gas et al., 1998
grainstones, limestone fragments Porosity 8 – 23%.
packstones and Lagoonal facies fine
wackestones. needles replacement
Dolomite in lower gypsum
part. Locally
interbedded
mudstones
Reefal limestones Corals, coralline Development on Not described No information Situmorang et al., 1987;
(rudstones, algae, Abundant basement highs given de Smet, 1992
boundstone?), larger benthic
limestone clasts foraminifera and
bivalves, echinoids
Reef limestone, Corals Unknown Not described No information Budhitrisna and
calcarenites and given Andi Mangga, 1990;
polymict de Smet, 1992
conglomerates
Massive Larger benthic Proximity to shore Dolomitization No information Cameron et al., 1980,
recrystallized foraminifera, corals and clastics, water given 1982; Bennett et al.,
limestones and and coaly plant depth 1981a; de Smet, 1992
dolomites, remains
some partly
metamorphosed.
Biocalcarenites and
biocalclutites.
Chert nodules and
local basal limestone
conglomerate

Table 1 (continued)
Basal Limestone Onshore S Central Late Early Miocene Up to 100 m, NW Backarc basin Reefal limestone with
Member (Telisa Sumatra, of Muara Lembu buildups
Formation)-BT. Padangsidempuan 550 m
Equiv. Ombilin and Lubuksikaping
Lst and Batu Raja
Tuangku Beds Equiv. Banyak Islands, Miocene to mid 600 m + Sumatran Forearc Reefal limestones and
Marl-Limestone Forearc Islands Pliocene? Islands marls, tuffs, intercala-
Series/Olodano tions of shale and sand-
(OL) stones
In addition to these carbonate formations or members, limestone beds are also reported from a number of different clastic or volcaniclastic
formations in Sumatra, such as the Eocene – lower Oligocene Meucampli Formation.
minifera and coralline algae in micritic packstones, Trough reefal limestones of the Sigugur Limestone
wackestones and mudstones. The buildups are inferred developed on a shelf area in Central Java.
to have formed as foraminiferal shoals (Kohar, 1985). Marine conditions spread to the area offshore north
Undeveloped hydrocarbon reserves have been discov- Java in the Late Oligocene and led to the accumu-
ered in these fractured carbonates (Phillips et al., 1991; lation of widespread platform carbonates and associ-
Siemers et al., 1992a). Paleogene subsidence contin- ated buildups of the Batu Raja Formation (Figs. 2 and
ued in the East Java Sea following rifting, it resulted in 5). These are dated as Late Oligocene to Early
drowning of most of the buildups by the Early Oligo- Miocene and in places may post-date or be contem-
cenes (Siemers et al., 1992a). However, on bathymet- poraneous with the Rajamandala Formation. The Batu
ric highs, such as Gunung Putih, carbonates (now of Raja offshore Java thins over antecedent structural
the Prupuh Limestone or Kujung Formation) contin- highs, as in Sumatra, and low-relief buildups formed
ued to accumulate through most of the Oligocene and on the flanks of these highs (Burbury, 1977). Some
into the Miocene (Cucci and Clark, 1993). coral frameworks have been found in the Batu Raja
Formation, although most of the lithologies are
5.3. Oligocene backarc carbonates micritic (Burbury, 1977). Offshore Northwest Java
and in the East Java Sea Oligocene/Miocene lime-
During the Oligocene, the east – west trending stones of the Kujung/Prupuh/‘CD’ Formations inter-
Bogor – Kendeng Trough formed as a fault-bounded digitate with clastics and were deposited in shallow-
graben in a backarc position to the north of the water to bathyal depositional environments (Kenyon,
volcanic arc (Fig. 6; Bolliger and de Ruiter, 1975; 1977; Bransden and Matthews, 1992).
Sujanto and Sumantri, 1977). The upper Oligocene–
lower Miocene Rajamandala Formation of western 5.4. Neogene backarc and forearc carbonates
Java, developed as an ENE –WSW fringing or barrier
reef complex bordering the southern margin of the The volcanic arc is inferred to have moved north-
Bogor Trough. Boundstones, containing abundant wards during the Miocene to its present day position
corals and algae in a micritic matrix, suggest good running along the centre of Java. Extensive Miocene
reefal development under moderate to low-energy carbonate production occurred to the north and south
conditions (Koesoemadinata and Siregar, 1984; Adi- of the volcanic arc, commonly on structural highs
nergoro, 1973). These pass northwards into reefslope isolated from clastic or volcaniclastic influx. Three
and forereef deposits, which include coral rudstones, main Miocene carbonate intervals are present offshore
Lepidocyclina packstones and Globigerina pack/ Northwest Java: the Mid-main, Pre-Parigi and Parigi
wackestones interbedded with redeposited carbonates Limestones, and are economically important hydro-
(Fig. 7). On the northern side of the Bogor– Kendeng carbon reservoirs (Fig. 7). The mostly lower and

Reefal limestone Corals, bivalves, Rel. transgression Not described No information Turner, 1983;
gastropods given Rock et al., 1983;
de Smet, 1992
Reefal limestones Corals and coralline Water depth, local Not described No information Hariadi and Soeparjadi,
and marls algae topography? given 1975; Samuel et al.,
1997
middle Miocene Mid-main and Pre-Parigi Limestones ally over structural highs and on bank or platform
are platform to shelf carbonates with associated build- edges, such as bordering the North Madura shelf
ups, which developed only locally on structural highs. (Kenyon, 1977). Planktonic foraminifera wackestones
In contrast, the upper middle Miocene to lowermost and marls were deposited in laterally equivalent
Pliocene Parigi Limestone developed more exten- deeper basinal areas. On some structural highs, such
sively across a base-leveled surface, although build- as Gunung Putih, east of Kangean, shallow-water
ups again formed above slight topographic highs. The carbonates continued to accumulate through much of
upper two carbonate units have been affected by the Miocene. In this area, a number of different
subaerial exposure. In all three horizons, the elongate sequences have been distinguished and related to
morphology of buildups, commonly trending NNW – relative sea level change (Cucci and Clark, 1993,
SSE, has been related to the prevailing current/wind 1995). In most offshore areas, carbonates are inter-
direction and to structural trends (Fig. 7). A wide bedded with shales and many of the middle and upper
variety of shallow-marine biota is present within these Miocene to Pliocene planktonic foraminifera-rich car-
limestones in a micritic matrix, although corals are not bonate stringers, such as the Rancak Member or the
commonly reported. Onshore northwest Java, a num- ‘OK’ Formation were deposited in bathyal environ-
ber of small outcrops of Miocene carbonates which ments, probably during transgressions (Bransden and
have been assigned a variety of names are at least Matthews, 1992). During the Late Miocene/Pliocene,
partly equivalent to the offshore units. These carbo- due to subsidence and/or transgression in offshore
nates were deposited in a variety of depositional areas, many carbonates backstepped and are preserved
environments including platform, shelf margin, mixed as outcrops onshore Northeast Java and Madura.
carbonate-clastic shelves, and were sometimes These limestones, including the Bulu, Pasean,
affected by volcaniclastic input. Paciran, Klitik and Madura Formations, were depos-
In Northeast Java, offshore Northeast Java and in ited in a range of shelf depositional environments. In
the East Java Sea carbonates accumulated extensively areas proximal to the volcanic arc, the limestones may
in clear marine waters during the Miocene. The interdigitate with volcaniclastics.
variably named shallow-water carbonates were locally In southern Java and Bali, a number of different
developed, often time transgressive, and rapid lateral limestone units were deposited in a forearc setting
and vertical facies changes are characteristic of the during the Mio-Pliocene. The Selatan Formation
area (Fig. 7). Offshore, a lower Miocene carbonate exposed in southern Bali and Southeast Java is
horizon, known as the Kujung Unit I or Prupuh reported to be Mio-Pliocene in age. The predominantly
Formation, accumulated over a wide area and in a lower to middle Miocene Campurdarat and Wonosari/
variety of environments. Reefal, shoal and mud- Punung Formations were deposited in Southeast and
mound deposits developed as variable buildups, usu- South Central Java (Fig. 6). The Wonosari Formation
312
Fig. 5. Map showing the distribution of Cenozoic carbonates in and around Java and Bali (Whitten et al., 1996).
is dominated by larger benthic foraminifera and coral- continental core in the Southwest of the island (Hutch-
line algae, which accumulated on a moderate to high- ison, 1989; Metcalfe, 1996). During much of the
energy platform, on a faulted high south of the arc Tertiary, there was a continuous land connection
(Lokier, 2000). Other carbonates accumulated on sim- between Borneo and mainland Southeast Asia.
ilar faulted highs in the offshore area (Bolliger and de Present day reefs located offshore western Borneo
Ruiter, 1975). To the west of Yoygakarta, carbonates probably only developed during the Quaternary after
of the Kalipucang/Pamutuan Limestone only devel- the Sunda Shelf became a seaway (Fig. 8; Lloyd,
oped on highs due to later submergence in the Mid- 1978; Wilson and Moss, 1999). In contrast, a deep-
dle – Late Miocene. Further to the west in the forearc marine area existed in northern Borneo throughout the
region, the Cibodas Formation was deposited in the Cenozoic and some carbonates developed along its
Late Miocene. Many of these limestones from the margins (Figs. 8 and 9, and Table 3). Regional basin
forearc are intercalated with, and were affected by initiation around the edges of the Sundaland craton
volcaniclastics (Lokier, 1996). during the Early Paleogene resulted a widespread
marine area including large parts of eastern Borneo,
5.5. Modern the Makassar Straits, East Java Sea and much of
western Sulawesi (van de Weerd and Armin, 1992).
Present day reefs and carbonate producing areas Carbonate sedimentation was common in shallow-
are mostly located around western Java and in the marine areas bordering these basins (Figs. 8 and 9).
clear waters bordering eastern Java, Madura and Bali Today, areas of carbonate production have been
(Fig. 5). Along the north coast of Java, where clastic greatly reduced compared with the Tertiary (Fig. 8),
input is high, a few patch reef complexes form on as a consequence of Oligo-Miocene compression
structural highs, such as at Kepuluan Seribu and (Moss et al., 1998). This compression resulted in
Kepuluan Karimunjawa. Although not shown on uplift, accompanied by the progradation of large
charts, fringing reefs border much of the high-energy deltas and significant clastic input into marine areas
southern coast of Java (Tomascik et al., 1997). to the north and east of Borneo (Hutchison, 1989;
The patch reefs of Kepuluan Seribu, due to their Wilson and Moss, 1999).
proximity to Jakarta, are the most intensively studied
modern carbonates in Indonesia. This complex of 6.2. Northwestern Borneo Tertiary basin margin
buildups developed during Holocene sea level rise carbonates
on a north –south trending structural high. Individual
patch reefs have an east –west elongation, related to A number of isolated Tertiary carbonate platforms
bidirectional monsoonal winds and currents. All the developed on the predominantly clastic shelf north of
patch reefs formed under moderate to high-energy Borneo and now form karstic outcrops onshore Sar-
conditions have steep reefal margins, and generally awak (Fig. 8). The Melinau Limestone accumulated
lack micrite. The buildups of Kepuluan Seribu have over 2 km of shallow-water carbonates almost con-
been used as analogues for nearby productive Mio- tinuously from the Late Eocene to Early Miocene.
cene buildups due to their similar size, shape, setting These limestones are inferred to have developed on a
and facies, although unlike the Neogene examples subsiding continental shelf, distant from land (Adams,
micrite is rare (Jordan, 1998). 1965). The succession is dominated by larger benthic
foraminifera and coralline algae, and micrite is com-
mon. No reefal frameworks have been observed in the
6. Borneo Melinau Limestone and coral patches were only seen
in some of the Miocene deposits (Adams, 1965).
6.1. Tectonic context Scattered around Sarawak are other limestones of
variable Tertiary age. Upper Eocene larger benthic
Borneo is the product of Mesozoic accretion of foraminifera and coralline algae packstones and
ophiolitic, island arc and microcontinental fragments, wackestones comprise the lower parts of the Batu
together with marginal basin fill, onto a Paleozoic Gading, Selidong and Keramit Limestones. In con-
Table 2
Cenozoic carbonates Java and Bali
Batu Raja (BR) or ONWJ – Bima Field Oligocene to Early Buildups vary from Backarc Widespread carbonates
Gantar Formation (see Sumatra) Miocene 30 ft (Seribu Platform) platform and associated
or mid. Cibulukan to 800 ft (Ardjuna) buildups
(Main Carb. B)
(Equiv. Kujung)
see Sumatra
Bojonglompang W Java, Jampang Middle Miocene Max 400 m Close to volcanic Reefs on platforms
Member of arc under shallow marine
Cimandri Formation conditions, close to
(BL). Equiv. Parigi. land area
Saraweh Fm.?
Bojongmanik W Java, Bogor Miocene Lenses Intra-arc Localised biostromes

Limestone on clastic shelf
Member (BM)
Bulu Formation Madura and NE Late Middle Miocene 200 m Backarc Shelf margin/slope
(BF) Java – Jatirojo and (50 m Jatirojo)
Rembang
Campurdarat SE Java, Blitar, Early Miocene to 300 m Forearc, close Shallow marine, close
Formation (CD) Tulungayung earliest Middle to land? to land?
Miocene (Te5 – Tf1)
Cibodas Formation W Java, Jampang Late Miocene – Late 250 m Near volcanic arc Neritic to littoral
(CF) Pliocene
Cipageur Member W Java, Bayah area Eocene Lenses of limestone Relationship with Foraminiferal shoals or
(CM) of Bayah Fm. arc not clear redeposited units in
black shale
Citarate Formation W Java Bayah area Late Oligocene to Not given Close to volcanic Shelfal to shelf margin
(CT). Equiv. earliest Miocene arc/land area limestones?
Rajamandala Fm.

Some coral Corals Developed related to Moderate to severe (see Sumatra) Burbury, 1977
frameworks palaeostructures, thin diagenesis generally
on Seribu Platform, low porosities and
thicker on flanks, permeabilities
more buildups on W
flank Ardjuna
trough—higher
subsidence.
Palaeoceanography
NW elongate
buildups
Rudstone, Larger benthic Clastic input/ Not described Offshore equivalent Sukamto, 1975;
framestone?, foraminifera, volcaniclastic input, hydrocarbon Koesoemadinata and
packstone, echinoids, water depth reservoir. Siregar, 1984;
sandy limestone, planktonic Small quarries Sukarna et al., 1993
interbedded with foraminifera, coral
tuff, marl, breccia
and coal
Packstones and Molluscs Clastic input and Not described No information Effendi, 1986
wackestones water depth given
Interbedded marl Few larger benthic Water depth and Not described No information Situmorang et al., 1992;
and thin limestone and planktonic redeposition? given. Quarried Aziz et al., 1993; Kadar
(sandy limestone) foraminifera, and Sudijono, 1993
molluscs. Basal area
Rembang—
Cycloclypeus
Crystalline limestone Coral, algae, Clastic input Crystalline limestone No information Samodra et al., 1992;
and interbedded Larger benthic given Sjarifudin and Hamidi,
marl, carbonaceous foraminifera, 1992
claystone molluscs
Tuffaceous Larger benthic Clastic/volcaniclastic Recrystallization No information Sukamto, 1975
limestone, and planktonic input given
sandy limestone foraminifera and
and packstones molluscs
interbedded
with tuff
Packstones Larger benthic Clastic/volcaniclastic Not described No information Sukarna et al., 1993
foraminifera input given
Lower part: Foraminifera, Influx of clastics Not described No information Sukarna et al., 1993
Limestones and rel. sea level given
interbedded quartz change
sandstones, marls,
Upper part:
tuffaceous carb.
Breccias and
clastic-lsts

Table 2 (continued)
Gamping Beds S Central Middle to Late Basal part of 120 m Interarc? Mixed carbonate clastic
(Wungkul) (WG) Java – SE of Jiwo Eocene (Ta – Tb) (40 m) shelf or shoal, or
(Discocyclina Hills nr. Padasan olistolith. Increase in
Nangulan planktonic foraminifera
Beds/Formation) upwards—
transgression
Limestone Member Central Java – Miocene (Middle?) Lenses in lower Backarc/Intrarc Redeposited carbonates
Halang Formation Purwokerta, Cirebon part, 150 m and volcaniclastics.
(HM) and Majenang
Kerek ‘Limestone’. NE Java, C and E Late Miocene Up to 150 m, upper Backarc Carbonate-
Not on map, E – W Kendeng Zone part of Kerek volcaniclastic shelf?
trend from Formation
Semarang
Kalipucang Central Java Middle Miocene 150 m—isolated Backarc/Intrarc Shelf, reef on clastic
Limestone (KP). Majenang and (Tf1)—same age hills (volcaniclastic?)
Equiv. Halang Fm. Karungnunggal as limestone shelf/shelf margin, built
and Karangbolong member Pamutuan on former volcanic
Lst.? Limestone bodies
Kapung Limestone NE Java, W Late Miocene Up to 150 m thick Backarc Carbonate clastic shelf
of Lower Kalibeng Kendang Zone but changes quickly or buildup
Fm. laterally
Klitik Formation NE Java – Mojokarta Late Miocene – 250, 10 – 250 m Backarc Reef limestone, mixed
(KT) also named Pliocene (N18 – N20) carbonate clastic
Kalitik, Ngepung, Late Pliocene shelf/shelf margin, to
Selorojo Kalinges (N20 – 21) Kalitik etc. bathyal. Upper Pliocene
Fm or Upper Kalitik shallows
Kalibeng upwards or lateral
(including Klitik changes
and Balanus Lst)
Madura Formation Madura and offshore (Late Miocene) – 100 – 260 m Backarc Shallow marine
(MF) and Karren NE Java and Madura Pliocene. Offshore shelf/open marine shelf
Lst. Equiv. Dandar Oligocene to Pliocene. margin. Marls and
Fm. GL Fm. And Limestone (GL
Upper Cibulukan Formation) in deeper
Fm., Tapak, Kujung water. Pliocene reefs in
and OK Fms. Dandar Fm. Mixed
carbonate clastic shelf
upper GL Fm
mid-Main Limestone ONWJ and SE Early Middle Buildups only locally Backarc setting Laterally restricted
Member upper shelf edge and Miocene developed. Thickness carbonates and
/middle (MM) Seribu Platform 0 – 340 ft associated buildups,
Cibulukan Fm grade laterally into
(Main Carb. B) deeper marine muds
and silts

Sandy calcarenites Larger benthic Clastic/volcaniclastic Intruded by Little economic Sumarso and
interbedded with foraminifera: input, rel. sea level microdiorite potential Ismoyowati, 1975;
yellow sandstones/ Assilina, change—deepens Rahardjo, 1982
tuffs, marls upper Nummulite, upwards
part Pellatispira Planktonic
foraminifera in upper
part (P14)
Sandy limestone Larger benthic Input of Not described No information Djuri, 1975; Sujanto
foraminifera, volcaniclastics given and Sumantri, 1977;
molluscs, corals or redeposition Silitonga and Masria,
1978
Alternating Not described Volcaniclastic input Not described Not given De Genevraye and
tuffaceous Samuel, 1972
limestone and
tuffaceous and
argillaceous layers
Packstone, Coral, Larger Input of clastic/ Cavernous, No information Kastowo, 1975;
grainstone, benthic foraminifera, volcaniclastic input Calcite crystals, given Supriatna et al., 1992
boundstone. Coral planktonic recrystallized
Limestone foraminifera
(Rudstone,
Framestone?) Sandy
limestone at top
Fossiliferous Algae, corals, larger Clastic input Not described Not given De Genevraye and
calcarenite foraminifera and Samuel, 1972
molluscs
Rudstone, Coral, algae, Water depth, clastic Dolomitization. Globigerina Noya et al., 1992;
framestone molluscs, input, and antecedent Primary porosity? packstone—oil and Musliki and Suratman,
and clastic foraminifera, topography. Rel. sea Globigerina gas reservoir, some 1996
limestone, marl, fish teeth, level change (eustasy) packstone 20 – 40%, still producing
pf marl, pf Planktonic other facies (e.g. Balun-+/ 400
packstone foraminifera little porosity MMSCF/day)
Packstones, Corals, algae, Faulting, tilting, Some Dolomitization No information Noya et al., 1992;
framestones, molluscs and subsidence and given. Quarried Situmorang et al., 1992;
sandy limestones foraminifera eustasy Aziz et al., 1993
and marl
Sandy limestone, Benthic foraminifera, Developed on Neomorphic Oil in buildups Arpandi and
bioclastic/intraclastic bivalves, echinoderm, palaeostructural microspar. Calcite (e.g. MB-tested Patmosukismo, 1975;
wacke/packstone coralline algae, highs, morphology occludes most of Production 10,000 Burbury, 1977
and bioclastic corals. Minor controlled fault primary interparticle BOPD), migrated
pack/grainstone glauconite and pattern and by wind porosity. Dolomicrite, along faults? Lost
quartz /current direction, microspar and late circulation top
monsoons, ferroan dolomite.
clastic input? Secondary vugs.
Porosity 2 – 34%.

Table 2 (continued)
Ngimbang Offshore Kangean, Late Eocene mostly, Plaform and Backarc setting >20 carbonate
Carbonates (NC) Sepanjang area JS53B-1 small buildups up to along a major fault. shoals/buildups
shelfal carbonate 1150 ft (JS25-1) E – W trending half developed from broad,
buildup until Early grabens. Oligocene low relief platform
Oligocene, Kangean-2 subsidence. sequence, bounded by
starts Middle Eocene Sepanjang fault (normal
or strike – slip). Linear
trend JS53-Gunung
Putih, deep shales adj.
Ngrayong Formation Madura Middle Miocene Backarc Mixed carbonate clastic

(not shown shelf and shelf margin
on map)
Nummulites N Central Middle Eocene – Lenses Backarc? Foraminiferal shoals
Limestone (NL) Java – Pekalongan Oligocene (at least
in parts—may be
younger)
Nyalindung W Java, Bogor Miocene Lenses Intra-arc Shelf/mixed carbonate

Limestone clastic area
Member (NY)
Pacalan Member NE Java – E of Miocene or Middle Lenses? Interarc Shoals/reefs volcanic
(PN) Menuran Busuki Pliocene (check) area
Formation (?)
Paciran Formation NE Java: Mojokerto Late Miocene – 500 or Backarc Marine shelf. Reefal
(PC) sometimes and Jatirojo and Pliocene? 25 – 172 m limestone upper part,
grouped with Madura (Jatirojo area) (Jatirojo area) Chalky lower part
Madura Fm. (lower part N17)
Limestone member, W Java , Middle Miocene ± 500 m Close to volcanic Shelf margin/slope?
Pamutuan Karangnuggal (N12 – N13) arc
Formation (PM)
Parigi onshore W Java, Late Miocene >150 m Parigi at Backarc to intrarc, Shallow warm
(PO) (Equiv. Ardjawinangun, (Tf3) or Middle Kromong, >500 m NW Java Basin protected setting
Kelapanunggal, Tjianjur Miocene Cibinong area (Kromong)
part Kromong
and Jatiluhur)

Bioclastic Abundant larger Antecedent Recrystallizarion of Oil discovery Kohar, 1985; Phillips
packstones, micritic benthic foraminifera topography and muddy matrix. JS53A-1 carbs, et al., 1991; Bransden
limestones such as structures, Little primary non-economic. and Matthews, 1992;
(wackestones, Nummulites, syndepositional porosity, minor Dry well JS25-1. Siemers et al., 1992a;
mudstones) coralline algae, faulting rel. sea dolomite, extensive Economic gas Cucci and Clark, 1993;
some solitary level change, secondary fracturing discovery 1995
coral fragments, transgression Late and stylolites Pagerungan anticline
miliolids, echinoids, Eocene, subsidence Ngim. Clastics.
planktonic in Early Oligocene.
foraminifera Onlap and drape of
buildups by younger
beds
Sandy foraminifera Larger benthic and Clastic input Not described No information given Aziz et al., 1993
limestone and marl planktonic
foraminifera
Packstones/ Larger benthic and Clastic input, type Not described No information given Condon et al., 1975
rudstones? planktonic of organisms,
foraminifera water depth
Nummulites,
Pellatispira
Packstones Foraminifera and Clastic input and Not described No information given Effendi, 1986
molluscs water depth
Well-bedded, white Larger benthic Clastic/volcaniclastic Not described No information given Pendowo, 1991
crystalline limestone foraminifera, input
and sandy limestone Gastropods,
planktonic
foraminifera,
vertebrates
Packstone, Corals, larger Rel. sea level change Some dolomite No information Noya et al., 1992;
Rudstone, benthic given. Quarried Situmorang et al., 1992;
Chalky limestone foraminifera and Aziz et al., 1993
coralline algae,
some soils upper
part
Sandy limestone Planktonic Clastic influx? Not described No information Supriatna et al., 1992
and marl foraminifera given
Hard, massive Larger benthic Clastic/volcaniclastic Recrystallization and Lime produced, Djuri, 1973; Pringgo
wackestones and foraminifera input, water depth, metamorphism due low quality marble, et al., 1977; Bukhari
mudstones. Up (alveolinids and energy. Onshore NE to intrusion cement at Cibinong. et al., 1992
to 15 – 20% non- miliolids-Kromong), Java NE – SW andesites and dacites Subsurface gas and
carbonate, silica, Halimeda, echinoid, alignment of oil shows in
clay, carbon and coralline algae buildups related to adjacent onshore
glauconite current/wind and offshore wells
(Kromong). direction
Wackestones,
framestones,
grainstones
(Cibinong)

Table 2 (continued)
Parigi Limestone Onshore and Late Middle Variable thickness. Backarc setting Lower Parigi
(PL) offshore NW Java, Miocene to Up to 500 m biostromal wackestone
Sunda Straits Pliocene, mostly onshore. Offshore to packstone. Upper
Late Miocene few feet to 400 ft Parigi bioherm unit.
(1103 ft thickens to S) Sub-elliptical carbonate
buildups from
extensive stable
marine platform
Pasean Formation. Madura – Tangung Late Miocene 600 m Backarc Open oceanic shelf
Equiv. Madura Bumi and (limestone upper margin, mixed
Fm.? Pamekasan part – OK Lst) carbonate clastic shelf,
shallow and deep.
Prapatagung NW Bali Pliocene Not given Interarc Shallow marine to

Formation (PR) slope
Pre-Parigi onshore W Java, Middle Miocene >110 m pre-Parigi Backarc to intrarc, Open marine shallow
(Equiv. Upper Ardjawinangun (Tf2) (at Kromong), base South part NW platform, possibly near
Cibulakan, not seen Java Basin clastic source
Kromong(K)
Pre-Parigi Limestone ONWJ: SE shelf Early Middle to Buildups only Backarc setting Laterally restricted
Member (PP) – edge, Seribu Late Miocene locally developed up carbonates (stacked
upper Cibulukan Platform and W Equivalent to Bulu to 5000 sheet like-bodies) and
Fm Ardjuna Member, Gumai associated elliptical
(S Sumatra) and buildups, grade
Jatiluhur laterally into deeper
marine muds and silts
Prupuh/Rancak NE Java – Tuban Miocene (offshore 70 – 80 m (offshore Backarc on faulted Oligocene carbs. Small
Limestone and offshore Early – Middle few 100 s m) up to highs bathymetric highs.
(PU)-Member Kangean and Madura Miocene), also 600 m Kujung I Miocene shelf and shelf
Kujung/Cepu Oligocene Gunung offshore Madura margin/slope. Offshore
Fm.) Putih. Upper and open marine, low
lower Rancak offshore energy platform and
Kangean (Kujung I high relief pinnacle
Early Miocene) buildups. Gunung Putih
asymmetric platform.
Kujung I EW platform,
high-energy bank
margin to N. 6 buildup
types. EJS—clean
bathyal lst

Fine to medium Larger benthic Development Vuggy mouldic, Gas in buildups. Arpandi and
grained, moderately foraminifera, unrelated to intergranular and Dry gas 98.65% Patmosukismo, 1975;
sorted skeletal coralline algae, palaeostructural intragranular chalky methane.. Source Burbury, 1977;
foram wackestones, molluscs, features suggests porosity. Fine Talang Akar shales Yaman et al., 1991;
packstones and echinoderm, formed on dolomite. Minor and coals also Bukhari et al., 1992;
grainstones. planktonic base-levelled surface. CO2. Talang Akar generated oil, gas Carter and Hutabarat,
Onshore foraminifera, corals, But buildups formed shales and coals. filled buildups 1994
framestones bryozoa, glauconite above slight highs. Porosity 30%, before oil? Faults
Platform margin EW 2 darcies acted as conduits
structural trend. gas migration
Buildups NS trend,
current/wind
Sandy marl, muddy Larger benthic Clastic input and Not described No information Aziz et al., 1993
limestone and foraminifera, rel. sea level change given. Quarried
sandy limestone planktonic
foraminifera
(Ooids?)
Limestone, calca- Not described Water depth, Not described Not given Purbo-Hadiwidjojo
reous sandstone clastic input et al., 1998
and marl
pre-Parigi—hard, Larger benthic clastic/volcaniclastic Minor Lime produced, Djuri, 1973; Pringgo
compact, dense, foraminifera, algae, input, water depth, dolomitization. low quality marble. et al., 1977
thinly bedded molluscs, echinoids, energy Recrystallization Subsurface gas and
grey to brown planktonic and metamorphism oil shows in
lime packstone foraminifera due to intrusion adjacent onshore
to grainstone andesites and wells
75 – 80% CaCO3. dacites
Non carb: silica,
clay, glauconite
and carbon
Primarily fine to Benthic foraminifera, Developed on Vuggy mouldic and Gas in pre-Parigi Arpandi and
medium grained, echinoderm, palaeostructural intergranular porosity. Patmosukismo, 1975;
moderate to well molluscs, coralline highs, morphology Minor CO2. Gas Burbury, 1977; Yaman
sorted, skeletal algae controlled by wind source Talang Akar et al., 1991; Carter and
wackestones to direction, monsoons, shales and coals. Hutabarat, 1994
grainstones. clastic input? Minor dolomite.
Minor dolomite Porosity 30%,
2 darcies
Well cemented Larger benthic Pre-existing Strongly karstified, Pinnacle reefs Hartono, 1973;
packstone/ foraminifera and structures. Water sucrosic dolomite productive reservoir Kenyon, 1977;
Rudstone. corals, echinoids, depth and rel. sea and intercrystalline facies. Offshore Cucci and Clark, 1993,
Interbedded marls coralline algae level change? porosity for Madura Poleng oil 1995
and argillite. Tectonics, tilting highstand deposits field, other
Offshore unconformities, offshore Kangean. non-commercial gas
grainstones, steep margins Porosities up to and gas-condensate
packstones and controlled by faults 35% offshore fields
wackestones. and wind/leeward Madura
Kujung Miocene eustatic
boundstones, control on
wackestones, sequences. Types
packstones, of producers
floatstones
Table 2 (continued)
Pulau Seribu Offshore NW Java, Holocene 32.8, 20 – 45 m Passive margin, 192 individual patch
(PS) off Jakarta above sea floor backarc setting reef complexes
separated by major
east – west channels.
North platform
small < 1 km2 with
islands. To S platforms
larger, small islands and
broad lagoon
Rajamandala W Java, Tjiandjur, Late Oligocene – 0 – 650 m. Block faulted highs Open marine to
Formation (RF). nr. Bandung Early Miocene Limestones to south of restricted platform, reef
Also known as (Te) (N3 – N4) and generally < 300 m Bogor Trough). margin, forereef slope.
Tagogapu Lst. and detrital Lst (N5 – N7) Not clear if Near Bandung north
Gunung Masigit Lst. Sukabumi area. relationship with facing, ENE – WSW
volcanic arc at trending fringing/
this time barrier reef
Sakaraja (Sukaraja) SW Java, Late Miocene or Max 250 m Forearc, interarc? Shallow marine shelf,
Member, Benteng Tasikmalaya younger (Correlated reef limestone close to
Formation (SM) with Cibodas Fm.) land/arc during
submergence of
terrestrial areas
Sampung S Central – SE Java Late Miocene 150 m Intraarc Intraarc shelf margin
Formation (S) fringing reef
Selatan Formation S Bali Miocene – Pliocene Not given Forearc Shallow marine
(SF)
Sentolo Formation S Central Java Early Miocene (N8) 950 m Forearc/intraarc Shelfal to shelf margin
(ST)
Sigugur Limestone N Central Java, Miocene. Late Several 100 s m Backarc Scattered reefs grew on
Member (SLM) Banjarnegara and Oligocene? (Sujanto shelf platform
Pekalongan and Sumantri)
Limestone N Central Java – Pliocene Lenses Backarc Reefs on clastic shelf
member-Tapak Purwokerta and
Formation (LM). Majenang
Equiv. Kalibuik
Lst. Member?
Tawun/Tuban Madura Early Miocene 400 m Backarc Shelf margin
Formation (TB) (N5 – N12)
Tjitalang Limestone W Java, Tjiandjur Miocene – Late 500 – 600 m Near volcanic arc Mixed carbonate clastic
Member (TJ) and Bandung Pliocene? shelf

bioclastic corals, coralline 2 Monsoons, Much primary Primary porosity Park et al., 1992;
packstones, algae (branching towards SE and to porosity, corals with minor Scrutton, 1976; 1977/
wackestones, and encrusting), W control currents. recrystallized, radiaxial cement. 1978; Jordan, 1998
coral rudstones, Halimeda, bivalves, Average salinity Calcite spar infilling Analogue for
floatstones, gastropods, 32%. Developed calices and meniscus subsurface
framestones. echinoderm, large on palaeohigh high-Mg cement in reservoirs?
benthic foraminifera poss. Fault block. beachrock. Fibrous
But individual marine aragonite,
buildups may have bladed high-Mg
developed on bars calcite
moulded by currents
Rudstone, Larger benthic Rel. sea level Little early Used as facing Sujatmiko, 1972;
framestone, foraminifera, change, water secondary porosity. stone, equivalent to Adinergoro, 1973;
bafflestone, massive, branching depth, low energy Calcite cement reservoir of Batu Koesoemadinata and
packstone. Upper and platy corals, setting, development infilling secondary Raja or slightly Siregar, 1984;
part or laterally coralline algae, on (fault) bounded pores and fissures. older Koesoemadinata et al.,
tuffaceous marls. worm tubes, gastro- high. Deepening Karst breccia, 1985; Martodjojo,
Scattered quartz pods, planktonic up section and palaeosols 1986; Carnell and
grains. foraminifera laterally. Booler, 1996
Rudstone, Larger benthic Input of clastics/ Not described No information Budhitrisna, 1987
framestone?, foraminifera and volcaniclastics given
arenaceous planktonic
limestone foraminifera
Calcarenite, marl, Larger benthic Water depth and Not described No information Sampurno and
reef limestone, foraminifera, corals, clastic/volcaniclastic given Samodra, 1991
tuffaceous marl planktonic input
and lst. foraminifera
conglomerate
Mainly reefal, marl Fossiliferous Water depth Recrystallized Not given Purbo-Hadiwidjojo
in places, partly et al., 1998
bedded
Limestone Foraminifera Clastic/volcaniclastic Not described No information Rahardjo et al., 1995
(packstone) and input and water given
marly sandstone, depth
well bedded
limestone at top
Not described Foraminifera Water depth, Not described No information Condon et al., 1975;
basement high given Sujanto and Sumantri,
1977
Not described Not described Clastic input Not described No information Djuri, 1975; Sujanto
given and Sumantri, 1977
Clay, marl and Larger benthic Water depth Not described No information Aziz et al., 1993
foraminiferal and planktonic given
limestone foraminifera, corals
and molluscs
Limestone Molluscs Clastic/volcaniclastic Not described No information Sujatmiko, 1972
interbedded with input given
sandstones
Table 2 (continued)
Wonosari/Punung S Central and Early – Middle Up to about 500 m Forearc, on faulted? Moderate to high
Formation (WS). SE Java Miocene, but high to south of energy shallow water
Equiv. Kepek and possibly into Pliocene volcanic arc. platform and adjacent
partly to Oyo Fm. Offshore developed slope/basinal deposits
on faulted highs
Wungkal Beds S Central Java – Early to middle Lenses in 50 m Interarc? Overlie Foraminiferal shoals on
(WG) W flank Jiwo Hills Middle Eocene thickness of basement, possibly clastic shelf and mixed
(late Ta) sandstones unconformably carbonate clastic shelf.
Moderate to high
energy-imbrication
In addition to these carbonate formations or members, limestone ‘stringers’ or ‘lenses’ are also reported from a number of different clastic or
volcaniclastic formations in Java.
trast, the Paleocene to lower Eocene basal part of the bonates include the upper Eocene Ritan Limestone
Tujoh – Siman Limestone was deposited in deeper Member (Moss et al., 1997), the upper Eocene carbo-
water and consists of porcellaneous limestone rich in nates of Gunung Khombeng (Wilson et al., 1999) and
pelagic foraminifera and radiolaria. All these early the Oligocene Batu Belaq Limestone (Moss and
Paleogene deposits are unconformably overlain by Chambers, 1999). Other isolated Paleogene outcrops
upper Oligocene/lower Miocene conglomeratic units, formed as foraminiferal shoals or patch reefs on
sometimes interbedded with bathyal marls (Adams, predominantly clastic shelves (Wilson et al., 1999).
1965). The Bukit Sarang and Subis/Bekuyat Lime- Extensive Tertiary carbonate platforms developed
stones are isolated outcrops of lower Oligocene and on structural highs distal from clastic input on the
lower Miocene shallow-water carbonates, respectively Mangkalihat Peninsula, the north margin of the Kutai
(Adams, 1965). Variations in thickness, biota and Basin and Southeast Kalimantan (Fig. 9; Wilson et al.,
lithologies for the limestones onshore Sarawak indi- 1999). Larger benthic foraminifera, coralline algae and
cate that differential subsidence controlled by tecton- echinoderm debris are common throughout the plat-
ics and local changes in depositional environment form-top deposits, whereas corals and Halimeda are
strongly influenced carbonate sedimentation. also present in many Miocene and some Oligocene
successions. In the Mangkalihat area, the northern
6.3. Northeast and East Borneo Tertiary basin margin margins of the Oligo-Miocene platforms and buildups
carbonates were high-energy reef rimmed margins with abundant
marine cements. Shallow-marine, platform top depos-
Carbonates were deposited in eastern Borneo its vary from protected, and perhaps restricted, inner
throughout the Cenozoic as large-scale platforms, platform wackestones and packstones, to patch reef,
mixed carbonate-clastic units and localised carbonate shoal and open marine, tidally influenced packstones
shoals or buildups (Wilson et al., 1999). Within the and boundstones. Extensive leaching of aragonitic
Paleogene deposits in eastern Kalimantan, a number of bioclasts resulted from subaerial exposure. Wacke-
carbonate units accumulated at the margins of basins stones and packstones dominate the upper Eocene to
prior to uplift and major Neogene delta progradation. lower Miocene shallow-water deposits from the shel-
These deposits commonly formed as foraminiferal tered platforms of the north margin of the Kutai Basin
shoals, possibly on faulted highs and are usually of (Fig. 10, Wilson et al., 1999). There was considerable
limited thickness ( < 100 m). Examples of these car- reworking of shallow-water bioclasts, corals, non-

Packstones, Larger benthic Input of Minor marine Onshore karstic Bolliger and de Ruiter,
wackestones, foraminifera and volcaniclastics, isopachous cements, aquifer. Quarried 1975; Sjarifudin and
rudstones, minor coralline algae water depth, equant cements. for lime, bulk Hamidi, 1992;
framestones, dominate, corals, energy, substrate. Neomorphism of whitener etc. Notosiswoyo and
interdigitation with planktonic Initiation on micrite. Late Possible Kusumayudha, 1998;
volcaniclastics foraminifera, faulted highs karstification and hydrocarbon Lokier, 2000
molluscs, leaching reservoir offshore
echinoids and to south, though 2
bryozoa wells dry.
Sandy calcarenites Larger benthic Clastic input Some dissolution Little economic Sumarso and
foraminifera foraminifera of calcite in potential Ismoyowati, 1975;
packstones and sandstones Rahardjo, 1982
grainstones
carbonate clasts and sometimes karstified carbonate tions and stacking of shelf margins in other areas
clasts from the margins of these platforms during the (Saller et al., 1993).
Oligo-Miocene. Major resedimentation of the platform In eastern Borneo, siliciclastic deposition domi-
margins, perhaps related to faulting, was associated nated in areas between the structural highs where
with subaerial exposure and contemporaneous shal- extensive carbonate platforms developed. However,
low-water carbonate production in different parts of localised Late Oligocene to present-day carbonate
the platforms. production was common on muddy shelves or inder-
In Southeast Kalimantan, an extensive shallow- digitating with the deltaics. These shallow-water car-
water carbonate shelf (Berai Limestone) formed dur- bonates, despite containing considerable fine sili-
ing the Oligo-Miocene and carbonate sedimentation ciclastic and clay material, often include a diverse
continues today in the offshore extension of this area marine fauna such as corals, Halimeda, coralline
on the Paternoster Platform. The shallow-water plat- algae, larger benthic foraminifera, molluscs and echi-
form carbonates are dominated by larger benthic noderms. The upper Oligocene to lower Miocene
foraminifera and coralline algae. However, along the Gomantong Limestone of Sabah was deposited as a
northern platform margin and on isolated platform/ series of patch reefs or shoals in shallow-water on a
buildups to the north, the deposits are often rich in predominantly muddy clastic shelf (Noad, 1998). The
fine siliciclastics, and corals are common (van de Miocene Batu Putih Limestone and the lower Pliocene
Weerd et al., 1987; Saller et al., 1993). Four Oligo- Vanda Limestones, both formed as low-relief muddy
cene carbonate sequences, each 200 – 500 m thick patch reefs within deltaic successions in very shallow,
were identified in the northern part of the platform turbid waters. In addition to delta-front settings,
from seismic and outcrop data (Fig. 10; Saller et al., carbonates also formed as Mio-Pliocene buildups or
1992, 1993). An angular unconformity separates the barrier reefs on the shelf or shelf margin of east
initial middle Oligocene sequences and is thought to Kalimantan, sometimes associated with block-faulted
be related to tectonic tilting (Saller et al., 1993). Other highs (van de Weerd and Armin, 1992). Although
boundaries are conformable and are defined by sur- these carbonates developed on a predominantly clastic
faces of renewed carbonate production on the shelf shelf, shelf currents and sediment bypassing of the
immediately above the sequence boundary. Rapid buildups resulted in other limestones with little terri-
relative rise in sea level resulted in drowning and genous material, such as the Dian and Bebulu carbo-
‘backstepping’ of the platform margin in some loca- nates.
Fig. 6. Structural zones in Java (after Sujanto and Sumantri, 1977), north – south schematic cross section through Java (after Koesoemadinata et
al., 1985; Lokier, 2000) and stratigraphic correlation in Java and the East Java Sea (after Lokier, 2000 and references in diagram, Ardhana, 1993;
Yulihanto et al., 1995).
Fig. 7. Depositional setting and models for carbonate development in Java.

Fig. 8. Map showing the distribution of Cenozoic carbonates in and around Borneo.
Offshore northwest Sabah Miocene carbonate margin retreat was asymmetric (Rudolph and Leh-
buildups and mixed carbonate-clastic units have been mann, 1989). Corals, coralline algae, echinoderms,
identified within the predominantly clastic shelf molluscs and foraminifera are common components
deposits. The buildups developed on structural highs, of the boundstones, grainstones and packstones (Dunn
often associated with inversion structures during the et al., 1996). The platform was affected by freshwater
Late Miocene. The mixed carbonate-clastic unit of the leaching and nine Miocene to lower Pliocene deposi-
Tigapapan Unit consists of tight bioclastic sandstones tional sequences, including lowstand, transgressive,
interpreted as prograding storm shoal deposits (Ali, highstand and condensed sequences, have been iden-
1995). tified from seismic and well data (Rudolph and
Lehmann, 1989; Dunn et al., 1996).
6.4. Miocene platforms and buildups of the South
China Sea 6.5. Modern
Miocene carbonates of the Luconia Province and Modern carbonate production around Borneo is
the Terumbu Carbonates developed on structural highs best developed in the clear, shallow-water shelves
in the southern South China Sea and contain consid- along the east coast, such as the Mangkalihat Peninsula
erable hydrocarbon reserves. The Luconia carbonates and the Paternoster Platform, and bordering some of
formed as more than 200 buildups on block faulted the islands to the west, such as Natuna. However,
basement highs predominantly during the Early – Mid- along many of the coastlines heavily influenced by
dle Miocene (Fig. 10; Vahrenkamp, 2000). Develop- terrestrial runoff, patch reefs on muddy shelves and
ment of the southerly low-relief platforms and the areas of mixed carbonate-clastic sedimentation are
northern higher relief buildups was influenced by quite common. In eastern Borneo, buildups have been
relative sealevel change, palaeowind direction and documented offshore the Mahakam Delta, and local-
clastic input (Vahrenkamp, 2000). Repeated subaerial ised delta-front carbonates interdigitate with the Neo-
exposure affected many buildups and ‘build-up’, gene deltaics (Roberts and Syndow, 1996b). The reefal
‘build-out’ and ‘build-in’ sequences have been identi- areas around the Kalimantan coast have been subdi-
fied relating to carbonate production versus relative vided into patch reefs, atolls, fringing and barrier reefs
sea level change (Fig. 10; Epting, 1980). Although the by MacKinnon et al. (1996). However, this scheme
most northerly buildups are still active, most carbonate does not encompass all the modern carbonate deposi-
production was terminated at the end of the Middle tional systems, such as platforms, and is difficult to
Miocene, associated with karstification and subse- apply to Cenozoic carbonates. For example, the
quent covering by clastics or drowning (Epting, Paternoster Platform, of Southeast Kalimantan, is
1980; Vahrenkamp, 2000). The buildups are domi- characterised by extensive areas below 30 m water
nated by corals and coralline algae forming frame- depth where larger benthic foraminifera dominate, and
works, and also contain larger benthic foraminifera coral reefs are developed only along the northern and
and planktonic foraminifera. Depositional environ- eastern margins (Burollet et al., 1986).
ments identified include protected, reefal, shallow
open-marine and deeper open-marine settings.
The predominantly middle to upper Miocene Ter- 7. Eastern Indonesia (Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara
umbu Formation was deposited as a broad carbonate and the Moluccas)
shelf and isolated platform and reef complex on
structural highs to the northeast of Natuna Island 7.1. Tectonic context
(Fig. 10; Rudolph and Lehmann, 1989). The Natuna
Platform had its greatest extent in the Middle Miocene Eastern Indonesia is a complex tectonic area of
before undergoing retrogradation, associated with microcontinental and oceanic fragments, and associ-
increased subsidence in the Late Miocene (Dunn et ated volcanism, in the middle of the convergent zone
al., 1996). Highest carbonate production was on the where the Indo-Australian, Philippine-Pacific and
east, bordering the open marine basin, and platform Asia plates interact and collide (Fig. 12). Many of
Table 3
Cenozoic carbonates in and around Borneo
Balambangan Offshore west Sabah Late Miocene to Up to 300 m Shelf, Basin margin Shallow marine and
/Tigapapan Plio-Pleistocene some redeposited
Limestone (BT) carbonate on
dominantly clastic shelf
Batu Belaq Upper Kutai basin, Oligocene 700 m Extensional basin, Shoal or platform
(Belah) E Kalimantan possibly on block carbonates
Limestone (BQ) faulted high
Batu Gading (BG) Sarawak Late Eocene (Tb) 64 m Carbonate platform Platform or shoal
and Late Oligocene margin/shoal, basin deposits (Tb) karstified
(Te1 – 4)/ early margin: open and overlain by
Miocene? (Te) oceanic redeposited facies
(Te1 – 4)
Bebulu/Dian/Batu East Kalimantan Oligocene to Late < 100 m Basin margin, now Delta front or shelf
Putih (80-6) and in offshore area Miocene in compressional edge shallow marine
Carbonates (BB) setting, delta front carbonates
Berai (BR) and SE Kalimantan Mostly Oligocene, >1100 m Large scale block Extensive carbonate
Tanah Grogot but Late Eocene to faulted high, basin platform, marginal
Limestones Early Miocene in margin deposits and buildups.
Barito Basin. Active Number of sequences
sedimentation on seen at platform margin
Paternoster Platform
Bukit Sarang Sarawak Oligocene (Tc) 100 m Carbonate shelf, Shallow marine shelf
Limestone (S) basin margin
Nyalau Fm.
Gomantong/ Sabah Late Oligocene to Up to 100 m Shelf, basin margin Localised shallow
Kinabatangan Early Miocene (Te) marine shelf, patch
Limestone (GL) reefs, shoals, some
clastic input
Kedango/Lebak N Kutai margin, Late Eocene (Tb) >600 m Basement high, Carbonate platforms
Limestone (KO) E Kalimantan to Early Miocene extensional basin and surrounding slope
(Te5) and deeper water facies
Keramit (KR) and Sarawak Late Eocene (Tb) 160 – 900 m Carbonate platform Probably slope or
Selidong (SL) some reworked and slope/basin, basin basinal deposits of
Limestones Late Oligocene margin Melinau Limestone
(Te1-4)/ Early (ML)
Miocene (Te)
Minor limestone in Sabah Oligocene to Middle Few m’s to Basin/slope. Basin Isolated and transient
Labang/Tanjong Miocene 10 s m’s margin/subsiding localised carbonates in
Formations (LT) basin clastic successions,
some reworked, others
insitu

Sandy limestone Foraminifera, Accommodation 9 stages cement: Hydrocarbon Ali, 1992, 1995
coralline algae, space, amount of marine, dolomite, reservoir, occlusion
echinoids clastic input, storms meteoric and burial of porosity locally
Packstones and Larger benthic Rel. sea level Marine and No information. Wain and Berod, 1989;
grainstones foraminifera change. Tectonics, shallow burial Low reservoir Van de Weerd and
dominate, some possibly on block diagenesis potential Armin, 1992; Moss,
coralline algae faulted high 1994; Moss and Finch,
1998; Moss and
Chambers, 1999
Packstones, Larger benthic Slope deposits and No information No information. Adams and Haak,
wackestones and foraminifera redeposition, poss. Low reservoir 1962; Adams, 1965;
limestone breccias dominate tectonics. Tb – Te potential. Abdullah and Yaw,
(Te1 – 4) unconformity 1993
Framestones, Corals dominate Clastic input. Rel. Abundant meteoric Gas in some reefs. Alam et al., 1999;
floatstones, and larger benthic sea level change, and burial cements, Siemers et al., 1992c;
packstones, foraminifera, some tectonics, eustasy, some karstification Roberts and Syndow,
some argillaceous coralline algae and carbonate producers 1996a,b
Halimeda
Packstones, Larger benthic Accommodation Some karstification Gas and condensate Pelton, 1974; Van de
grainstones, foraminifera space, rel. sea and leaching, in Kerendan. Some Weerd et al., 1987; van
framestones, dominate on much level change, meteoric and burial oil in fractured de Weerd and Armin,
rudstones, of the platform, tectonics, cements common Berai platform 1992; Saller et al.,
floatstones, corals and coralline oceanography carbonates 1992; 1993
wackestones, algae also occur
some argillaceous
Probably packstones Larger benthic No information No information No information. Adams, 1964, 1965
foraminifera Low reservoir
potential
Framestones, Abundant larger Input of clastics, Replacement of Very low reservoir Adams, 1970; Noad,
rudstones, benthic foraminifera, relative sea level aragonite, drusy potential 1996, 1998
packstones and corals and coralline change. Tectonics calcite (burial)
mudstones algae
Packstones, Larger benthic Accommodation Minor leaching, Low reservoir Wilson et al., 1999
wackestones, foraminifera space, tectonics, abundant meteoric potential
rudstones dominate and some eustasy, carbonate and burial cements
conglomerates corals producers
and marls
Marls and breccias Planktonic Seaward side of No information No information. Adams, 1965
foraminifera and Melinau platform. Low reservoir
larger benthic Tectonics, Tb – Te potential
foraminifera unconformity
Pack/grainstones, Corals, larger Isolated shoal/patch No information No information. Heng, 1985; Clennell,
framestones benthic foraminifera reefs. Possibly Very low reservoir 1992
redeposited from potential.
shallow waters

Table 3 (continued)
Luconia (LS) Luconia, offshore Middle (mostly) – Up to 2000 m Carbonate buildups 200 Carbonate
Sarawak Late Miocene. Some on faulted highs, buildups on faulted
active carbonate basin margin highs. Four growth
production to north. phases, some
protected areas
Melinau Sarawak Late Eocene (Tb) Up to 2300 m Isolated carbonate Carbonate platform,
Limestone (ML) to Early Miocene (Te) platform, basin some marginal
margin deposits, coral patch
reefs only noted in
Miocene
Ritan Limestone N Kutai margin, Late Eocene (Tb) < 100 m Extensional basin Isolated foraminiferal
member (RT) E Kalimantan shoals
and limestone
in Batu Kelau
Formation
Seilor (SO) and Mangkalihat Late Eocene (Tb) >1000 m Large scale block Extensive carbonate
Taballar (TB), Peninsula and to Mio-Pliocene faulted high, basin platform and some
Tende Hantu Maratua ridge margin isolated buildups,
(TH) and reworking along
Domaring (DM) margin
Formations
Subis (SB) and Sarawak Early Miocene (Te5) About 300 m Basin margin Isolated carbonate
Bekuyat (BY) maximum platform formed on
Limestones palaeohigh
Limestone lenses in SE Kalimantan Late Eocene (to < 100 m Highs sufficiently Isolated and transient
Tanjung Formation earliest Oligocene) isolated from shoals and ?patch reefs
(Not on map) clastics, extensional in clastic sequence
basin
Terumbu Offshore NE Mostly Middle – Late 1600 m Syntectonic Isolated carbonate
Limestone (TL) Natuna Miocene (Early carbonate platforms platforms and buildups.
Miocene to Early developed on faulted More extensive
Pliocene highs, continental carbonate platforms/
basin margin shelf to east
Tujoh – Siman Sarawak Paleocene to Early 0 – 1000 m Carbonate platform Deep marine (Ta) and
Limestone (TS) Eocene (Ta) and slope/basin, basin some conglomerates
Late Oligocene margin (Te).
(Te1 – 4)/ Early
Miocene (Te)
Vanda Limestone Offshore Tarakan Early Pliocene 90 m Basin margin, Delta front or shelf
(V) basin, NE delta front, edge shallow marine
Kalimantan shelf edge setting. carbonates
Reefs grown on
compressional
rollover anticlines,
delta-front
In addition to these carbonate formations or members, limestone beds are also reported in a number of formations on Borneo.

Mudstones, Corals, larger Eustasy, subsidence Marine cements, 20 discovered gas Epting, 1980, 1989;
wackestones, benthic and carbonate leaching, dolomites reservoirs in Vahrenkamp, 2000
packstones, foraminifera and production rates. and compaction. buildups and
framestones, coralline algae Clastic progradation Porosity 10 – 40% forereef talus?
rudstones buildup top (7 buildups>1TCF)
Packstones, Larger benthic Slow subsidence, Dolomitization Some bitumen in Adams, 1965
grainstones, foraminifera (faulting?), carbonate sometimes common. Eocene reported.
some redeposited dominate, producers. Little Compaction Minor porosity.
beds. Some coralline algae. environment change shearing,
dolomitization Corals in Te. recystallization
Packstones, Larger benthic Lack of clastics, Marine and shallow Very low potential Moss, 1994; Moss
grainstones and foraminifera rift architecture, burial diagenesis et al., 1997
wackestones dominate possibly on faulted
highs
Framestones, Larger benthic Accommodation Shallow marine Some gas in Buchan et al., 1971;
rudstones, foraminifera space, tectonics, cements, offshore buildups Suessli, 1976; Achmad
packstones, dominate much of eustasy, extensive leaching, to north and Samuel, 1984;
grainstones, platform, also corals oceanography meteoric and burial Wilson et al., 1999
wackestones and and coralline algae. cements, dolomites
some dolomites Corals common along fault
on margins in
Oligo-Miocene
Not described Larger benthic Not given No information No information. Adams, 1965;
foraminifera Low reservoir Sleumer, 1977
potential
Packstones, Larger benthic Clastic input. Meteoric and burial Low reservoir Von Fritsch, 1878
rudstones, foraminifera, corals, Accommodation cements potential
?framestones coralline algae space
Grainstones, Corals, coralline Faulting, tilting, Mouldic, cavern Porosity 3 – 20%. Kraft and Sangree,
packstones, algae, echinoderms, subsidence and and intergranular 5000 ft gas in 1982; May and Eyles,
mudstones and molluscs and some eustasy porosity – reef reef buildups. 1985; Rudolph and
rudstones foraminifera margin. Dolomites 222 TCF ( 72% Lehmann, 1989; Dunn
CO2, H2S) et al., 1996
Wackestones and Planktonic Redeposition No information No information. Adams, 1965;
conglomerates. foraminifera and platform margin. Low reservoir Leichti et al., 1960
Carbonates radiolaria in Ta Tectonics? potential
change laterally deposits and larger
into shales benthic foraminifera
and some corals
Framestones, Corals dominate Relative sea level Secondary leaching, Good oil Netherwood and Wight,
floatstones, and larger benthic change, tectonics, later occluded by fluorescence, but 1992
rudstones, foraminifera and eustasy, amounts calcite cement. poor porosities and
some argillaceous some coralline algae of clastic input Some dolomite, permeabilities
and Halimeda pressure solution and
stylolites
Fig. 9. Palaeogeographic reconstruction of Borneo during the Early Miocene and stratigraphic correlation in Borneo (after Wilson and Moss,
1999).
Fig. 10. Models of carbonate development in Borneo.

the islands are volcanic in origin, associated with gin (Fig. 13; Wilson, 1999; Wilson et al., 2000). Areas
subduction, and in Nusa Tenggara and parts of the of more complex faulting, with block-faulted highs
Moluccas some are still active. Other islands origi- and basinal grabens, lay to the east and west. In areas
nated as microcontinental blocks rifted from the that became hangingwall depocentres, shallow-water
Australian cratonic margin, or as accreted ophiolitic carbonates were rapidly drowned and bathyal marls
fragments. Some of these islands only became emer- were deposited. Thick sequences of texturally and
gent during the Pliocene, due to block faulting and compositional immature redeposited carbonates are
uplift as a result of continued collisions and conver- interbedded with these marls, and were derived from
gence in the area. adjacent footwall highs, often associated with periods
Western Sulawesi was accreted onto Eurasia in the of active faulting (Wilson and Bosence, 1996; Wilson,
Late Cretaceous and then separated from mainland 2000). Footwall highs were the sites of local karstifi-
Asia in the early Paleogene by widespread extensional cation. The Makale Formation of western Central
basin development centred on the Makassar Straits Sulawesi was also deposited in a range of shallow-
(Fig. 11; van de Weerd and Armin, 1992; Metcalfe, water and adjacent bathyal environments, with no
1996; Wilson and Moss, 1999). The East Sulawesi evidence for framework reefs and considerable rese-
Ophiolite and microcontinental fragments in South- dimentation from the platform top (Bua Kayu Forma-
east Sulawesi, Buton and Banggai Sula were accreted tion; Coffield et al., 1993). Middle and upper Eocene
to western Sulawesi during the Tertiary. The origin limestones of the Rantepao Member accumulated as
and timing of accretion of these fragments and the larger benthic foraminifera shoals within the clastic
nature of the north arm of Sulawesi, which is now an shelf sequence underlying the Makale Formation (Cof-
area of active volcanism, is still contentious (Fig. 12; field et al., 1993; Ratman and Atmawinata, 1993).
Wilson and Moss, 1999). The Moluccas to the east of Tyrrel et al. (1986) documented progressive drown-
Sulawesi, also owe their origin to the convergence and ing of Tertiary carbonate platforms, which developed
collision of microcontinental plates, ophiolitic frag- on block-faulted highs in the Bali – Flores Sea (Fig.
ments and to island arc formation (Fig. 13; Hall and 13). During the Miocene and ?Early Pliocene the
Wilson, 2000). Buru and Seram (Ceram) are both carbonate shelf margin prograded 9 km southwest-
dominantly microcontinental in origin and Seram is wards over Oligocene to lower Miocene basinal depos-
inferred to be a thrust belt, composed of microconti- its (Tyrrel et al., 1986). This was followed in the
nental material that collided with the Banda Arc Pliocene by rapid subsidence causing drowning of
subduction system in the Late Miocene – Pliocene the eastern portion of the platform, and deep-water
(de Smet and Barber, 1992). sediments onlap the slope.
7.2. Tertiary fault-block platforms of western Sulawesi 7.3. Tertiary carbonates from microcontinental and
and the East Java Sea ophiolitic areas of eastern Sulawesi
Carbonate platforms, spanning much of the Terti- In eastern Sulawesi, Cenozoic carbonates devel-
ary, developed on structural highs in western South oped in a range of shallow- and deeper-water settings
Sulawesi, western Central Sulawesi and the eastern as might be expected for this complex collisional area.
East Java Sea (Fig. 11 and Table 4; Coffield et al., The Paleogene Lerea Formation was deposited in
1993; Wilson et al., 2000; Tyrrel et al., 1986). In South bathyal conditions as sedimentary cover to the East
Sulawesi, shallow-water deposits of the syntectonic Sulawesi Ophiolite prior to its obduction (Simandjun-
Eocene to middle Miocene Tonasa Carbonate Platform tak et al., 1991). The Salodik, Poh and Pancoran
are predominantly larger benthic foraminifera and Formations of East Sulawesi and Banggai Sula
coralline algae packstones, wackestones and grain- formed as bathyal to shallow-marine shelf deposits
stones (Wilson et al., 2000). Fault segmentation of and as buildups, on both ophiolitic and microconti-
the broad ( 100 km) upper Eocene platform pro- nental blocks prior to, and during, accretion of the
duced a tilt-block platform with a faulted northern Banggai Sula Block (Garrard et al., 1988; Davies,
margin and a gently sloping southern ramp-type mar- 1990). In the subsurface of the East Arm of Sulawesi,
Fig. 11. Map showing the distribution of Cenozoic carbonates in and around Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara and the Moluccas.
Fig. 12. Early Oligocene and Early Miocene time slices showing tectonic evolution of Eastern/Central Indonesia (from Hall, 1996) and
stratigraphic correlation in the region (see references in diagram, Burollet and Salle, 1981).
Fig. 13. Depositional setting and models for carbonate development in Sulawesi, the Moluccas and Nusa Tenggara.
Table 4
Cenozoic carbonates in and around Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara and the Moluccas
Ambeuwa Tukang Besi, Late Miocene to Up to 2500 m Compressional Bathyal to shelf

Formation (AM) Sulawesi Pliocene (N17 – N21) setting on margin?
microcontinental
block
Anggai North Obi, Pliocene (possibly 200 m Backarc Shallow marine shelfal
Formation (AG) Moluccas Late Miocene)
Batu Formation Batu Islands, Oligocene to 100 m localised Intraarc?? Shelfal/shelf margin
(BA) Bonerate Middle Miocene to bathyal?
Bedded limestone W Flores, Komodo Middle Miocene Not given Intraarc Fringing shelfal to
(BL). Equiv. and E. Sumbawa, shelf margin limestone
to Lst. lenses in Nusa Tenggara around volcanic arc
Nangapanda Fm.,
E. Flores?
Berebere Morotai, Moluccas Pliocene (poss. At least 100 m Backarc Shallow marine shelf
Formation (BB) some Miocene)
Buara Formation Kolaka, Pleistocene to 200 m Compressional Shelfal setting?

(BU) SE Sulawesi Holocene setting Reef limestones
(poss. Pliocene) interfingering with
clastics
Cablac Formation Timor Early Miocene 800 m, Microcontinental shallow shelf/platform.
(CF). Includes (Te) 400 – 600 m or block, unconformably Aliambata Formation
Aliambata Fm more. 50 m overlies older Fms. on south coast deeper
(S coast) (Aliambata water shelfal/bathyal
Formation)
Celebes Molasse Palu, W Sulawesi. Middle Miocene Not given Extensional to Shelfal to shelf margin?
Limestone (CM) Near Dongalla convergent basin
margin
Central Lombok 90 km N of Paleogene to Up to 1500 m Backarc Shelfal and shelf
Block carbonates Lombok and Early Pliocene margin
(not on map) Sumbawa

Marl and Planktonic Water depth Not described No information Fortuin et al., 1990;
interbedded foraminifera given Koswara and Sukarna,
bioclastic 1994
limestone
Shallow water Foraminifera, Rel. sea level Not described No information Hall et al., 1992
limestones nannofossils change given
Bioclastic Larger benthic Water depth Not described No information Koswara et al., 1994
limestone, and planktonic given
calcarenite, foraminifera
calcilutite
Bedded limestone, Larger benthic Volcaniclastic input, Not described No information Ratman and Yasin,
tuffaceous foraminifera, water depth given 1978
limestone, corals and
sandy tuff and molluscs
conglomerate in
lower part
Packstones, Fossils rare Water depth Recent calcification No information Hall et al., 1992
rudstones, (considerable and karstification. given
mostly chalky leaching) Vuggy porosity
lsts Foraminifera,
corals
Coral limestone, Coral, algae, Water depth and Not described No information Kartaadipoetra and
conglomerate molluscs clastic input given Sudiro, 1982;
and sandstone Simandjuntak et al.,
1994
Calcilutite and Corals, larger Water depth, rel. Pressure solution No information Audley-Charles, 1968;
oolitic lst. lower benthic foraminifera, sea level change, in conglomerates. given Rosidi et al., 1979
part. Massive coralline algae, tectonics? Dolomitization and
lst., some ooids, grapestones, silicification to
coralline lst, pellets and chert common.
calcarenite and extraclasts reworked Dedolomitization
calcirudite from older and desilicification
upper part. formations. common
Packstones and Planktonic
wackestones and foraminifera
intraformational (Aliambata Fm.)
conglomerate.
Planktonic
foraminifera
packstones and
wackestone
(Aliambata)
Limestone and marl Larger benthic Water depth Not described No information Sukamto, 1973
foraminifera and given
molluscs
Interbedded Planktonic Subsidence, Not described No information Tyrrel et al., 1986
mudstone, marl foraminifera, biota water depth, given
and thin-bedded for shallow-water accumulation rates,
limestone lower lsts. Not described Miocene to
part, and shallow Pliocene 9 km
water lsts prograde
Table 4 (continued)
Coral Limestone N Arm Pliocene 300 m Intraarc —within Isolated fringing/patch

(CL) volcaniclastics reefs and shelf margin
close to volcanoes
Dartollu E. Timor Middle and Late 100 m or less Microcontinental Shallow shelf/
Formation (DL) Eocene (mostly block foraminifera shoal
Middle Eocene)
Eemoiko Kolaka, Late Miocene to 300 m Compressional Shallow shelf and

Formation (EE) SE Sulawesi Pliocene. Late setting shelf margin?
Oligocene to Late
Miocene1
Elat Formation Kai Besar Late Eocene 600 – 1000 m Australian Pelagic and
(E) continental margin hemipelagic
carbonates, deposited
distal continental slope
Fluk Formation South Obi, Early – Middle At least 100 m Backarc Shallow water shelf
(FF) Moluccas Miocene limestones.
Fufa Beds Seram Middle – Late Up to 660 m in Post orogenic in Near-shore

(not on map) Pleistocene and well in Bula depressions in environment, beach,
Holocene Basin, increases accretionary prism bar sands and reefs,
offshore partially fluvial
Gola Formation SW Halmahera, Late Pliocene – 300 m + Backarc Open marine deep
(GF) Moluccas Pleistocene distal shelf
Kayawat Formation Waigeo, Moluccas Late Eocene >several 10 s m Extensional setting Marine slope close to
(not on map) shallow water shelf
Kuma Formation Buru Late Jurassic – 1000 m Microcontinental Bathyal, open marine
(KF) Eocene block pelagic deposits
Lerea Formation Poso, Central Paleogene 200 m Sedimentary cover Bathyal

(LR) Sulawesi (Paleocene? to on ophiolite
Early Eocene)
Makale and Kalosi area, mostly Early to base of section not Presently foreland Platform carbonates,
Bua Kayu western Central Middle Miocene seen basin, formed in faulted high, pass
Formations (MB) Sulawesi (Makale may extend backarc extensional laterally into bathyal
down to Late Eocene) or post rift basin and platform margin
deposits. Late Eocene
restricted ponded
environ. Oligocene
outer shelf platform lsts

Coral limestone, Corals, molluscs Volcaniclastic input, Not described No information Effendi, 1976;
coral breccia and algae water depth given Ratman, 1976;
and marl Apandi, 1977
Biocalcarenite Larger benthic Water depth Not described No information Audley-Charles, 1968
(packstone) foraminifera, given
coralline algae,
echinoids and
planktonic
foraminifera
Calcarenite, coral Molluscs, qz, coral, Water depth and Not described No information Kartaadipoetra and
limestone, algae, sponges and clastic input given Sudiro, 1982;
sandstone larger benthic Simandjuntak et al.,
and marl foraminifera 19941
Interbedded marls Planktonic Water depth, Not described No information Charlton et al., 1991a,b
and calcilutites foraminifera possible slight given
shallowing up
Shallow water Abundant Local occurrence Not described No information Hall et al., 1992
limestones foraminifera probably from given
erosion
Sands, Not described Water depth, uplift, Not described No information Zillman and Paten,
conglomerates, clastic input given 1975; De Smet and
reefal and other Barber, 1992
carbonates,
marine muds and
lignite
Calcareous Foraminifera, minor Water depth Not described No information Hall et al., 1992
mudstones and corroded plagioclase given
wackestones
Redeposited Reworked corals, Water depth, slope Not described No information Hall et al., 1992
carbonates. foraminifera instability given
Conglomerates
Cherty calcilutites Belemnites, Water depth Not described No information Tjokrosapoetro et al.,
interbedded ammonites, given 1981
congs. lower radiolaria,
part. Marl and Planktonic
shale upper part foraminifera
Marl and calcilutite Planktonic Water depth Not described No information Simandjuntak et al.,
foraminifera given 1991
Mudstones, Larger benthic Antecedent Often fractured Used as road stone Garrard et al., 1992;
wackestones, foraminifera, topography, and calcite veined Coffield et al., 1993
packstones and molluscs, planktonic subsidence,
grainstones, lower foraminifera and faulting?
part more restricted coral fragments
dolomites. Bua
Kayu—deep marine
shales interbedded
with volcaniclastic
turbidites and
redeposited
carbonates
Table 4 (continued)
Mandioli Lst Bacan, Moluccas Late Miocene – Few 10 s m Backarc, close Fringing reefs
Member Early Pliocene to arc
(not on map)
(of Kaputusan
Formation)
Nief Beds—not Seram Mesozoic and Early Not given Microcontinental Deposition in relatively
on map (equiv. Paleogene to Late block? Convergent/ deep water
to Hatuolo, Eocene, and Late collisional area in
Selagor (SG) and Oligocene to Late Neogene
Lisa Bata Fms.) Miocene
Onat Marl Formation NE Halmahera, Late Oligocene >few metres, Extensional setting Open marine, deep
(not on map) Moluccas unknown adjacent to arc water
Pancoran Formation. Mangole, Lifumatola Early to Middle 200 – 300 m Microcontinental Platform/shelfal
Equiv. upper Island and S Miocene block carbonates and
Salodik (SD) Sulabesi buildups
Paumbapa Sumba. W of Oligocene +/ 1500 m Shallow sea, Shallow sea, shelfal/

Formation (PF) Bondobak microcontinental platformal limestone
block? and reef limestone
Peleng Formation Banggai Sula, Pleistocene to >200 m Microcontinental High energy shallow
(PE). Equiv. E. Sulawesi Holocene block, marine, shelfal to shelf
Raised reef lst compressional margin, fringing reefs?
Sulawesi setting
Poh Formation (PO) Batui and Luwuk, Oligocene – Late 1300 m Compressional Shelfal to bathyal
East Arm Sulawesi Miocene margin limestones
Pusang/Puger Lombok Miocene Not given Intra arc Fringing reef around
Formation (PP) volcanic island
Poso Formation (PS) Poso, Central Pliocene 500 m Compressional Shallow and open
Sulawesi setting marine
Puri Formation (PU) Waigeo Pliocene >400 m Post-collisional Shelfal/shelf margin

stable arc lsts
Rantepao Member Rantepao area, Late Eocene 500 m To west of Foraminiferal shoals on
of Toraja Fm. central Sulawesi volcanic arc? clastic shelf
(RN)

Calcarenites Molluscs, burrows, Clastic/volcaniclastic Not described No information Hall et al., 1992;
(wackestones larger benthic input given Malaihollo and Hall,
and packstones) foraminifera, corals, 1996
interbedded with algae, echinoids,
mudstones and planktonic
volcaniclastics foraminifera
Variegated slates, Foraminifera Water depth, Not described No information De Smet and Barber,
shales, marls (small and larger). limited clastic input given 1992
and limestones, Bivalves and
cherty limestones belemnites in
Mesozoic units
Marls, mudstones, Planktonic Water depth, high Not described No information Hall et al., 1992
siltstones and foraminifera, energy shelfal given
graded calcilutites reworked shallow limestones adjacent
and calcisiltites water material to deeper water lsts
Shallow water Corals and algae Clastic input, Not described Oil staining? Garrard et al., 1988
limestones, minor water depth
sandstones and
claystones
Bedded limestone Corals, larger Water depth, rel. Not described No information Effendi and Apandi,
(Packstone?) benthic foraminifera sea level change? given 1994
and reef lst.
(framestone/
rudstone?)
Reef limestone and Corals, molluscs, Water depth and Not described No information Garrard et al., 1988;
conglomeratic foraminifera and energy. Deposition given Supandjono and
limestone algae poss. assoc. with Haryono, 1993
(rudstone) active faulting
Bedded foraminifera large and small Water depth, Not described No information Rusmana et al., 1993;
limestones benthic and subsidence, away given Surono et al., 1994
(packstones) planktonic from clastic input
and marls foraminifera, few
corals and coralline
algae
Calcarenite, coral Corals Water depth? Not described No information Geological map of
limestone, given Lombok
conglomerate,
calcilutite and
crystalline lst
Limestone, marl, Planktonic and Water depth and Not described No information Simandjuntak et al.,
tuff and sandstone larger benthic clastic/volcaniclastic given 1991
foraminifera input
Limestone greyish Planktonic Water depth Not described No information Supriatna et al., 1995
white partly foraminifera given
bedded
Foraminifera Larger benthic Input of clastic Not described No information Ratman and
packstones, foraminifera, influx, rel. sea given Atmawinata, 1993
wackestones and coralline algae level change
grainstones?
Table 4 (continued)
Ratotokok Manado, Early to Middle Lenses Intraarc, within Shelfal to fringing reefs
Limestone (RT) Kotamobagu, Miocene, into Late volcaniclastics close to volcanoes
N Sulawesi Miocene –
Kotamobagu
Ruta Formation (RF) Bacan, Moluccas Early – Middle 250 m Backarc, close Shallow marine lsts
Miocene to arc (shelf/platform) with
local volcaniclastic
input. On platform tidal
bars, reefs and talus
Salayar Limestone South Sulawesi, Late Miocene to 300 – 2000 m Basin margin on Shelfal—shelf margin
Member of Salayar and Early Pliocene faulted high?? some intercalation with
Walanae Bonerate (N16 – N19). Middle clastics
Formation (SL) Miocene to
Pliocene-Bonerate
Salodik Formation Banggai Sula, Eocene to Middle 1000 – 250 m Compressional Bathyal to shallow
(SD) Batui, Luwuk, Miocene (Bungku) margin marine shelf/platform
Bungku, East (Batui-Oligocene to buildup. Both high
Arm Sulawesi to Middle Miocene). and low energy shallow
Kendari to Late water deposits
Miocene
Sampolakosa Buton, Sulawesi Late Miocene to 30 – over 1000 m Microcontinental Variable. Basal
Formation (SM) Late Pliocene block cover- pinnacle reefs overlain
(N17/18 – N21) Postorogenic by bathyal marls, then
shallow water calcare-
nites
Saolat SE and NE Late Miocene – 1000 m + Distal backarc Deeper part carbonate
Formation (SO) Halmahera, Early Pliocene shelf/slope (receiving
(Member Weda Moluccas ophiolitic detritus) and
Group) reefal material

Reef limestone, Larger benthic Volcaniclastic input, Not described No information Effendi, 1976; Apandi,
sandy limestone, foraminifera water depth given 1977
clayey limestone,
contains
volcaniclastic
material
Wackestones, Corals, coralline Clastic/volcaniclastic Not described No information Hall et al., 1992;
packstones, algae, benthic, input given Malaihollo and Hall,
boundstones, planktonic 1996
foraminiferal foraminifera,
sandstones and echinoids, molluscs
biolithoclastic and bryozoa
packstones
Massive limestone, Coral, molluscs, Water depth and Not described No information Sukamto and Supriatna,
coral limestone planktonic clastic input given 1982; Koswara et al.,
and calcarenite, foraminifera 1994
intercalations of
marl and
calcareous
sandstone
Well bedded Abundant large Water depth and Not described Oil staining, Gas Garrard et al., 1988;
foraminifera and small benthic energy reservoir in Rusmana et al., 1993;
limestones and planktonic subsurface Supandjono and
(packstones) foraminifera, corals, (Minahaki) Haryono, 1993;
and marls. molluscs, algae Simandjuntak et al.,
Grainstones, 1994; Surono et al.,
wackestones, 1994
floatstones and
packstones
Marls, calcarenites, Foraminifera, Water depth, Average porosity Possible reservoir Sikumbang and
reefal limestones molluscs, corals tectonics 31%, Bale-1S well Sanyoto, 1984; Fortuin
(subsidence and et al., 1990; Davidson,
faulting?) 1991
Fossiliferous Planktonic Water depth, influx Sparry calcite in No information Hall et al., 1992
calcareous foraminifera of reworked some units given
mudstones and abundant, reworked material
micritic limestones. bioclasts, lithified
Some ophiolitic ultrabasic material
cong/sst beds. and minerals
Marls, redeposited
lst congs. and
calcarenites

Table 4 (continued)
Subaim Halmahera, Miocene, locally 500 m average Backarc (at least Shelf carbonates
Formation (SB) Moluccas Miocene – Early for Late Miocene) (reef derived and
Pliocene associated carbonates)
Tacipi Formation Eastern South Middle Miocene to 250 – 300 m Forearc/intrarc? Carbonate shelf and
(TC) Sulawesi earliest Pliocene coral patch reefs to
north, patch reefs
developed along faulted
highs
Tamangil Formation Kai Besar Middle – Late 50 m Australian Shallow water, base of
(or member) (TW) Oligocene continental margin photic zone or
reworked into bathyal
Tanpakura SE Sulawesi Late Eocene – ? Bordering Rimmed shelf, 15 – 20

Formation (TP) Early Oligocene microcontinental degrees south, includes
block shelf margin shoals,
reefs, high salinity
lagoons and tidal flats
Tapalang Member Mamuju area, Late Miocene 50 m Intra arc setting Bedded limestone and
of Mamuju central Sulawesi seeded on marls close to volcanics
Formation volcanics (shelf/shelf margin?)
(not on map)
Tobelo Buton, Sulawesi Early Cretaceous >1000 m Sedimentary cover Shelf margin (Outer
Formation (TB) to Oligocene on ophiolite neritic) to upper bathyal
setting
Tomori Tomori, East Arm Eocene – Early combined Compressional Initially lower—open,
(lower-platform) of Sulawesi Miocene 650 – 500 m margin shallow, low to
and (upper— (180 – 350 m moderate energy shelf.
platform and upper sequence) Later—much
reefal) Formations. shallower, upper
(not on map) platform limestones
Equiv. Salodik interfingering with
and Poh Fms. reefal buildups

Massive and Corals, larger Water depth Recent Possible reservoirs Hall et al., 1992
well-bedded reef benthic and calicification and in Miocene buildups
and reef derived planktonic karstification. in Weda Bay
lsts, rare clastic foraminifera, algae, Inferred high
intervals and bryozoa, echinoids, porosities
marls. Packstones, molluscs
wackestones,
bindstones
Coral framestones, Corals, larger Tectonics, variable Micrite envelopes, Patch reef buildups Grainge and Davies,
rudstones, benthic subsidence, freshwater leaching, form gas reservoir 1983; Mayall and Cox,
floatstones, foraminifera, antecedent biomouldic porosity, in subsurface 1988; Ascaria, 1997;
packstones, coralline algae, topography, eustasy fracturing Ascaria et al., 1997
wackestones, echinoids,
grainstones Halimeda, molluscs
Calcirudite Larger benthic Water depth Not described No information Van Marle and de Smet,
foraminifera, given 1990; Charlton et al.,
abundant flat 1991a,b
Lepidocyclina
Oolitic – pisolitic Ooids, peloids, Latitude, climate, Common No information Surono et al, 1994;
pack/grainstone, gypsum, water depth, micritization, some given Surono, 1994
fenestral lst, grapestones, salinity, energy dolomitization and
lime mudstone, oncoids, mudcracks, recrystallization,
framestone, planktonic Pendant cements,
rudstone and foraminifera, corals, dissolution and
wacke/packstone algae, larger benthic equant cements,
foraminifera fractures, stylolites
Well bedded Corals Antecedent Not described No information Ratman and
packstones and topography, clastic given Atmawinata, 1993
marls input
Calcilutite Planktonic Water depth. Not described No information Sikumbang and

(mudstones and foraminifera, locally Eocene to Olig. given Sanyoto, 1984;
wackestones), radiolaria and clastic input, Davidson, 1991
intercalations benthic foraminifera. shallowing and
chert and chert more slope
nodules. Eocene instability
to Olig. slumping
and debris flows
Lower-mud rich Lower platform Subsidence, clastic Some leaching of Oil reservoir in Davies, 1990
wackestones limestones – input, faulting aragonitic bioclasts, lower platformal
and locally foraminifera, dolomitization, limestone and upper
grainstones. corals, bryozoa, tectonic fracturing, platformal and reefal
Upper — echinoderms and stylolites limestones gas
platformal molluscs, UPL and reservoir
limestones, coral RL – abundant corals
framestones and and foraminifera
rudstones

Table 4 (continued)
Tonasa Western South Early/Middle 300 m To west of volcanic Large-scale syntectonic

Formation (TN) Sulawesi Eocene to Middle (Western Divide arc on faulted carbonate platform,
Miocene area) – 1100 m high (Backarc) segmented by faulting
(Barru area) in Late Eocene: faulted
northern margin,
ramp-type southern
margin, complex block
faulted areas to east and
west
Basal limestone Buton, Sulawesi Early – Middle 200 (south) – 800 m Ophiolitic/ Outer neritic – shelf
Member, Tondo Miocene (N3 – N4) in north microcontinental margin
Formation block cover
(not on map)
Unnamed lst Komodo and Early Miocene Lenses Intraarc Fringing shelfal to shelf
(UL). interbedded Sumbawa margin limestones
with volcanics around volcanic arc
Viqueqne or Timor Late Miocene to 448 m. 75 m Compressional Shelfal to shelf margin

Batuputih Fms Pliocene (N9 – N11), Lari Guti setting and thin coral bioherms
(BF). or Lari Lari Guti, E. Timor,
Guti Lst. Late Miocene
Waeken Formation Buru Late Oligocene to < 600 m Microcontinental Open marine neritic to
(WE) (SW and W coast) Early Miocene block bathyal environment
Wahai Formation Seram (Ceram) Late Pliocene < 450 m Post orogenic, Slope to bathyal
(WHF) (N21), Pliocene depressions in
(N19 – N21) accretionary prism
Waigeo Formation Waigeo and Gebe Early to Late Up to 2000 m Post-collisional Platform and
(WG) Moluccas Miocene stable arc shelfal/shelf margin lsts
(post-Pliocene)
Waihekang Lomblen, Flores Late Miocene to 750 m Intraarc Fringing reef

Formation (WF). and Ende, Nusa Pliocene (N18 – N22) contemporaneous with
Equiv. unnamed Tenggara volcanism
lst W Flores and
Rinca. May be
partly equiv. to
Laku Fm. lst. and
marl (Alor)

bioclastic Larger benthic Tectonics: faulting Few marine Quarried for Crotty and Engelhardt,
packstones, foraminifera, and subsidence, cements, localised cement and facing 1993; Wilson, 1995,
wackestones, coralline algae, oceanography, karstification on stone. Possible 1999, 2000; Wilson
grainstones and echinoids, molluscs, direction of winds, faulted highs, burial though unlikely and Bosence, 1996,
coarse redeposited rare corals type of dominant cements, stylolites, reservoir in 1997; Wilson et al.,
carbonates carbonate producers pressure solution subsurface 2000
interbedded with
marls
Massive micritic Nannofossils Water depth, Not described Possible reservoir Sikumbang and
limestones, slope instability Sanyoto, 1984;
intraformational Davidson, 1991
congs. and
debris flows
upper part
Dark grey, Larger benthic Volcaniclastic input Not described No information Sudradjat, 1975;
well-bedded lst foraminifera and water depth given Ratman and Yasin,
(Komodo), lst. 1978
lenses (Sumbawa),
interbedded with
calc. sandstone,
tuffaceous lst. and
other volcanics
Calcarenites Corals, coralline Water depth, rel. Calcite cement No information Audley-Charles, 1968;
(packstones), algae, molluscs, sea level change, given Rosidi et al., 1979
coral bioherm bryozoans, minor deepening upwards,
(framestones/ clastics, larger tectonics?
rudstones), calci- benthic foraminifera,
lutite, tuff, marl glauconite,
and sandy lst cross-bedding and
(lower part) upper slumping
part silty marl and
conglomerate
Marls interbedded Planktonic Water depth Not described No information Tjokrosapoetro et al.,
with calcilutites, foraminifera given 1981
sandy marls and
conglomerates
Marl, sandy Planktonic Water depth, rel. Not described No information Gafoer et al., 1984;
limestone and tuff foraminifera sea level change, given de Smet and Barber,
tectonics? 1992
Limestone Corals (at base), Clastic influx. Not described No information Charlton et al.,
interbedded with larger benthic Subsidence-deepens given 1991a,b; Supriatna et
sandy limestone foraminifera and upwards, then final al., 1995
and marl planktonics at top shallowing
Limestone, Larger benthic Volcaniclastic input, Not described No information Ratman and Yasin,
calcareous and planktonic water depth given 1978; Noya and
sandstone, locally foraminifera, Koesoemadinata, 1990
calcareous tuffs. molluscs
W Flores and
Rinca-contains
chert in lower part

Table 4 (continued)
Waikabubak Sumba Late Miocene to >1200 m Shallow sea, Shallow sea, mixed
Formation (WK), Pliocene (Early to microcontinental carbonate clastic shelf?
Waingapu Middle Miocene- block? and bathyal
Formation Waingapu)
Wapulaka Buton, Sulawesi Late Pliocene to 20 (north) – 700 m Compressional Platform carbonates on
Formation (WP) Pleistocene in S Buton setting block faulted highs.
(N21 – 22/23) Shallow water inner
neritic or reef
Watapatu Sumba. W of Eocene >1000 m Shallow sea, Shallow sea.
Formation (WT) Bondobak microcontinental Foraminifera shoal
block? or platform
Weduar Kai Besar Miocene 500 m Australian Neritic shelf setting or

Formation (TW) continental margin reworked into bathyal
setting
Weryahan Kai Islands Pliocene ? Australian Neritic shelf/fringing
Formation (WH) continental margin reefs
Wakatin Buru (S coast and Late Miocene. < 600 m Microcontinental Shallow marine shoals
Formation (KT). centre of island) Late Miocene and block or patch reefs. Hotong
Equiv. to Hotong Early Miocene ages Fm. shelf margin /
Fm. recorded for deeper water
Hotong Fm.
(N4 – N8)
In addition to these carbonate formations or members, limestone beds are also reported from a number of different clastic or volcaniclastic
formations in Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara and the Moluccas.
an upper Eocene to lower/middle Miocene, lower with, the microcontinental areas of the Southeast Arm
platformal limestone consists dominantly of wacke- of Sulawesi, Buton and Tukang Besi. Abundant
stones. In some areas, there is evidence for subaerial oolitic – pisolitic grainstones in the upper Eocene –
exposure, development of peats and restriction of the lower Oligocene Tampakura Formation of Southeast
carbonates, and much of the upper Oligocene is Sulawesi have been interpreted as high-energy, shal-
missing. The upper Miocene carbonates in the subsur- low-marine deposits (Surono, 1994). Other lower
face consist of a platformal sequence with reefal energy deposits from this inferred rimmed shelf setting
buildups, forming hydrocarbon reservoirs (Davies, include lime mudstones, framestones and rudstones
1990). The Pleistocene to Holocene Peleng Formation and wacke/packstones. Mudcracks, the presence of
is uplifted fringing reefs or shelf margin carbonates gypsum and fenestral limestones suggest some depo-
which accumulated around land areas in eastern sition under intertidal/supratidal conditions (Surono,
Sulawesi and Banggai Sula after the collision of the 1994). The upper Miocene to Holocene Eemoiko and
Banggai Sula Block (Garrard et al., 1988; Supandjono Buara Formations in Southeast Sulawesi both devel-
and Haryono, 1993). oped in shelf to shelf margin settings and interdigitate
In southeast Sulawesi Cenozoic carbonates devel- with clastic formations (Kartaadipoetra and Sudiro,
oped on the margins of, or on faulted highs associated 1982; Simandjuntak et al., 1994).
Table 4 (continued)
Limestone Corals Water depth, clastic Not described No information Fortuin et al., 1992;
(Packstone?), input? given Effendi and Apandi,
marly limestone, 1994
interbedded marl,
sandstone and tuff
Bioclastic Corals, Water depth, Not described Possible reservoir Sikumbang and
limestones foraminifera antecedent Sanyoto, 1984;
topography Fortuin et al., 1990;
Davidson, 1991
Limestone Larger benthic Water depth, rel. Not described No information Effendi and Apandi,
(Packstone?) foraminifera sea level change given 1994
(Assilina and
Pellatispira)
Reef limestone, Corals? Water depth Not described No information Charlton et al., 1991a,b
calcilutite, marl, given
calcarenite
Reef limestone Corals Water depth, Not described No information Charlton et al., 1991a,b
antecedent given
topography
Coral (framestones, Larger benthic Water depth, rel. Not described No information Tjokrosapoetro et al.,
rudstones) and foraminifera, corals. sea level change given 1981; Fortuin et al.,
foraminifera Planktonic 1988
limestones foraminifera
(packstones).
Hotong shales,
marls and NW
transported
redeposited
limestones
On the microcontinental block of Buton, carbonates variety of depositional environments including bathyal
formed under progressively shallower water condi- (marls) and reefal settings, with some of the shallow-
tions through the Cenozoic, related to convergence, water carbonates thought to have accumulated on
collision and uplift of the area. The lower Cretaceous block faulted highs (Davidson, 1991; Fortuin et al.,
to Oligocene Tobelo Formation was deposited as 1990). To the south of Buton, on Tukang Besi the
bathyal to shelf margin planktonic foraminifera mud- upper Miocene to Pliocene Ambeuwa Formation also
stones and wackestones interbedded with cherts. In the accumulated on a microcontinental block as bathyal to
Paleogene part of this formation, there are slump and shelf margin? deposits (Fortuin et al., 1990).
debris flow deposits (Davidson, 1991). The lower to
middle Miocene limestone member in the Tondo 7.4. Tertiary carbonates from microcontinental blocks
Formation varies considerably in thickness and was in the Moluccas and Nusa Tenggara
deposited in a shelf margin setting with evidence for
slope instability and downslope resedimentation Tertiary carbonates accumulated in a range of
(Davidson, 1991). Deposition of the upper Miocene depositional settings on areas of continental or attenu-
to Pleistocene carbonates is inferred to have taken ated continental crust in Buru, Seram, Sumba, Timor
place following accretion of Buton onto Southeast and the Kai Islands. Eocene carbonates, such as the
Sulawesi (Davidson, 1991). Lithologies formed in a Watapatu and Dartollu Formations of Sumba and
Timor, respectively, are dominated by larger benthic ologies derived from the arc. Similar, localised, arc-
foraminifera and were deposited as shoal or platform related carbonates, such as the Miocene Tapalang
limestones (Audley-Charles, 1968; Gafoer et al., Member and the Ratotokok Limestone also developed
1984). Oligocene limestones, of the Paumbapa For- in northern and western Sulawesi (Effendi, 1976;
mation in Sumba formed as a shelf or platform Apandi, 1977; Ratman and Atmawinata, 1993). These
sequence with associated reefs (Effendi and Apandi, carbonates developed as fringing reefs or shelf to shelf
1994). On Kai Besar, Oligocene limestones of the margin limestones bordering the volcanoes, and prob-
Tamangil Formation contain abundant flattened large ably accumulated during periods of relative volcanic
Lepidocyclina and are inferred to have accumulated quiescence or in areas sheltered from volcaniclastic
towards the base of the photic zone (Charlton et al., input.
1991a,b). Tertiary bathyal carbonates, including marls, The Mio-Pliocene Tacipi Formation and Salayar
planktonic foraminifera wackestones and cherty lime- Member of southern Sulawesi developed as shelves
stones, were deposited contemporaneously with the surrounding land or volcanic areas, with associated
shallow-water limestones in many areas. On Buru and reefal buildups in deeper water areas (Fig. 13;
Seram, bathyal carbonates were deposited throughout Sukamto and Supriatna, 1982; Ascaria, 1997). Corals,
much of the Jurassic to Mio-Pliocene (Audley-Charles coralline algae, larger benthic and planktonic foramin-
et al., 1979; Tjokrosapoetro et al., 1981; Gafoer et al., ifera are common in the limestones, and lithologies
1984; de Smet and Barber, 1992). The upper Eocene include packstones, grainstones, framestones, float-
pelagic deposits of the Elat Formation on Kai Besar stones and wackestones. Localised angular unconfor-
possibly shallow-upwards (Charlton et al., 1991a,b). mities, contemporaneous shallowing and deepening on
The Mio-Pliocene Waingapu Formation of Sumba was the platform top and reworking of upper Cretaceous
deposited in a slope to bathyal environment where clasts into Pliocene shelf margin deposits suggest
there was considerable resedimentation associated tectonics influenced carbonate development (Ascaria,
with slope instability (Fig. 13; Fortuin et al., 1992). 1997). During deposition, shelf areas and the buildups
Miocene shallow-water shelf or platform carbo- were affected by subaerial exposure, and as a result of
nates, often with reefal deposits are present on Timor leaching form effective reservoirs in the subsurface
(Audley-Charles, 1968; Rosidi et al., 1979), Kai Besar (Grainge and Davies, 1983; Mayall and Cox, 1988).
(Charlton et al., 1991a,b), Sumba (Effendi and Apandi, Most of the Tertiary carbonate formations exposed
1994) and Seram (Audley-Charles et al., 1979). on Halmahera and surrounding islands are Mio-Plio-
Micritic-rich and oolitic carbonates comprise the lower cene. Exceptions are upper Eocene slope deposits of
part of the lower Miocene shallow-water limestones of the Kayawat Formation on Waigeo (Charlton et al.,
the Cablac Formation of Timor. Associated with the 1991a,b) and the deep-marine Onat Marl Formation of
shallow-water carbonates of the Cablac Formation are Late Oligocene age in Northeast Halmahera (Hall et
deeper water deposits of the Aliambata Formation al., 1992). Arc-continent collision of the Philippine
exposed in southern Timor (Audley-Charles, 1968; Sea and Australia during the Miocene led to creation
Rosidi et al., 1979). On Buru, shallow-marine shoals of the left lateral Sorong Fault Zone and continued
or patch reefs of the Wakatin Formation developed convergence in the region resulted in development of
contemporaneously with the deeper water deposits of the subduction related Halmahera arc. Initial Early
the Hotong Formation in the Late Miocene (Fortuin et Miocene arc volcanism occurred first in the south and
al., 1988). Kai Kecil is covered by Pliocene/Quater- lower to middle Miocene carbonates developed on
nary reefal deposits (Charlton et al., 1991a,b). and around the volcanic edifices in Obi and Bacan
(Hall et al., 1992). The lower –middle Miocene Ruta
7.5. Predominantly Mio-Pliocene arc related carbo- Formation of Bacan developed in a backarc setting,
nates and shallow-marine carbonates with tidal bars and
reefal complexes interdigitate with volcaniclastics
In Nusa Tenggara, along the island arc from (Hall et al., 1992; Malaihollo and Hall, 1996). During
Lombok eastwards through to Alor, carbonates of the Middle Miocene widespread carbonate shelf
Mio-Pliocene age are interbedded with igneous lith- deposits, such as the Subaim Formation of East
Halmahera, are inferred to be the northern extension and 15). Much of the Philippines is composed of
of the Australian shelf deposits found on New Guinea ophiolitic and volcanic arc rocks of Cretaceous and
(Hall et al., 1992). The Miocene Waigeo Formation Tertiary age. During the Tertiary, there was wide-
consists of a succession of coral rich reefal limestones spread volcanism in the eastern Philippines, with
passing upwards into limestones containing abundant much of the igneous activity, particularly during the
benthic and then planktonic foraminifera. Mio-Plio- Neogene, related to subduction. Continental crust of at
cene deeper water limestones, such as the Saolat least Jurassic age, thought to have rifted from the
Formation, are also found in backarc areas of Halma- Eurasian margin during oceanic spreading in the
hera, where increased subsidence has been related to South China Sea, comprises the western Philippines
initiation of arc volcanism (Hall et al., 1992). Shal- in Palawan, Mindoro and western Panay (Holloway,
low-water carbonate production continued in South- 1982; Mitchell et al., 1986). Possible continental
east Halmahera as fringing and pinnacle reefs until the material has also been identified in western Mindanao,
Pliocene (Hall et al., 1992). forming areas such as the Zamboanga Peninsula (Fig.
14; Pubellier et al., 1991). The major sinistral strike –
7.6. Modern carbonates slip Philippine Fault, which trends NNW – SSE
through the eastern Philippines, is inferred to have
This area of predominantly clear waters has a only been active since the Mio-Pliocene (Fig. 1;
diverse array of carbonate depositional environments Aurelio et al., 1991). In this complex tectonic area,
and the most prolific coral reef development in Indo- there is still considerable debate over the relative roles
nesia (Salm and Halim, 1984). Modern carbonates of strike – slip and convergent tectonics, and the geol-
often form as fringing or barrier reefs around the ogy and evolution of many areas, such as Luzon,
numerous islands, some of which are volcanically remain controversial (cf. Rangin et al., 1990; Hall,
active. Around larger islands, such as Sulawesi, mixed 1996; Packham, 1996).
carbonate-clastic shelves and more extensive shelves
with patch reef complexes have also developed. 8.2. Tertiary carbonates associated with igneous
Between Sulawesi and Nusa Tenggara, a number of rocks in Mindanao, Southern Philippines
isolated carbonate platforms developed on faulted
highs in a range of water depths. The Doang doang Small, localised exposures of limestone are asso-
shoals Southwest of Sulawesi is a platform in 100 m ciated with the predominantly igneous lithologies on
water depth where abundant Halimeda grows. In Mindanao (Fig. 14 and Table 5). The upper Eocene
comparison, Taka Bone Rate to the east of Southeast Davao Limestone of eastern Mindanao contains abun-
Sulawesi is the largest shallow-water platform in dant larger benthic foraminifera and was probably
Indonesia and is an area of abundant and diverse coral deposited as foraminiferal shoals. Limestone con-
growth (68 genera and 158 species; Salm and Halim, glomerates suggest some redeposition of material,
1984). This diversity of modern carbonate depositional perhaps in a slope setting. The variably metamor-
environments is analogous to the variety of Tertiary phosed Davao Limestone overlies basalts and sepen-
carbonate depositional systems in the area, many of tinites, and is overthrust by harzburgites from an
which were syntectonic or associated with volcanism. ophiolite sequence (Mitchell et al., 1986). Other
Tertiary carbonates on Mindanao are often associated
with extrusive volcanic rocks or volcaniclastics. Many
8. The Philippines and margins of the South China of the upper Oligocene to Plio-Pleistocene carbonates
Sea crop out as small exposures and have been given a
variety of names. The limestones include corals and
8.1. Tectonic context of the Philippines larger benthic foraminifera, suggesting shallow-water
development. In all cases, carbonate production is
The Philippine archipelago is located along the inferred to have taken place as localised development
convergent boundary between the Philippine Sea Plate around the coast of predominantly volcanic Mind-
and the western margin of the Eurasian plate (Figs. 1 anao, where volcaniclastic input did not hinder car-
Fig. 14. Map showing the distribution of Cenozoic carbonates in and around the Philippines.
bonate production. Carbonates, such as the Siloay et al., 1989). The limestones contain a wide variety of
Limestone, are intimately associated with the vol- bioclasts, such as corals, Halimeda, coralline algae
canics, being interbedded with basalt conglomerates and larger benthic foraminifera. Deposition was in a
and other volcaniclastic lithologies. range of shallow-water environments, including car-
bonate platforms with localised patch reefs, isolated
8.3. Tertiary carbonates associated with block fault- low-relief buildups and mixed carbonate-clastic
ing and volcanics of the Visayas shelves (Porth et al., 1989). On Leyte, Masbate and
Burias, the Oligo-Miocene carbonates either interdi-
Few lower Paleogene rocks are exposed in the gitate with volcaniclastics, or contain volcanic clasts,
Visayas, the main central island group of the Philip- suggesting proximity to a volcanic arc. Many of the
pines, and the early Tertiary history of the area is shallow-water limestones pass laterally into time
poorly known. Small Eocene carbonate exposures are equivalent resedimented slope deposits or deeper
known from Negros (Isio Limestone), Cebu (Baye water lithologies.
Limestone) and Bohol (Tubigon Limestone). These Non-deposition or clastic sedimentation predomi-
limestones contain larger benthic foraminifera and nated during the lowermost Early Miocene due to a
probably formed as foraminiferal shoals, sometimes relative sea level lowstand and associated erosion
directly on basement of inferred ophiolitic or island (Rangin et al., 1989). The Binabac Limestone of
arc origin (Rangin et al., 1989). Cebu, consisting of sandy limestones, floatstones,
Neogene sedimentation in the Visayas occurred rudstones and marls, is one of the few limestones
around islands, on adjacent shelves and in intervening from this period. These limestones are inferred to have
basinal areas, similar to the present day depositional been deposited as low-relief patch reefs on a predom-
setting (Muller et al., 1989; Carozzi, 1995). Neogene inantly clastic shelf (Porth et al., 1989) during a
volcanism in the Visayan region is associated with relative sealevel rise following the lowstand (Muller
subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate and the Sulu et al., 1989).
Sea to the east and west, respectively. The area The latest Early Miocene and early Middle Mio-
between Negros and Samar is a region of block- cene was a period of extensive carbonate sedimenta-
faulted horst and grabens. These structures were tion and coeval volcanism in the Visayas, and
superimposed on earlier folded and thrusted structural interdigitation of carbonates and volcaniclastics was
elements during the Late Miocene to Pliocene (Fig. common (Porth et al., 1989). Although many of these
15; Rangin et al., 1989). In this complex tectonic carbonates contain shallow-marine biota, at least some
region, the carbonates are often associated with clas- deposition occurred in slope environments (Muller et
tics and volcaniclastics. Sedimentary successions are al., 1989). The Uling Limestone, of Middle Miocene
characterized by rapid lateral and vertical facies age from Cebu, is a shallow-water limestone depos-
changes related to tectonics, eustasy and variations ited in a platform or lagoonal setting where low-relief
in clastic influx. The most complete successions are patch reefs or coral meadows developed (Muller et al.,
exposed in Cebu and Negros, which experienced 1989). The middle Miocene Libertad Limestone of
subsidence throughout the Neogene (Muller et al., Camotes is partly conglomeratic, the limestones are
1989). interbedded with marls, and a depositional slope
On Cebu, erosional remnants of mid Oligocene setting is inferred. In many areas of the Visayas, with
basinal carbonates of the Lutak Hill Limestone the exception of Cebu, part of the middle Miocene
unconformably overlie igneous basement (Jurgan sequence is missing due to uplift and erosion perhaps
and Domingo, 1989). Upper Oligocene to lower associated with regional tectonic events (Muller et al.,
Miocene limestones, such as the Trankalan, Cebu, 1989; Rangin et al., 1989). The latest Middle Miocene
Kantaring and Pilar Limestones, are exposed in was a time of little carbonate sedimentation in the
Negros, Cebu, Leyte, Masbate, Burias and Panay Visayas, due to considerable clastic and volcaniclastic
(Corby et al., 1951; Porth et al., 1989). These lime- influx, perhaps as a result of a lowering of relative sea
stones overlie thin transgressive clastics, which level and erosion of the newly formed volcanic areas
unconformably overlie basement lithologies (Rangin (Muller et al., 1989).
Table 5
Cenozoic carbonates in and around the Philippines
Aksitero Formation. E. Zambales, Late Eocene to 200 m Subsiding basin Bedded hemipelagic
Equiv. Bigbiga C. Luzon, Early Oligocene adjacent to active limestones and few
Lst (Not shown Philippines island arc to east interbedded tuffaceous
on map) turbidites. Basinal
setting> 1000 m
Alfonso XIII W coast Palawan, Pliocene Not given Bordering land area Mixed carbonate-clastic
Formation Philippines shelf and ?slope
(not on map) deposits
Lst of Argao Balatasan Peninsula, Bandao (Tc-d). Whole group Unclear, close to Mixed carbonate –
Group (AR) S Mindoro, Late Oligocene or 750 m. 500 m land area clastic shelf and slope
(Bandao Lst or Philippines Early Miocene for lst. (continental crust?) deposits?
Bulalacao Lst.) (Bulalacao)
(later ages up to
Pliocene have
been given)
Bagolinao Lst and Tablas Island, Middle Miocene Limestone locally Backarc? To interarc Shallow water
marl (BG) Visayas, Philippines (Tf1 – 2) 500 m thick, limestones, probably
overlying marls up deepening up section
to 1000 m
Barili Limestone Widespread in Late Miocene and 200 – 700 m Backarc to interarc Shelfal limestone
(BR), equiv. southern and earliest Pliocene. setting? Oblique interdigitate with
Dingle Limestone, northern Cebu, Locally 2 (or more) convergence shelfal and deeper
poss. to Maingit Philippines and limestone units, one marine clastics
Lst. Also Licos/ in S Mindoro early Late Miocene,
Upper Lst from another base Pliocene
Licos area, Cebu
may be equiv. to
Barili or Carcar
Baybay Lst. (BB) S Burias, Visayas Plio-Pleistocene 90 m Fringing islands, Mixed carbonate/clastic
Equiv. Carcar interarc? shelf
Baye Limestone Central Cebu, Middle to Late 20 m thick Unclear, Probably localised
(BL)/Lutak Hill Philippines Eocene unconformable on foraminiferal shoals
(LH) basement

Planktonic Planktonic Water depth and Compaction, Relict hydrocarbons Garrison et al., 1979
foraminifera foraminifera and volcaniclastic input replacement of (bitumen – dead oil)
wackestone calcareous siliceous tests by in tuffaceous layers
nannofossils and up cristobalite. Calcite/ in pores and fractures
to 30% volcaniclastic zeolite/smectite/and
debris in limestones. chalcedony infill
Few radiolarians, tests. Micrite
sponge spicules recrystallization. Tuff
and phosphatic fish layers—replacement
remains. Graded of glass and infill by
tuffs – glass, pumice, zeolites and calcite
crystals and lithics
Limestones with Fossils mostly living Clastic input and Not described No information De Villa, 1941b
much sand, clay, and recent, but not water depth given
marls and impure described
calcareous clays
Thin-bedded Orbitoids in Clastic input Not described No information Corby et al., 1951;
limestone, limestones given Teves, 1956
calcareous (including Camerina).
sandstones, Conglomerate
sandy limestones, contains lst. Clasts,
siltstones, qz. Schist and chert
mudstones and
limestone
conglomerate and
agglomerates
Massive limestone Not described Water depth Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
at base, thinner given
bedded towards
top, merging into
a marl (with some
silts and sands)
Well bedded Corals, shell Clastic input, water Not described No information Corby et al., 1951;
bioclastic fragments, echinoid depth, overlain by given Kintanar and Pinpin,
limestones, locally spines, larger fossiliferous marls 1979; Porth et al., 1989
patch reef benthic foraminifera.
development In Mindoro
(boundstones?) bioclastic
limestone locally
conglomeratic – clasts
include schist,
chert and qz.
Poorly bedded Not described Clastic input Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
white and buff lst. given
Locally silty
Nummulites-bearing Larger benthic Accommodation Not described No information Porth et al., 1989
limestones foraminifera space given
(probably (Nummulites)
packstones and
rudstone)
Table 5 (continued)
Binabac Limestone. Uling area, central Early Miocene 0 – 60 m Backarc setting? Low relief patch reefs
Alpaco member Cebu, Philippines Oblique on predominantly
of Malubog convergence clastic shelf (Upper
contains lower Malubog Formation)
and upper Binabac
lst (not on map)
Bote Hill Limestone SE Catanduanes Late Oligocene to Not given Unconformably Neritic limestones and
(not on map) Island, SE Luzon, Early Miocene overlies magmatics, calcarenites
Philippines (Chattian – area of strike slip
Aquitanian) faulting
Buga Buga Lst. NW Leyte, Early (?) – Middle 100 – 200 m Backarc to interarc Small patch reefs and
Equiv. to Philippines Miocene or Late setting? more extensive shallow
Calubian? (CF) Miocene to Pliocene water limestones
(NN11) interbedded with
bathyal deposits
Bugtong Lst. Mindoro, Eocene (if Pocanil – Not given Unclear. Caguray Unknown. Caguray-
(Confusion with Philippines Early Miocene). overlies bathyal shelfal carbonates
Pocanil). Lst of Late Eocene for clastics
Caguray Fm. Caguray
(not on map)
Butong Limestone. Southern Cebu, Late Oligocene Max. thickness Backarc setting? Probably similar to
Equiv. Cebu Philippines 550 m Oblique Cebu Limestone,
Limestone (CO) convergence isolated low relief
buildups
Cabariohan Panay Island, Oligo-Miocene? 30 m, Tigayon Backarc to interarc Discontinuous narrow

Limestone/Tigayon Philippines in NW Panay up limestone beds,
Lst and ?Pilar Lst. to 150 m overlain/ interbedded
(not on map) by andesites and
clastics, Tigayon,
includes volcanic clasts
Cabugao S Catanduanes Middle to Late Not given Unconformabe on Localized shallow
Limestone (GC) Island, SE Luzon, Eocene Cretaceous and water limestones
Philippines ?Early Paleocene
volcaniclastic and
olistoliths, area of
strike slip faulting
Calatagan Marl SW Luzon Middle Miocene – Thickness not given Intra-arc/bordering Mixed carbonate-
(CT) Pliocene? island volcaniclastic shelf and
(Upper X and Y) shallow water coral lst.
Calicoan Lst. (CL) SE Samar and Plio-Pleistocene Not given Recent fringing reefs Shallow water reefs
Calicoan Island, or buildups
Philippines
Callao Limestone Cagayan, NE Luzon Middle Miocene 200 m Overlies basement, Shallow water
(CA) (Tertiary lower X) limestone bordering limestone?
land

Sandy limestones, Mainly branching Clastic input and Not described No information Porth et al., 1989
floatstones and corals in sandy water depth given
rudstones, marls matrix
Neritic limestones Not described Antecedent Not described No information David et al., 1997
and calcarenites topography and given
water depth?
Coral rudstones/ Abundant branching Water depth, low Not described No information Muller et al., 1989
floatstones, and platy corals, energy given
framestones, larger benthic and
biomicrites. planktonic
foraminifera,
coralline algae,
echinoids,
Halimeda, molluscs
Bioclastic Not described Water depth Not described No information Teves, 1956;
limestone given Sarewitz and Karig,
1986
Bedded biomicrites, Common to Probably water Not described No information Porth et al., 1989
biorudites and abundant Lepido- depth, clastic input, given
bioarenites cyclina, and other accommodation
larger foraminifera. space
Locally branching
and finger corals
abundant
Biomicrites. No fossils described Volcaniclastic and Not described No information Teves, 1956
Massive lsts. clastic input given
Or thinly bedded
with sandstones.
Conglomerates
Limestones Not described Not described Not described No information David et al., 1997
(Not described) given
Soft tuffaceous Corals, foraminifera Water depth, Generally No information Corby et al., 1951
marine silt to abundant volcaniclastic/clastic unconsolidated given
coralline input
limestone
Reefal limestone Corals Water depth Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
given
Lower two Not described Not described Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
thirds-massive, given
upper third porous
Table 5 (continued)
Calubian NW Leyte, Early (?) – Middle < 300, 100 – 150 m Unclear nearby coral bank
Formation (CF) Philippines Miocene (NN5) type locality or reef
(Calubian Lst. of Calubian
Leyte Group)
Carbonates of Reed Reed Bank and Late Oligocene to 1500 m On extensional Shallow water
Bank Dangerous Grounds, Holocene block faulted highs carbonate platforms
S China Sea of continental and buildups
basement (Miocene—Dangerous
Grounds)
Carcar Limestone Widely distributed Late Pliocene – Ave. thickness Backarc to interarc Fringing reefs?, shelfal
(Tablas) (CC). around coast of Pleistocene, but 300 m, max. 400 m setting? And or to shelf margin
Equiv. Pleistocene Cebu, Negros, may only be around islands limestones
San Sebastian Fm. Bohol, Mindoro, Pleistocene
(S Cebu) or Philippines
Calicoan Lst.
(Samar)
Catala marble (CS) Marinduque Prob. Middle 600 m Interarc Limestones interbedded
Miocene with volcaniclastic
formation
Cebu Cebu, Batan, Late Oligocene < 40 or 75 – 100 m, Backarc setting? Shallow shoals with
Limestone (CO) Philippines (Te1 – 4, NP25) or in wells northern Oblique coral colonies forming
(Orbitoid Lst.). poss. Early Miocene Cebu and Bantayan convergence small patch reefs,
Equiv. Camansi Lst. 160 – 180 m interfingers with deeper
/Guila – Guila or water deposits
lower Lst. (some reworking of
shallow water
carbonates) and
marginal marine
clastics/volcaniclastics
Culianan Lst. Zamboanga, Middle/Late Not given Not described Shallow water
Formation Mindanao Miocene
(not on map)
Lst. In Daram Fm. SE Leyte, Daram Oligo-Miocene Lst within 1000 m Interarc Thin limestones
(Not on map) Island and S Samar, volcaniclastic fm. interbedded in volcanic
Philippines sequence
Davao Limestone Davao and Late Eocene Not given. Assoc. with Foraminiferal shoals
(DV). Equiv. northern. Mindanao Nabanog Fm. ultramafics/ and limestone
limestone in 200 m metamorphosed. conglomerates
Nabanog Formation. Nabanog-ophiolite
(Equiv. Madanlog over fm.
Fm.)

coral rudstones Corals (branching, Water depth, clastic Not described No information Corby et al., 1951;
(sandy matrix), platy and head), input given Jurgan and Domingo,
framestones, large benthic 1989; Porth et al., 1989
micritic lst., foraminifera,
bioarenites, echinoderms,
locally marly bivalves, gastropods,
coralline algae
Not described Not described Basement highs, Not described No information Holloway, 1982;
water depth given Fulthorpe and
Schlanger, 1989
Poorly bedded to Corals, planktonic Water depth, Very porous, chalky No information Corby et al., 1951;
massive porous foraminifera accommodation in places given Kintanar and Pinpin,
coralline lsts. space 1979; Porth et al., 1989
(boundstones/
rudstones?) and
well bedded lsts.
Interbedded with
marls and lst.
Congs
Massive crystalline Larger benthic Volcaniclastic input Crystalline No information Corby et al., 1951
limestone, foraminifera and water depth limestone, extensive given
(near vertical). veining
Serpentinite
intruded into and
above marble.
Bioclastic Abundant larger Water depth, clastic/ Little porosity. No information Corby et al., 1951;
limestones, benthic foraminifera, volcaniclastic input, Some sparry calcite given Jurgan and Domingo,
packstones and coralline algae, few Accommodation in grainstones. 1989; Porth et al., 1989
grainstones, corals (branching space, close to Compaction features,
shaley lst. and head corals), land area stylolites
in parts echinoids, green
algae and bryozoans
are rare
Not described Corals and larger Not described Not described No information Teves, 1956
benthic foraminifera given
Orbitoid limestone Larger benthic Volcaniclastic and Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
in volcaniclastics foraminifera lava influx given
and lavas of
Daram Fm.
Metamorphosed Larger benthic Clastic input? Metamorphosed. No information Corby et al., 1951;
limestones foraminifera Not described given Mitchell et al., 1986
(packstones?) (Discocyclina
and clastics. sp. and
Nabanog-limestone Pellatispira sp.)
overlying basalt
Table 5 (continued)
Dingle (DL)/ Panay and Late Miocene Locally up to 600 m Backarc Fringing reefs and
Manlacbo Guimaras Island, to (?)Pliocene buildups on clastic or
Formation or Philippines carbonate shelf
Mountain Lst.
Diwata Lst, Labuan Agusan, Zamboanga, Pliocene 20 – 50 m Around variety of Fringing or barrier reefs
Lst. Awang Lst. Davao, Mindanao islands and associated deposits
Tamisan coralline around islands
Lst. (LD) (equiv.
Carcar Lst)
Guijalo Lst. (GC) W Caramoan Middle Eocene Less than 220 m Intra arc or near Localised limestone,
Nummulites Peninsula (upper Lutetian/lower (Sula) arc setting, area of probably shoals in area
Limestone of Payo (SE Luzon) N Bartonian—P12 or strike slip faulting. of submarine volcanism
Formation. Sula Central Catanduanes P13. Eocene (Sula) Guijalo-uncon and clastic input. Shelf
Formation Island, SE Luzon, overlies Cret. to slope environment
Sula (Cagraray) Volcanic arc
Philippines sequence, area of
stike – slip faulting
Hubay Formation. Leyte, Philippines Late Miocene to Ave. 50 m Backarc to interarc Close to volcanic arc/
(of Leyte Group) Pliocene. Buga setting? land area, localized
(HB) Buga (NN11), shallow water
Hubay (N19) carbonates
Ibulao Limestone Cagayan Valley, Early Miocene 200 m Widespread Shallow water
(IB) NE Luzon (Tertiary upper W) limestone bordering limestone, interbedded
land area with coals
Isio Limestone (IL) Cauayan area, Eocene Not given Unclear Not described
SW Negros,
Philippines
Kantaring Formation SW Leyte, Late Oligocene Seen as boulders Unclear Shallow water and
(not on map) Philippines. (?) – Early Miocene in conglomeratic sst. slope deposits,
considerable reworking
close to land/volcanic
area
Kitcharao N Agusan, Early or Middle >500 m or 40 m near subduction Shallow water

(or Kicharao) Mindanao, Miocene system
Limestone Philippines
(not on map)
Kennon N Central Luzon Middle Miocene 150 m Localised outcrops Limestones grade
Limestone (KN) (Tertiary lower X) bordering land areas upwards into
(may be partly sandstones
equiv. To Mirador) (Shallow water?)

Massive limestones, Corals, molluscs Water depth Recrystallized, No information Corby et al., 1951
but also coral and microfossils common sugary given
limestones texture, porous and
(rudstones/ cavernous
framestones?),
chalk on
Guimaras
Marls, coral Corals Water depth and Not described No information Corby et al, 1951;
limestones clastic input given Teves, 1956
Bedded bioclastic Algae and Volcanism and Not described No information David et al., 1997
limestone Nummulites. clastic input given
(packstone?) to Bedded limestone
Nummulites base contains
packstone. algae passing up
Guijalo—massive into
to bedded, nodular Nummulitic
and bioclastic limestone
Poorly bedded to Corals, larger Clastic/volcaniclastic Porous No information Corby et al., 1951;
massive coralline benthic foraminifera, input. Water depth given Porth et al., 1989
lst. With ostracods,
intercalated sst., nannoplankton,
tuff and claystone molluscs
layers
Massive fossiliferous Corals, larger Water depth, clastic Lower 150 m No information Corby et al., 1951
limestone benthic foraminifera input, marginal jointed and given
(150 m lower part), marine setting cavernous
upper localised
limestone
Not described Not described Not described Not described No information Porth et al., 1989
given
bioclastic Larger benthic Clastic/volcaniclastic Not described No information Jurgan and Domingo,
packstones and foraminifera, input, possibly given 1989; Porth et al., 1989
grainstones. Halimeda, corals tectonics,
(branching and accommodation
head), echinoderms, space
bivalves
coral and algal Corals and algae antecedent Not described No information Mitchell et al., 1986
limestone topography given
Sparsely Not described, Water depth, clastic Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
fossiliferous, sparsely fossiliferous input given
massive white
limestone
Table 5 (continued)
Libertad Lst. (L) Camotes, Visayas Middle Miocene 130 m Unclear Overlying sandy marls.
and marl (Tf2) Possibly deepening
upwards-shelf margin?
Lst. Of Liguan Batan Island and Early Miocene Coal lenses, Interbedded with or Shallow water to
Fm/Lst? (LC) Cagraray Island, (Te5) poss. Late Hill- 350 m, overlie quartzose shelfal limestones,
(Coast, Hill, and SE Luzon, Oligocene (Te4) Coal Harbour sandstones/coals interdigitate with
Vizcaya Lst. distinct fm? clastics
Member), Coal
Harbour Lst
Lower Buyag Masbate, Early (?) – Middle 40 m to 100 m Backarc to interarc Shallow water reefal
Formation Philippines. Miocene (N9 – N12) setting? deposits SE margin
(may include two basement complex and
units: Banga and slope to basinal
Malbug members) deposits with
(not on map) resedimentation further
to SE. Close to land
area/volcanic arc
Lunsuran Lst. E. Zamboanga, Late Oligocene – 30 m (Tubod) Overlies or Shallow water
(LL)/ Masapelid/ and N Mindanao Early Miocene 250 m interbedded with associated with
Hagonoy (equiv. volcaniclastic rocks, volcanics
Cebu Orbitoid intruded by andesitic
Lst.) poss. Culianan. and basaltic dykes
Tubod Lst
(Taytay Group)
Lutak (Hill) Cebu, Philippines Middle Oligocene estimated 30 – 60 m Unclear – Localized areas shelfal
Limestone (LH) (Td, P21 or unconformable on limestones on highs
NP23 – NP24) basement.
Magapit Limestone Cagayan, NE Luzon Plio-Pleistocene Localised cliffs, Bordering land area Mixed carbonate-clastic
(not on map) (Tertiary Z) 50 m high shelf (localised,
bordering land area)
Maingit (Mainguit) Maingit river, Middle or Late 50 m for basal Backarc to interarc Shelfal and shelf
Limestone or Cebu, Philippines Miocene limestone setting? margin limestone?
basal Maingit
facies of Barili
Formation (BR).

Interbedded Corals, molluscs, Water depth Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
limestone and foraminifera given
marl. Thickest
limestone—30 m
at base, then thin
limestone
stringers and
conglomerate
with clay matrix
Lenses of Foraminifera, corals Water depth Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
limestone (coast) given
or massive lst.
Coral rudstones, Corals (head and Clastic/volcaniclastic Not described No information Jurgan and Domingo,
framestones, branching corals input, water depth, given 1989; Porth et al., 1989
bioclastic common), coralline slope instability
packstones. algae, larger benthic
Fractures filled with foraminifera,
red chert. Calcareous planktonic
shales interbedded foraminifera and
tuffs, ssts. nannofossils
White, pink and Corals, larger Volcaniclastic input Not described No information Corby et al, 1951;
grey coralline benthic foraminifera (?), water depth given Teves, 1956
limestones
Bioclastic Large benthic Antecedent Not described No information Jurgan and Domingo,
limestones forams, miliolids, topography given 1989
(abundant),
gastropods,
echinoids, few corals
(branching forms),
Halimeda and
coralline algae
Calcareous Formation is Water depth, clastic Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
sandstone fossiliferous (fossils input given
alternating with not described)
sandy limestone
Well bedded and Corals, branching Basal part of Not described No information Corby et al., 1951;
partly coraliferous, corals, lithic and transgressive given Porth et al., 1989
with reworked lithic limestone clasts sequence, water
and Uling? Pebbles, depth, slope
overlain by clastics. instability,
Interbedded with tectonics?
bathyal deposits.
Boundstones(?),
breccias, floatstones
and rudstones
Table 5 (continued)
Makalawang NW Burias Island, Oligocene – Early Up to 1200 – Unclear, interarc? Unclear, perhaps
Lst./San Pascual Visayas Miocene 1300 m, but around volcanic area
(not on map) repetition by folding
and faulting
Malumbang Tayabas and Bondoc Plio-Pleistocene Thickness not given Bordering island Mixed carbonate-clastic
Limestone (MB) Peninsula, SE Luzon (Tertiary Z) or area shelf, local carbonate
(Upper and lower) Mio-Pliocene development
Masbate Limestone/ Masbate, Philippines Originally thought to Max. 50 m Backarc to interarc Shallow water
Port Barrera Lst be Mio-Pliocene, but setting? carbonates, fringing
(MS). Equiv. may be Pleistocene reefs? Round land area
Carcar Lst. (N22)
Mirador N Central Luzon, Miocene 120 m Localised outcrops, Shallow water
(Mt. Mirador) Lst. W of Baguio City (or Plio-Pleistocene) perhaps bordering limestones and possibly
Equiv. Baguio Lst land areas slope deposits
(member of Bued
River Series)
(not on map)
Monacao Lst (ML)., Batan Island, Middle to Late Lenses in coal Interbedded and pass Shallow water
Lsts in Caracaran SE Luzon Miocene measure, laterally into coal limestones interdigitate
and Bilbao Lower 650 m, measures and pass laterally into
(Upper and lower) upper 170 m clastics
Fms. (Upper lst?),
Casolgan
Montalban/ SW and Central Early Miocene 800 – 2000 m Intra-arc/bordering Biohermal reef,
Binangonan/Angat Luzon (Rizal, or Oligo-Miocene (Angat/Montalban), island overlies and overlain by
Limestone (BN) Bulacan, Laguna) 1200—Binangonan. volcanics/volcaniclastic
(of Quezon Fm.). 100 m—Sibul Lst, rocks. Montalban area,
Also lst in Sibul 2 lsts separated by
Fm.-Equiv. Sierra Madre coal
Pagabilo Lst. measures
Mountain Maid Masbate, Late Oligocene – Max. thickness Unclear, faulted patch reefs and
Limestone (MM). Philippines Early Miocene 60 – 80 m against volcanics, backreef/lagoonal
Equiv. Cebu Lst. (upper Te) prob. interarc sediments

Coarsely crystalline, Not described Water depth and Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
poorly-bedded lst., input of volcanic given
sandy lst., clasts
brecciated
limestone, lst.
with volcanic
clasts
Calcareous Corals, molluscs Water depth, clastic Not described No information Pratt and Smith, 1913;
sandstones, (pectens), coralline input given Corby et al., 1951
sandstones, algae, larger benthic
massive foraminifera
limestones or
thick bedded
limestones
Coral limestone, Corals Terrestrial input, Not described No information Corby et al., 1951;
laterally equiv. water depth given Porth et al., 1989
silty marls and
tuffs, ssts
Yellow-white Larger benthic Water depth, clastic Metamorphosed to No information Eveland, 1907; Smith,
limestone, hard foraminifera, input marble by later given 1924
and compact, coralline algae andesite. Iron oxide
coralline limestone staining
often heavily
fossiliferous,
argillaceous
limestone,
limestone
conglomerate/
breccia
Rubbly to Corals, foraminifera Water depth, clastic Not described No information Corby et al., 1951;
conglomeratic lst, input given Teves, 1956
contain abundant
lenses with
carbonaceous
shales, sands
and silts
Massive pink or Corals, larger Water depth, Not described Quarried Smith, 1906; Corby et
white lst benthic foraminifera, volcaniclastic input al., 1951
(Binangonan). coralline algae
Angat river area
E. Central Luzon,
contains pumice
fragments
bioclastic Corals (branching Water depth, Compaction features, No information Corby et al., 1951;
packstones, and head corals), accommodation sparry calcite given Jurgan and Domingo,
massive coralline algae, space infill/replacement of 1989; Porth et al., 1989
biomicrites larger benthic bioclasts
foraminifera, rare
planktonic
foraminifera
Table 5 (continued)
Mt. Lookout Western Tayabas Oligo-Miocene 1500 m, thins to Overlies crystalline Fringing land area
Limestone (TY) Isthmus, SE Luzon (Tertiary W) SE of El Mirador basement. Intraarc or island arc
Lookout overlain by
volcanics
Nabua Formation Bicol Peninsula, Middle Miocene – Not given Interbedded and Mixed carbonate-clastic
Lst. (TN) SE Luzon Pliocene (Tertiary intermixed with shelf, massive shelf
Member upper X – Z) clastics margin lst? and slope
Naispit Fm. Agusan, Mindanao Mio-Pliocene 30 – 220 m Prob. Around islands Not given
(not on map)
Nido Limestone Nido B, Malampaya Early Oligocene/ about 1300 m- Faulted basement Initially broad open
(NL) and and Camago Fields, Early Miocene includes Early highs of continental oceanic carbonate shelf
Linapacan offshore NW Oligocene crust developed into
Limestone Palawan Philippines, pinnacles/buildups
(deeper water during late Oligocene –
calciturbidites) Early Miocene. Later-
ally equiv. deeper water
calciturbidites
(Linapacan)
Olutanga Lst. Opol Zamboanga, Oriental Plio-Pleistocene Over 50 m some Around a variety Fringing or barrier reefs
Fm. (LD) Misamis, Mindanao sections. Opol up of islands and associated deposits
(Equiv. To Carcar) to 300 m around islands
(not on map)
Oreng Formation Mindoro, Philippines Late Miocene Not described Unclear Prob. Shallow water
(not on map) (Not on map) (Th) – Pliocene
Pagabilo Limestone Western Tayabas Early Miocene 1000 m, Sampaloc Intra-arc Fringing land area or
(TY)/Sampaloc Isthmus, SE Luzon (Tertiary upper W), Lst. Conglomerate— volcanic arc, localized
Lst Conglomerate Sampaloc Lst. 3250 m reef development and
(Quezon Fm). Conglomerate slope
Partly equiv. to (Early – Middle
Tayabas and Miocene)
Montalban Lst.
Pasuquin Ilocos Norte, Early Eocene Not described Bordering land Mixed carbonate
Arenaceous NW Luzon area? clastic shelf??
Limestone (Not on map)
Pocanil Lst. (PO) Mindoro, Miocene 250 – 1000 m Unclear Overlies coals or
Philippines basement
(unconformably)

Massive limestone, Foraminifera Water depth, Fractured, veined No information Corby et al., 1951
mostly white volcaniclastic input and recrystallised. given
Present weathering
to pinnacles and
spires
Fm: sandstones, Corals Clastic input, water Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
clays, calcareous depth, rel. sea level given
sandstones, coral change
breccias, massive
limestones
Marl, thin limestone, Not described Clastic input and Not described No information Teves, 1956
calcareous water depth? given
conglomerates,
sandstones
Coral boundstones, Coral reefs, Basement control Extensive Oil and gas Thapar and Ayme,
rudstones, coralline algae, on buildups, Strong cementation (marine reservoirs in reefal 1982; Longman, 1985;
bioclastic gastropods, windward-leeward along oceanward buildups and Biswas, 1986; Walston
packstone and foraminifera. effects on deposition western margin), forereef talus. Also and Oesterle, 1992;
grainstones, Underlying upper and diagenesis, leaching on buildup in deeper water Grötsch and Mercadier,
gastropod Eocene – Oligocene repeated subaerial top and extensive calciturbidites 1999
wackestones, platforms tend to be exposure. Tectonic fracturing (Linapacan)
calciturbidites, more foraminiferal control on drowning
planktonic and algal rich
foraminifera
wackestones
and floatstones
Coralline limestone Corals Water depth, Not described No information Teves, 1956
and tuffaceous volcaniclastic input given
layers
Fossiliferous lst. Fossiliferous, but Not described Basal part sugary No information Teves, 1956
Basal part: sugary, not described given
rugged lst.
Overlain by
young cong.
Massive or bedded Localised reef? Water depth, Not described Quarried for lime Corby et al., 1951
limestone, often volcaniclastic input
tuffaceous,
contains schist
pebbles in parts.
Limestone
conglomerate of
similar age in
Sampaloc coal
measures
Arenaceous Snake-like markings Clastic input Not described No information Smith, 1907
limestone up to 2 in. in given
diameter, prob. trace
fossils
Massive white Not described Not described Not described No information de Villa, 1941a; Corby
limestone given et al., 1951; Teves,
1956
Table 5 (continued)
Poro Formation (P) Camotes, Visayas Middle – upper 350 m Unconformably Shelfal to shelf margin
Miocene (Tf3) overlies sandstones.
Interarc to backarc?
Punta Negara and Ilocos Norte, Miocene Not described Bordering land Shallow water
Punta Blanca NW Luzon area? limestone??
Orbitoidal Lst (Not on map)
Sagada Limestone Sagada, Mountain Mio-Pliocene? Not described Bordering land Not known
(not on map) Province, Luzon area?
(Not on map)
San Isidro Leyte, Philippines Pleistocene At least 50 m Backarc to interarc Shallow water lst.
Formation (SI). setting?
Equiv. Carcar Lst.
San Juan Camotes, Visayas Upper Miocene – 200 m Interarc to backarc? Shallow marine
Limestone (SJ) Pliocene Unconformably
overlies older fms.
San Pascual Burias, Visayas Miocene At least 150 m Unclear, interarc? Shallow water
Formation (SP) carbonates on clastic
shelf
Santa Cruz Marinduque Middle (?Late) Not given Interarc Shallow-water

Lst. (CS) Miocene (Tf1) limestone fringing
volcanic area
Sierra Bullones SE Bohol, Sierra Late Miocene – < 100 m Backarc to interarc Deposited as shoals
Limestone (SB). Bullones Range, Early Pliocene setting? or coral banks, or
Equiv. Barili Lst. Philippines locally in backreef
Cebu environment, grades
into deeper water
Sevilla Marls
Siloay Limestone Cotabato, Mio-Pliocene Up to 1000 m Prob. Around Shallow water?
(not on map) Mindanao islands and interbedded with
volcanoes volcanic/volcaniclastics
Siramag Bicol Peninsula, Oligo-Miocene ? Not given Area with volcanic Marble
Marble (SM) SE Luzon (but apparently (described as rocks, prob.
(Ragay Gulf) barren of fossils) thick body) intra-arc
Sorsogon Bicol Peninsula, Plio-Pleistocene Not given Intra-arc Near shore

Marls (SS) SE Luzon (Tertiary Z) environment, fringing
island/arc
Sto. Domingo S Catanduanes Middle to Late Not given Unconformably Karstified limestones
Formation Island, SE Luzon, Miocene overlie older rocks,
(not on map) Philippines. Not area of strike slip
on map faulting

Interbedded Abundant Water depth, clastic Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
limestone and microfossils input, transgression given
marls, marls
sometimes sandy
Fossiliferous Shell-bearing Not described Not described No information Smith, 1907
limestone invertebrates, larger given
benthic foraminifera
Cream, white to Abundant coralline Dissolution caves Not described No information Teves, 1956
reddish limestone algae fragments and sink holes today given
Flat-lying Corals Water depth, Not described No information Porth et al., 1989
coralline lst. accommodation given
space
Well bedded to Abundant corals, Water depth, Porous No information Corby et al., 1951
massive coral scarce microfossils transgression given
limestone
Coralline limestone, Abundant coral Clastic input Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
grades laterally heads given
into silty lst. and
calcareous silts
White limestone Larger benthic Volcaniclastic and Contact baking next No information Corby et al., 1951
interbedded with foraminifera lava input to lavas, but little given
thin lava flows, crystallization or
some contact veining compared
baking. Volcanic with older lsts
clasts in many
beds
Bedded Corals, larger Water depth Very porous No information Corby et al., 1951;
coralliferous benthic foraminifera given Porth et al., 1989
biomicrites or
bioarenites
Basalt conglomerate Corals, volcaniclastic Volcaniclastic input, Present day No information Francisco and Comsti,
with grey grains honeycombed with given 1952
fossiliferous cavities
carbonate matrix,
coralline
limestone
Marble—intensely Apparently barren Unclear, Intensely fractured Commercial Corby et al., 1951;
fractured and of fossils metamorphosed and veined (mosaic possibilities Teves, 1956
veined patterns) (construction
industry)
Calcareous tuffs, Corals Volcaniclastic input, Loosely No information Corby et al., 1951
marls and coral water depth consolidated given
sands
Limestones Not described Not described Not described No information David et al., 1997
(Not described) given

Table 5 (continued)
St. Paul’s St. Paul’s Middle Miocene? 500 m Unclear, faulted Shallow water and
Limestone (ST) Mountain, Bacuit contacts slope? limestones
Bay, Palawan
Talave Limestone East and central Late Miocene – >200 – 300 m Backarc to intra-arc Bathyal/slope deposits
(TA) member of Negros, Philippines Early Pliocene setting? and shallow water
Talave Fm. Equiv. buildups?, laterally
Barili Fm. Of equiv. to nearshore
Cebu clastic shelf deposits
Talisay and Ligao Bicol Peninsula, Middle Miocene? Talisay (300 m), Angular Massive white
limestones (TN). SE Luzon (Tertiary middle X) Ligao (500 m) unconformity with limestone (probably
Similar to lsts on (Talisay river) coal measures shallow water
Batan Islands (poss. rel. to limestones),
transgression) interdigitates with
clastics
Taluntunan – Marinduque Eocene (Ta – Tb) Not given Interarc? Lenses intercalated
Tumicob Lst. with volcaniclastics
Member
(not on map)
Tayabas Limestone Tayabas Isthmus, Early – Middle Number of lime- Fringing island Mixed carbonate-clastic
(TY) (member— SE Luzon Miocene (Tertiary stone members shelf, carbonate
Tayabas coal upper W – lower X) in Tayabas coal members interbedded
measures) measures (total with clastics
thickness—
2200 m)
Ticao Limestone Ticao Island, Middle Miocene 365 – 450 m (N), Unclear, interarc? Shallow water to
(TC) Visayas (Tf3) 150 – 300 m (S) moderate depths?
Torrijos Fm. (TR) Marinduque Late Oligocene Marlanga—500 m. Interarc Reefal and lenticular
(Marlanga Lst. (Te1-4)-Dolores, Taipan Lst. limestones fringing
Member) and Late Olig – Early Member 40 m. volcanic and land area
overlying Taipan Miocene (Te4 – 5) –
Fm (Taipan Lst. Torrijos and Taipan
Member)
Dolores Lst
Trankalan/ Negros, Late Oligocene – < 540 m Unclear Carbonate platform

Binaguiohan Philippines Early Miocene with localized patch
Limestone (TL). reefs laterally equiv.
Equiv. To Cebu deeper water deposits
Limestone on of Escalante Formation
Cebu (incl. calciturbidites
and lst. breccias)
Tubigon Lst Tubigon, W Bohol Eocene Not described, but Structural contact Unclear, due to
(not on map) localised with volcanics and structural complexity
sediments

Packstones, Corals, larger Water depth, Metamorphosed to St. Paul’s area De Villa, 1941b
wackestones, benthic foraminifera, antecedent marble near Bacuit limestone analogue
near Bacuit, coralline algae, topography? to Nido limestone
marbleized planktonic in subsurface
foraminifera
Marly limestones Large head corals, Clastic input, Not described No information Teves, 1956; Porth et
and thick, massive well-preserved water depth given al., 1989;
limestone, bivalves and larger
limestone benthic foraminifera
conglomerate
Massive white Not described. Clastic input, water Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
limestone, Ligao depth?, rel. sea given
interdigitates with level change
clastics
Marbleised lst. Not described Volcaniclastic input Not described No information Geological map,
Lenses intercalated given Marinduque
with volcaniclastic
wackes and shales
Gritty calcareous Foraminifera, clasts Clastic Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
sandstones, gritty of basement (volcaniclastic?) given
limestone (contain input
pebbles of
basement),
massive
limestones
Massive white and Corals and rare Water depth Recent cavernous No information Corby et al., 1951
buff lsts. at base, microfossils porosity given
well-bedded at
top. Coarse
breccias
Reefal limestone Corals, larger Volcaniclastic input, Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
intercalated benthic foraminifera accommodation given
with volcanics space
(Marlanga).
Overlying and
interfingering
with quartzites
and lavas (Taipan).
Small lenticular
masses (Dolores)
rudstones, bioclastic coralline algae, antecedent Minor interparticle No information Jurgan and Domingo,
packstones, green algae, large topography, water porosity in breccias given 1989; Porth et al., 1989
limestone benthic foraminifera, depth, slope filled with sparry
breccias corals (head and instability, tectonics? calcite
branching corals),
echinoderms,
molluscs
Not described Larger benthic Unknown Not described No information Corby et al., 1951;
foraminifera given Teves, 1956

Table 5 (continued)
Uling (Mt. Uling) Cebu, Philippines Middle Miocene 200 – 250 m Backarc to interarc Coral reef and backreef
Limestone (MU). (thicker in offshore setting? and forereef
Equiv. Lst in wells?) environments.
Santan well. Also Interfingers with
equiv. Middle Lst. basinal clastics and
/Binangonan Lst. tuffs of Toledo
Formation. Santan
carbonate shelf with
low relief patch reefs
or coral meadows
Wahig Northern Bohol, Early (?) – Middle 10 – 15 m Close to volcanic Local outcrops around
Formation (WH). Philippines Miocene (NN5) arc, intra-arc to basement complex.
(Wahig Orbitoid backarc setting? Local lst. development
Lst.) Equiv. close to land /arc
Uling Lst, Cebu
Zambales Zambales, W Late Miocene 0 – 150 m Localised outcrop Shallow water

Limestone (ZL) Central Luzon (Tertiary upper X) overlying basal limestone
conglomerate,
(bordering land?)
Ziujiang Carbonates Pearl River Mouth Early Miocene 476 m On extensional Shallow water
(Liuhua Platform) Basin, S China Sea block faulted carbonate platform,
(not on map) highs of continental drowned in Early
basement Miocene
In addition to these carbonate formations or members, limestone units are also reported from a number of different clastic or volcaniclastic
formations in the Philippines—such as limestone breccias in the middle Miocene Macasilao Formation of Negros.
Initiation of block faulting during the Late Mio- highs surrounded by deeper water. During the Late
cene led to the development of basinal graben and Pliocene through to the Pleistocene uplift continued in
faulted highs, on which carbonates formed, often the region and carbonates of the Carcar Limestone and
upon older carbonate successions (Muller et al., equivalent units were deposited extensively along
1989). Into the Early Pliocene, there was a general many coastlines (Muller et al., 1989).
shallowing in the region and uppermost Miocene to
lower Pliocene carbonate deposits were widespread. 8.4. Northern Philippines: Luzon and Marinduque
Shallow-water platforms or buildups passing laterally
into slope and deeper water marls are present in The geological evolution of Luzon remains con-
Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Camotes, Leyte and Panay. troversial, having been related to that of the rest of the
Carozzi (1995) discussed lower to upper Miocene eastern Philippines (Rangin et al., 1990), or associated
carbonate development and diagenesis in the Visayas with Celebes Sea and Philippine Sea Plate (Hall,
and deduced a depositional model of reefs forming 1996). Four geological terranes have been recognised,
wave-resistant, constructional barrier and atoll sys- passing from west to east in Luzon (Karig, 1983).
tems along the edge of narrow shelves (Fig. 16). These terranes are: (1) the accretionary prism of the
Associated with the reefs are tidal channels and lower west Luzon arc, (2) the Zambales ophiolite, (3) the
energy backreef areas. Pinnacle reefs formed seaward Angat ophiolite and (4) an upper Cretaceous volcanic
of the reefal margins and on structural or depositional arc with an old metamorphic basement that may be a

bioclastic packstones, Corals (abundant Water depth, Sparry calcite in possible reservoir Corby et al., 1956;
wackestones, and wide variety), antecedent grainstones. in subsurface, Jurgan and Domingo,
coral rudstones large benthic topography and Subsurface Santan mouldic and vuggy 1989; Porth et al.,
and floatstones, forams, miliolids, currents. Tectonics? well: compaction, porosity 1989; Domingo, 1989
grainstones (rare) Halimeda, coralline (post depositional ?) fracturing, dissolution
and some algae, molluscs, of bioclasts, and
limestone breccias echinoids cementation, leaching
in Toledo (meteoric) and
chalkification
Base congs. with Larger benthic Clastic/volcaniclastic Not described No information Corby et al., 1951;
volcanic boulders forams (abundant), input, water depth, given Jurgan and Domingo,
and calcareous coralline algae, locally may deepen 1989; Porth et al., 1989
sst bioclastic some head corals up section
packstones and
grainstones
Coralline limestone Corals Water depth Not described No information Corby et al., 1951
given
Packstones, Corals (margin), Basement high, Leached, vuggy Oil in upper part Erlich et al., 1990,
wackestones and coralline algae, water depth, porosity up to 36% of limestone 1993; Tyrrell and
boundstones on rhodoliths common Christian, 1992
reefal margin in upper platform,
larger benthic
foraminifera
continental sliver. Luzon is therefore an area of com- ised for the Oligo-Miocene (Karig, 1983). On Mar-
plex accretion and volcanism, where Cenozoic carbo- induque, limestones of the Torrijos and associated
nates only developed locally. formations contain corals and larger benthic forami-
Eocene carbonates of the Taluntunan, Guijalo, nifera, and are inferred to have developed as reefal
Cabugao, Aksitero and Pasuqiun Limestones are and lenticular limestones fringing volcanic or land
known from Marinduque and Luzon. Many of these areas. The Bote Hill Limestone, Siramag Marble, Mt.
Eocene carbonates are associated with volcaniclastic Lookout Limestone, Pagabilo Limestone and Mon-
or clastic detritus and probably developed as localised talban Limestones of southern and central Luzon are
shelf or slope deposits close to land or volcanic areas. all associated with igneous rocks or volcaniclastic
The upper Eocene to lower Oligocene Aksitero For- detritus. A number of these carbonates have been
mation of central Luzon consists of interbedded hemi- metamorphosed and most were deposited close to
pelagic limestones and tuffaceous turbidites, thought volcanically active areas in shallow-water or slope
to have been deposited in a subsiding basin to the west settings. Other upper Oligocene to lower Miocene
of a volcanic arc (Garrison et al., 1979). carbonates were deposited in marginal marine envi-
Upper Oligocene to lower Miocene carbonates, ronments or mixed carbonate-clastic shelves and
although more common than during the earlier Pale- contain clastic detritus or are interbedded with silici-
ogene, are still very localised units often associated clastics or coals.
with igneous rocks. Shallowing of the depositional Carbonates of limited lateral extent formed in a
environment, related to tectonics has been hypothes- range of shallow-water and slope settings adjacent to
Fig. 15. Early Oligocene and Middle Miocene time slices showing tectonic evolution of the Philippines (from Hall, 1996), schematic cross-
section through the central Philippines (from Rangin et al., 1989) and stratigraphic correlation in the region (see references in diagram).
Fig. 16. Depositional models for carbonate development in the Philippines.

land or volcanically active areas during the Middle sibly Eocene carbonates developed as broad carbonate
Miocene to Pleistocene. Continued tectonic conver- platforms on NW – SE trending extensional basement
gence and major strike –slip faulting during this period highs (Fig. 16; Longman, 1985; Grötsch and Mercad-
caused uplift of land areas, associated erosion, and ier, 1999). During the Late Oligocene and Early
resedimentation into surrounding marine areas. Local- Miocene, aggradational and backstepping buildups
ised shallow-water carbonates development in areas developed from these platforms as a result of rapid
where clastic influx was not too high include the Santa relative sea level rise (Grötsch and Mercadier, 1999).
Cruz Limestone on Marinduque, the Monacao Lime- A variety of different facies have been identified from
stone of Batan Island, and the Zambales Limestone the buildups and their flanks, including coral bound-
from western Luzon. Inferred slope or deeper water stones, rudstones, packstones, grainstones and wacke-
carbonates include the Sorsogon Marls, the Calatagan stones. Buildups were strongly affected by ocean
Marls and the Mirador Limestone, all from Luzon. swell and prevailing wind directions. The Malampaya
and Camago buildups have steep aggradational reefal
8.5. Tertiary carbonates on microcontinental blocks of western margins and retrogradational eastern margins
the western Philippines and the northern South China with significant offbank transport towards the south-
Sea west (Grötsch and Mercadier, 1999). The buildups are
overlain by deep-marine shales, and drowning was
Continental crust of Eurasian affinity comprises the diachronous, but mostly occurred during the Early
basement in Palawan, Mindoro, western Panay, and Miocene.
around the margins of the South China Sea (Rangin et Around the margins of the South China Sea shal-
al., 1990; Holloway, 1982). Carbonates developed on low-water carbonates formed on a range of exten-
structural highs and are generally not associated with sional faulted highs, in similar settings to those
volcaniclastics as in many other areas in the Philip- offshore Palawan (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989).
pines. The carbonates from the southern margins of Oligo-Miocene to recent carbonates of the Dangerous
the South China Sea have been discussed in the Grounds and Reed Bank are examples of platforms
section on Borneo. and buildups which developed on NE – SW trending
The limestones of Mindoro have not been exten- ridges along the southern margins of the South China
sively studied. Upper Eocene shelfal bioclastic lime- Sea. Partial drowning of platforms and localised
stones are reported to overlie Eocene bathyal clastics buildup development in the Early Miocene has been
in western Mindoro (Sarewitz and Karig, 1986). related to collision of faulted blocks with the Palawan
Upper Oligocene to lower Miocene limestones of arc (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989). Lower Miocene
the Argao Group were probably deposited in a shelf carbonates of the isolated Liuhua Platform formed as
or slope setting adjacent to a land area. Reworked shallow-water carbonates on a faulted high in the
clasts from limestone conglomerates in this formation Pearl River Mouth Basin (Fig. 16). Erlich et al.
include quartz schists (Corby et al., 1951) suggesting (1990, 1993) have documented the drowning history
derivation from continental basement. Miocene to of this platform, and showed that late reefal growth on
Pliocene carbonates of the Pocanil Limestone and the platform margin was contemporaneous with deep-
Oreng Formation of Mindoro were both probably ening on the platform top.
deposited in shallow-waters.
The first commercial oil production in the Philip- 8.6. Modern carbonates
pines was from fractured lower Miocene carbonate
buildups of the Nido B field, offshore Palawan (Long- Modern carbonate production is extensive in shal-
man, 1985). Oligo-Miocene, and possibly Eocene low-waters bordering many of the islands in the
carbonates developed on structural highs offshore Philippines and on offshore patch reefs, banks or
Palawan and are also exposed onshore as the St. Pauls buildups (Jurgan, 1989). In total, between 13,000
Limestone and the metamorphosed Nido Limestone and 27,000 km2 of reefs have been reported from
(de Villa, 1941b; Holloway, 1982 and personal obser- around the Philippines (Sheppard and Wells, 1988;
vation, 1999). Offshore Palawan, Oligocene and pos- Bryant et al., 1998). The eastern seaboard of the
Philippines facing the Pacific, with the exception of of the New Guinea Limestone Group in Irian Jaya or
Southeast Luzon and South Samar, is characterised by the Darai Limestone in Papua New Guinea, developed
steep slopes and no major reefal areas. In contrast, the on stable structural highs in southern New Guinea
inland seas and the western seaboard, especially off (Figs. 17 and 19 and Table 6). In contrast, more
Palawan, are lined with fringing reefs and numerous localised and short-lived carbonate production was
banks and shoals (Sheppard and Wells, 1988). Jurgan associated with volcanism in the northern part of the
(1989) described carbonate production on low-energy region. Following collision of the continental and
banks of tectonic origin between Bohol and Cebu. island arc terranes, areas of carbonate production were
The different modern carbonate-producing environ- significantly reduced during the Late Miocene due to
ments in the Philippines are comparable with those of uplift of land areas, clastic runoff and high subsidence
the Tertiary, where carbonates fringed volcanic or rates in foreland areas.
land areas or occurred as isolated buildups. Reefs in
the Philippines, similar to those in Indonesia, are 9.2. Tertiary carbonates in southern New Guinea
noted for their extremely high species diversity.
Bryant et al. (1998) noted that virtually all the reefs Extensive Tertiary, shallow-water platforms formed
in the Philippines are at risk from over fishing, on structural highs in southern New Guinea, with
changes in land practice, pollution and coastal devel- pelagic and redeposited carbonates accumulating in
opment. adjacent basinal or slope areas (Fig. 19). Pre-existing
basement structures in the underlying continental
crust, climatic changes, related to northwards tectonic
9. New Guinea drift of New Guinea, together with relative sea level
change influenced carbonate development (Pigram et
9.1. Tectonic context of New Guinea al., 1990). During the Miocene, tectonic convergence
resulted in high differential subsidence and many
The northern extension of the Australian cratonic platforms were affected by increased subsidence,
area, which has drifted northwards during the Cen- uplift and/or clastic influx. Major lateral and vertical
ozoic, forms the basement of the southern part of New changes in Tertiary carbonate facies in the region,
Guinea (Fig. 18; cf. Hall, 1996). To the north of the related to temporal and spatial variations in deposi-
area of continental crust are highly deformed and tional environments, have been used to define for-
regionally metamorphsed rocks, named the Transition mations within the Tertiary carbonates. In New
Zone or Mobile Belt (Pieters et al., 1983; Dow, 1977). Guinea, these formations are grouped into the New
Northern New Guinea and adjacent islands are com- Guinea Limestone Group (NGLG) or Supergroup
posed of island arc volcanics and ophiolitic material (redefined after Visser and Hermes, 1962; Pieters et
of the Oceanic Province (Pieters et al., 1983). al., 1983). In Papua New Guinea, partially equivalent
Although three broad tectonic provinces have been upper Oligocene to middle Miocene carbonates are
identified, due to inheterogeneities in the basement, known as the Darai and Puri Limestones.
major strike –slip and thrust faulting, much of New The upper Cretaceous(?) to middle Eocene Puragi
Guinea is a complex amalgamation of terranes of Formation of the Birds Head is inferred to have been
varying affinities. Although volcanism continued until deposited in a sabkha setting or a shallow lagoonal
recently, island arc volcanism in New Guinea pre- environment, which experienced desiccation (Pigram
dominantly ceased in the Early Miocene related to and Sukanta, 1989; Pieters et al., 1983). This forma-
collision of the Australian cratonic area with the tion includes algal limestones with possible oolites
island arc system to the north. Continued convergence and is associated with evaporitic deposits. Carbonates
following this collision was associated with major of the New Guinea Limestone Group overlie the
structural deformation, active transcurrent faulting Puragi Formation or clastic formations and in western
and thrusting during the Late Miocene to Pliocene New Guinea have been subdivided into a number of
(Fig. 18; Pieters et al., 1983). Extensive areas of formations. The mostly Paleocene Baham and Waripi
Eocene to Miocene carbonate platform sedimentation, Formation of the western and southern parts of the
382
Fig. 17. Map showing the distribution of Cenozoic carbonates in and around New Guinea.
Birds Neck are inferred to have been deposited in onshore New Guinea, the Klamogun, Sekau and Kais
deep-marine/near-shore and shallow-water to mixed Limestones accumulated during the Miocene in basi-
carbonate-clastic shelf environments, respectively. nal, platform margin and platform top environments,
Parts of the Waripi Formation contain ooids, and respectively (Pieters et al., 1983). The upper Oligocene
clastic detritus within this formation is inferred to to middle Miocene Darai Formation exposed onshore
have been derived from the south (Pieters et al., Papua New Guinea was deposited on a shallow-water
1983). On Misool, the middle Eocene to Oligocene shelf (Fig. 19). In offshore areas, such as the Gulf of
Zaag Limestone was deposited in shallow-marine Papua Eocene carbonates often developed on faulted
environments and is locally oolitic, but also contains highs, but as in the New Guinea Limestone Group
abundant larger benthic foraminifera. most of the Oligocene is missing (Leamon and Par-
Throughout much of the Early to Middle Eocene, sons, 1986). During the Miocene, an extensive north –
and possibly into the Late Miocene, outer shelf to south trending barrier reef, known as the Borabi Reef
bathyal mudstones and planktonic foraminifera Trend fringed a shallow-water platform in western
wackestone of the Imiskin Formation were deposited PNG. To the east of this barrier reef, several pinnacle
in the area of the eastern Birds Neck (cf. Pieters et al., reefs (e.g., PASCA and Pandora) developed on base-
1983; Brash et al., 1991). Partially time equivalent ment highs, within an upper bathyal setting.
shallow-water carbonates of the Faumai Limestone Collision of the cratonic area of southern New
and the Lengguru or Yawee Limestone accumulated Guinea with the island arc system to the north, resulted
in eastern Birds Head and the Birds Neck, respectively in uplift and erosion of some areas, whilst other
(Figs. 17 and 19). Shallow-marine, shelf to shelf- regions, such as the eastern Gulf of Papua, Salawati
margin carbonates of the Kasim Marlstone and Openta or Bintuni Basin, underwent rapid subsidence. The
Formation were deposited during the Miocene on differential subsidence, active faulting and clastic run-
Misool. The Eocene to upper Miocene Kumawa and off from emerging land areas, strongly influenced
Ogar Limestones of the western Birds Neck accumu- carbonate development in the Mio-Pliocene. Shal-
lated as reef core and flanking reef deposits. In low-water platforms were sometimes partially eroded
comparison, the time equivalent Ogar Limestone from and covered by clastics (Leamon and Parsons, 1986;
a similar area is mostly inferred to have been deposited Redmond and Koesoemadinata, 1976). In areas expe-
in an open shelf setting (Robinson et al., 1990b). riencing rapid subsidence some platforms show evi-
Generally within the Paleogene limestones, ooids are dence for slow sedimentation, such as glauconite, and
present in some of the carbonates from the southern platforms were often drowned. However, localised
Birds Neck, and larger benthic foraminifera are com- ‘keep-up’ pinnacle reefs able to ‘keep-up’ with relative
mon throughout. Although corals have been reported sea level rise are common, such as in the Kais Lime-
from some of the formations spanning the Paleogene, stone, and were affected by repeated subaerial expo-
they appear to be most common in the upper Oligo- sure (Fig. 19; Gibson-Robinson and Soedirdja, 1986).
Miocene parts of successions (cf. Brash et al., 1991). Drowning of the Miocene platforms and subsequent
In many areas of New Guinea, shallow-water car- drowning of the buildups was diachronous and
bonate production was interrupted in the Oligocene by dependent on proximity to the collision zone (Gib-
clastic sedimentation (Fig. 18). Siliciclastics of the son-Robinson and Soedirdja, 1986). The middle-upper
Sirga Member/Formation include quartzose sand- Miocene Klasafet Formation is predominantly a basi-
stones and thin coal seams, and there is some evidence nal calcareous mudstone, overlying and partly con-
for erosion at the base of the unit. This erosion, and temporaneous with the Kais buildups which forms an
deposition of the clastics is inferred to have taken place effective sealing lithology (Fig. 18).
in terrestrial to marginal marine settings during a
relative sea level fall and subsequent rise (Brash et 9.3. Tertiary carbonates in northern and eastern New
al., 1991; Lunt and Djaafar, 1991). Carbonate produc- Guinea and offshore islands
tion was reestablished in a range of depositional
settings following subsidence in the Late Oligocene A variety of laterally discontinuous carbonates
to Early Miocene. Passing from the Salawati Basin to developed in northern New Guinea and adjacent
Table 6
Cenozoic carbonates in and around New Guinea
Adau Limestone Southern Papuan Lower to Middle 100 m Fault-bounded Localised shallow
(not on map) Mainland, PNG Miocene remnants, overlies water reef limestone
Kutu Volcanics
Lst. in Aibala Yule, Southern PNG Eocene? Not given Limestone lenses Shallow marine or
Volcanics (AB) in volcaniclastics slope lsts. associated
with volcanics
Atkari Formation Misool, Irian Jaya Plio-Pleistocene 600 m in E., Unconformable on Shallow marine reef
(AK) thins to W Openta and shoal with paralic
influence
Baham Formation Fak Fak, Paleocene 250 m On continental Deep marine to near
(BH) (NGLG). Pulau Karas/Adi, basement shore open-marine
Lat. equiv. Irian Jaya
of Waripi
Barida Beds (BD) Wewak, N PNG Late Miocene to Possibly up to Wewak Trough at Deposited in deep
Early Pliocene 1200 m N edge of water with relatively
continental shelf little terrigenous
influence
Baruni Calcarenite Port Moresby, PNG Paleocene (Ta1) 70 m Edge of continental Sublittoral
(BR) basement, environment,
subduction to N surrounding land area
Boera Limestone Port Moresby, PNG Late Oligocene to 300 m Subduction to N, Reef limestone with
(BO)/Kido Early Miocene. volcanic activity some volcaniclastic
Limestone Early to Middle input
Miocene (Kido)
Calcilutite in Sorong, Mar, Late Miocene to Up to 300 m, Faulted contact Shelf margin to bathyal,
Sorong Fault Irian Jaya Quaternary or 150 m (Mar) with melange and open marine
System (C). other formations
Equiv. includes
Asbakin Lst.
Castle Hill Cape Vogel Basin, Middle Miocene 120 m Bordering land or Shallow water reefal
Limestone PNG volcanic area limestone
(not on map)

Reef limestone and Algae, bryozoans, Water depth Not described No information Smith and Davies, 1976
shelly calcarenite some brachiopods given
and foraminifera
Not described Not described Not described Not described No information Brown, 1977
given
Fine calcarenite, Corals, foraminifera Clastic input, Not described No information Pigram et al., 1982;
calcirudites and water depth given Rusmana et al., 1989
marlstone,
clayey/tuffaceous
limestone,
sandstone, siltstone
and lignite
Biomicrite and Pelagic and Water depth, Not described No information Robinson et al.,
biocalcarenite arenaceous clastic input, given 1990a,b
containing benthonic sedimentation rates?
glauconite, foraminifera
glauconitic
sandstone and
shale
Globigerina Planktonic Water depth Not described No information Hutchison and Davies,
limestone, foraminifera given 1978
Globigerina
marl, subordinate
interbedded
calcareous
siltstone and silty
sandstone
Biocalcarenite, 5 – 10% terrigenous Clastic input, Some Potential raw Pieters, 1978
biocalcirudite, constituents, larger water depth recrystallization material for cement,
recrystallized benthic foraminifera, but clastic content
argillaceous algae, bryozoans
limestone and molluscs
Reef limestone, Larger benthic Water depth, Not described Possible source for Pieters, 1978
tuff, lapilli tuff, foraminifera, corals, volcaniclastic input cement
tuffaceous echinoderms,
sandstone, bryozoa and plant
limestone imprints
breccia
Calcilutite, grey Planktonic Water depth Not described No information Amri et al., 1990
micritic lst., lst. foraminifera and given
breccia, minor algae
white calcirudite
Bedded reefal Corals and basalt Water depth, Not described No information Smith and Davies, 1976
limestone and pebbles reworking from given
calcarenite, basal land/volcanic areas
conglomerate
with basalt
pebbles
Table 6 (continued)
Chimbu Limestone Kubor Anticline, Middle Eocene – Ave. 300 m, may Fold and thrust belt Shallow water
(CB) (also some C. Highlands, Early Oligocene exceed 1000 m, currently, area of foraminiferal shoal
Miocene lens in Markham, PNG (Ta3 – Tc) thinner in places continental crust (mostly inner neritic)?
volcanic Movi Shallow water shelf and
Beds). Equiv. deeper water lsts.
Nebilyer, Yala Deposition on steep
and Mendi Lst. margin of shelf
(Yala/Mendi).
Chuingai South Sepik region, Late Early Miocene No more than North margin of Series of coarsening
Limestone (CG) PNG to Late Miocene 60 m continental crust to and shallowing upward
(Tg) or Pliocene fold and thrust belt cycles. Isolated shallow
water limestones
(patch reefs)
Darai/Puri Kubor Anticline, Late Oligocene to 1200 – 100 m Area of continental Shallow water
Limestone (DA) C. Highlands and Middle Miocene crust, foreland carbonates, shelf
Gulf of Papua, (Te1 – 4 – Tf). Eocene setting in Neogene margin, Borabi reef
PNG in offshore areas trend, Reefal buildups
(PASCA/Pandora). Puri
deeper water deposits
in eastern PNG
Darante Formation Sarmi and Bufareh, Late Oligocene to Not given Close to volcanic Littoral to neritic,
(DR) E. Irian Jaya Early Miocene arc locally reefal, close to
(Te – Tf1) active volcanic area
Miocene Daru, W PNG Miocene Averages 915 m Barrier reef at Barrier reef along edge
Limestones near thick margin of of eastern continental
Daru (LD) continental shelf shelf with deeper water
limestones to E.
Dayang Limestone Batanta Is., Sorong, Late Oligocene – Up to 600 m Near margin of Shallow to open
(DY) Irian Jaya Early Miocene continental crust marine, intercalated
with clastics
Faumai Limestone E. Birds Head, Middle Eocene – 250 – 300 m Conformable on Shoal, carbonate bank
(F) (NGLG). Taminabuan, Oligocene Puragi Fm, lateral or shallow water shelf
Equiv. to Borelis Ransiki, Irian Jaya equiv. of part of
Lst., Morait beds Imiskin Lst. On
continental basement
high

Massive limestones Abundant larger Water depth Solution cavities, Quarried for Bain and Binnekamp,
and calcarenites. benthic foraminifera infilled with building stone or 1973; Bain et al., 1975;
Some limestone and algae. recemented facing stone Tingey and Grainger,
breccias. Echinoderms, limestone rubble 1976; Carman, 1990;
Quartzose Possible fish fossil? Pigram et al., 1990
bioclastic
limestone
Fossiliferous packed Coralline algae, Water depth, Little primary No information Dow et al., 1972;
biomicrites to recrystallized depositional energy, porosity. Mouldic given Wilson et al., 1993
conglomerates. mollusc and coral (low to high), porosity up to
Coralline fragments rel. sea level change 50%. Occluding
limestone, some dominate. blocky cement.
thin beds of Stylolites
foraminiferal
limestone
Calcarenites and Benthic foraminifera, Water depth, clastic Subsurface porosity, Gulf of Papua, Bain et al., 1975;
sparites, shells, pellets, input, basement mouldic, vuggy and gas condensate Leamon and Parsons,
interbedded with planktonic highs, climate, rel. channel, ave. discoveries in 1986; Davies et al.,
occasional beds foraminifera, sea level change 10 – 15% associated PASCA and 1988; Durkee, 1990;
of calcareous corals and algae (subsidence and with subaerial Pandora Pigram et al., 1990;
siltstones and eustasy) exposure, Sarg et al., 1995
breccia dolomitization
Calcarenite, coralline Corals, algae, Volcanic activity, Some No information Gafoer and
limestone and larger benthic clastic input, recrystallization given Budhistrisna, 1995
intercalations of foraminifera. water depth
volcanic rocks. Chert fragments
Locally massive
reefal lst.
Amygdaloidal
basaltic lavas
Limestone, white Not described Not described Some dolomite No information Willmott, 1972
to grey or brown, given
some dolomite,
cherty mudstone
and marl towards
base
Calcarenite, Foraminifera Water depth, Not described No information Amri et al., 1990
intercalations clastic/volcaniclastic given
with calcareous input
sandstone,
mudstone,
sandstone and
cong. (some
volcanic clasts)
Well bedded Bryozoa, algae, Water depth and Locally dolomitized No information Pieters et al., 1983,
grainstones, oysters and clastic input given 1990; Pigram and
wackestones and abundant larger Sukanta, 1989; Lunt
arenaceous benthic foraminifera, and Djaafar, 1991
limestones. Basal fresh water algae,
section of some locally traces of
wells dolomites anhydrite and ooids?
Table 6 (continued)
Foasi River Lst. Port Moresby, PNG Early to Middle 50 m (Foasi), Edge of continental Sublittoral environment
Mm. (FO) (of Eocene 100 m (Tatana), basement,
Kutu Volcanics)/ 150 m (Nebire) subduction to N
Nebire lst/Tatana
calcarenite
Gidobada Port Moresby, PNG Middle Miocene Up to 100 m Edge of continental Reef limestone
Limestone (GD) basement,
subduction to N
Gowop Limestone Huon Peninsula, Lower Miocene – Total thickness up Faulted high, Shallow-marine reefal
(GW) (includes Markham, PNG Pliocene to 6700 m N edge of development on NW
Kabwum basement, trending fault blocks,
Lst. Mm.) associated volcanic forereef and deeper
activity water to N
Gulewa Lst. Misima Island Miocene Lst. max Area of volcanism, Slope and shallow
Member (GLM) thickness- 20 m. overlies marine limestone
Total up to 500 m metamorphosed (some reefal),
schists interbedded with
volcaniclastics
Imiskin Formation E. Birds Neck, Late Cretaceous? – 500 – 1000 m, Fault contact with Outer shelf or
(IM) (NGLG) Ransiki, Steenkool, Middle Eocene 600 – 1,400 m other lsts. In continental slope to
Kaimana, (-Late Miocene (Steenkool) NGLG, bathyal. Little influx of
Irian Jaya (Lengguru) or interdigitates terrigenous material.
Middle Miocene with Lengguru? Upper part shelf
(Steenkool) seaward of reefs
Juliade Limestone Juliade and Emhoro Middle Eocene At least 300 m Unclear Deep water limestone
or beds (JL) Island, S PNG and chert, slumped
Kais Limestone Taminabuan, Mar, Early – Late Max measured Lateral equiv. of Barrier reef complex
(K) (NGLG). Irian Jaya Miocene 600 m, thicker on Sekau and Klasafet comprising platform
Kais Formation. Ayamaru Plateau Fms. And and patch-reef facies.
Equiv. to lst. Klamogun Lst. Reef, fore-reef and
facies of Klasafet Continental backreef on shelf
Fm., Ayamaru basement high platform. Carbonate
Lst., Klasafet buildups off platform
lst./chalky lst., and patch reefs on
Sajosa Lst. platform top.

Biomicrite, Larger benthic Water depth, Recrystallized, Source of crushed Pieters, 1978
Biocalcarenite foraminifera, clastic input calcite veined, some aggregate and
and biocalcirudite bryozoa, algae, metamorphism building stone
glauconite (Tatena). of Nebire
Planktonic foraminifera
and corals
Reef limestone, Larger benthic Water depth Not described No information Pieters, 1978
calcarenite, foraminifera, given
calcirudite corals, fragments
of bivalves and
gastropods
Basalt and Lower part Water depth, Not described Some quarrying Robinson, 1973;
tuffaceous abundant larger volcaniclastic input for road metal Tingey and Grainger,
conglomerate at benthic foraminifera, 1976
base. Resistant upper part algae
algal-foraminiferal and planktonic
biomicrite foraminifera,
few corals
Coralliferous, Abundant shell Water depth, Weathered to soft No information de Keyser, 1961
bedded and fragments, corals, volcaniclastic input chalky substance in given
impure limestones bryozoa and other parts
overlying and fossils
interdigitate with
tuffaceous and
calcareous
shales/marls
Mudstone, Planktonic Water depth Some pyrite No information Pieters et al., 1983;
planktonic foraminifera. given 1990; Robinson et al.,
foraminifera Fragments of 1990a,e; Brash et al.,
wackestone and molluscs, bryozoa 1991
packstone and echinoids in
upper part
Fine-grained Planktonic Water depth Jointing and No information Smith and Davies,
limestone and foraminifera, calcite veining given 1976; Carman, 1990
chert sponge spicules, common
radiolaria
Boundstones and Corals, molluscs, Water depth, rel. Black siliceous Oil/gas reservoirs Vincelette, 1973;
well-bedded algae, bryozoa, sea level change, nodules locally in patch reefs/ Redmond and
grainstones, echinoids and basement highs common. buildups along Koesoemadinata, 1976;
packstones abundant benthic Dissolution, shelf margin, Koesoemadinata, 1976;
and minor foraminifera, rare recrystallization, e.g. Wiriagar (oil) Collins and Qureshi,
wackestones, planktonic dolomitization and 1977; Valenta, 1979;
floatstones, foraminifera fracturing. Vuggy Ajam et al., 1982;
rudstones, black and mouldic Gibson-Robinson and
siliceous nodules porosity due to Soedirdja, 1986;
locally common leaching Hendardjo and
Netherwood, 1986;
Dolan and Hermany,
1988; Pigram and
Sukanta, 1989; Pieters
et al, 1989; 1990;
Livingston et al., 1992;
Matsuda et al., 1998
Table 6 (continued)
Kasim Marlstone Misool, Irian Jaya Early – Middle < 50 – 1000 m Unconformable on Shallow marine,
(KS) Miocene Zaag, Daram and shelf to shelf margin
Falantap
Klamogun Subsurface of Miocene Max. 557 m in Lateral equiv. and Open marine, deep
Limestone Salawati Basin, Klamono 39 well, partly underlies water. Deeper water
(NGLG). Taminabuan, thickens to W, Kais Lst. and than reef facies of
Klamogun W Irian Jaya no outcrops in Klasafet Lst. Kais Lst.
Formation Taminabuan Overlies glauconitic
(not on map) sst and congs of
Sirga Fm.
Klasafet Formation Mar, Taminabuan, Middle – Late 500 m, 1000 m Conformable on Basin facies of
(KL) (NGLG) Ransiki, Steenkool, Miocene (Ransiki) and interfingers inter-reef basin that
Kaimana, with Kais. buried patch reefs and
Pulau Karas/Adi, Uplifting land platform margin, by
W Irian Jaya mass to E end Miocene. Open
(Birds Neck) and marine
N (Kemum Block)
Keriaka Bougainville Island, Early Miocene >1330 m Volcanic arc Uplifted shallow
Limestone (KR) E of PNG (at least 4000 ft) marine reef or platform
Koor Formation Mar, W Irian Jaya Miocene Up to 500 m Interfingers with Unstable shelf with
(KO) (NGLG) Moon Volcanics, patchy reef growth and
Associated with proximal turbidites.
volcanic arc Nearby volcanic
activity and tectonically
active landmass
Kumawa (KM) Palau Karas/Adi, Eocene – Late 1700 + m On continental Reef core and fringing
Limestone Irian Jaya Miocene basement? deposits of reef
(NGLG). Equiv. complex
to Onin and
Ogar to N
Lavao Formation Yule, Southern Late Miocene 200 m Limestone lenses Shallow-water marine
(LV) (Lst. lenses) PNG in volcaniclastics lagoonal environment
where biohermal reefs
flanked and
periodically engulfed
by reef talus and
tuffaceous seds. deltas

Calcilutite Larger benthic and Water depth and Not described No information Pigram et al., 1982;
interbedded in Planktonic clastic input given Rusmana et al., 1989
E. with marl, foraminifera
clayey lst., sandy
lst., sandy claystone
and lignite. Central:
minor calcarenite
and W sandy lst.
and sandy marlstone
Grey, marly, Abundant planktonic Water depth Not described May include Pieters et al., 1983;
well-bedded to foraminifera source rocks for Pigram and Sukanta,
splitting limestone oil in Kais Lst. 1989
and calcareous Contains bitumen
shale with and traces of
marlstone oil/gas.
intercalations
Well-bedded Planktonic and Water depth. Calcareous Seal for reservoirs Pieters et al.,1983;
marlstone, benthic foraminifera, concretions in Kais Lst. 1989; Pigram and
micaceous algae, coral and Sukanta, 1989; Pigram
calcareous mollusc fragments et al., 1990; Robinson
mudstone, et al., 1990a,d,e
minor limestone,
calcarenite,
calcirudite and
calcareous
concretions
Pale grey to buff Coralline algae, Volcaniclastic Partly recrystallized No information Blake and Miezitis,
massive organic Halimeda, bryozoa, input, overlain by and veined by given 1967
limestone corals, larger volcanic ash calcite
benthic foraminifera,
Biocalcilutite, Foraminifera, algae, Water depth, clastic Not described Construction and Pieters et al., 1989
biocalcarenite corals, pelecypods and volcaniclastic pharmaceutical
locally with and gastropods, input, tectonic industry
siliciclastic and volcaniclastic and activity
volcanic material, clastic (qz. and
variably calcareous phyllite)
mudstone and
sandstone,
limestone breccia
Bedded member- Corals, and forami- Water depth Sucrosic texture No information Robinson et al., 1990a;
calcarenite and nifera. Other reef and vuggy porosity given Lunt and Djaafar, 1991
finely crystalline building and dwelling
lst. chalky or organisms. Abundant
argillaceous, larger benthic forami-
Coralline member- nifera at base
Calcareous Corals, larger Water depth, Partly No information Brown, 1977
tuffaceous benthic and volcaniclastic and recrystallized micrite given
sandstone, planktonic clastic input
conglomerate, foraminifera, algae,
lenses of bryozoa, pelecypods
biohermal lst. and gastropods
with reef debris
Table 6 (continued)
Legare Limestone Enarotali, Irian Jaya Late Pliocene – Max. 50 m Fold and thrust Reef facies, fringing
Member (of Pleistocene belt emergent areas to S
Bumi Mudstone)
(not on map)
Lakit Limestone New Britain, Pliocene or 200 – 300 m Associated with Shallow water
(LK) NE of PNG younger volcanic arc carbonates
Lelet Limestone New Ireland and Early Miocene to 250 – 750 m Associated with Shallow water
(LL). (Equiv. Djaul Islands, Middle or Late (thicker sequence and unconformably carbonate platform
or same as NE PNG Miocene in NW) overlying island arc sedimentation. Low
Surker Lst in (diachronous top volcanics energy platform interior
S New Ireland) and base) with Halimeda or
coralline algal banks
Lengguru Steenkool, Kaimana, Eocene – Middle >1000 m, up to On continental Shallow carbonate

Limestone (LN) Omba, W Irian Jaya Miocene 1990 m (Kaimana) basement, platform including
(NGLG) interfingers or in reefs in upper part
fault contact with
Imiskin
Manokwari Manokwari, Bird’s Pleistocene Up to 300 m Area of volcanic Shallow marine to

Formation (MW) Head-Irian Jaya arc littoral with reef growth
close to shore
Marabu Limestone Wewak, N PNG Early Pliocene? Up to 90 m Wewak Trough at Deposited on

(MA) N edge of shallow-marine
continental shelf carbonate shelf with
strong open-sea
influence
Maruni Limestone Manokwari, Early – Middle Up to 400 m – Limestones Foreslope of reef

(MU) Ransiki, Miocene 500 m overlying island or platform
Irian Jaya arc volcanics
Modewa River Southern Papuan Late Oligocene to Up to 200 m, Associated with Shallow water area?
Beds (MR) Mainland, Samarai, Middle Miocene 1000 m in Samarai volcaniclastics or slope setting, close
PNG to volcanic activity

Biocalcarenite, Foraminifera, algae, Water depth, clastic Commonly porous Suitable for Dow et al., 1990
calcirudite and coral and pelecypod input or cavernous quarrying
locally micrite fragments
White bioclastic Algae, corals, Water depth, Not described Possible economic Davies, 1973
limestone, poorly bryozoan and volcanic influx source of lime
consolidated molluscan debris before and after
Massive to thick Benthic foraminifera Water depth, Not described No information Hohnen, 1978; Stewart
bedded lst. common, coralline irregular antecedent given and Sandy, 1988
Foraminiferal algae, corals, basement
and algal- Halimeda. Also topography, faulting,
foraminiferal bivalves, gastropods, volcaniclastic and
biomicrite and echinoids, sponge clastic input. Local
microsparite spicules, bryozoa, subsidence and
dominate. Three pellets and Acropora volcaniclastic input
layers of tuff/ demise of platform
volcaniclastic or in NW New Ireland
calcareous in Middle Miocene,
sandstones Late Miocene
drowning in S
Calcarenite, Abundant larger Water depth Not described No information Robinson et al,
biocalcarenite, benthic foraminifera, given 1990d,e; Panggabean,
algal-foraminiferal corals, algae, 1990
biomicrite, bryozoa, molluscs
calcilutite, and planktonic
sandy calcarenite, and small benthic
glauconitic foraminifera
calcareous
sandstone
Reef limestone, Corals, foraminifera Clastic input and Not described Quarried for road Robinson et al., 1990c
calcirudite, and algae water depth surfacing
calcarenite and
calcareous
polymictic sands,
conglomerates
and breccias
Well bedded and Abundant planktonic Water depth and Not described No information Hutchison and Davies,
massive biosparite and larger benthic energy given 1978
and biopelsparite; foraminifera, and
minor algal coral, algal,
foraminiferal molluscan and
marl echinoderm debris
Biomicrite, Planktonic and Water depth, Not described No information Robinson et al., 1990c;
minor fine benthic foraminifera, resedimentation from given Pieters et al., 1990
biocalcarenite, algae and coral platform margin
argillaceous debris
micrite and marl
Limestones, Benthic foraminifera Water depth, Not described No information Smith and Davies,
tuffaceous volcanic activity given 1973, 1976
sandstones and
siltstones

Table 6 (continued)
Mokmer Biak, Irian Jaya Pleistocene – prob. 250 m N of main Slope to shallow
Formation (MK) into Holocene continental crust, marine?
convergent setting
Moor Limestone Waren, Irian Jaya Late Eocene 150 m Close to volcanic Shallow marine
(M). Equiv. (Yapen – Late Eocene arc
Manumpang to Early Miocene)
Mm. (Yapen)
Mundrau Manus Island, Late Early Miocene 220 m Overlies and onlaps Carbonate platform
Limestone (MN). NE PNG to earliest Middle island arc volcanics.
Part equiv. Miocene
to Lelet.
Nanamajiro Enarotali, Early Oligocene 150 m Associated with Low to high energy
Limestone (NN) Irian Jaya (base not seen) island arc volcanism shallow-water reef
and ophiolitic
basement
Napisendi Biak, Irian Jaya Latest part of 500 – 600 m Limestones Littoral to neritic
Formation (NP) Early Miocene overlying island arc
volcanics
Naringel Manus Island, Early Pliocene 30 – 80 m Shallow water Raised reefs or

Limestone (NR) NE PNG carbonates around carbonate banks
volcanic or land (little in situ
area framework)
Nasai Limestone Woodlark Island, Early Miocene 200 m, Volcanic arc, lull Low relief shoals and
(NS) E of PNG (exposed) – 600 ft in volcanism shallow marine
platforms around
volcanic island,
unconformable on
volcanics
Nebilyer Kubor Anticline, Eocene to 106 m, but may Area of continental Slope to bathyal?
Limestone. (NB) C. Highlands, PNG Oligocene be more (300 m) crust
Equiv. Chimbu or less

Coralline limestone Planktonic Water depth Not described No information Masria et al., 1981
in upper part, foraminifera, coral given
chalk in lower fragments, algae and
part molluscs
Biomicrite, Larger benthic Water depth and Not described No information Hakim and Harahap,
packstone and foraminifera and volcaniclastic input given 1994
wackestone. planktonics
Crystal and lithic
tuff with
intercalated lst.
(Yapen)
Algal-foraminiferal Algae and larger Volcaniclastic input, Extensive No information Francis, 1988
biomicrite and benthic foraminifera irregular basement recrystallization to given
biomicrudite, topography form stylobedding
volcaniclastic and stylobreccias,
conglomerates porosity up to 7%
at base
Coralgal, calcirudite, Larger benthic Water depth, clastic Not described No information Dow et al., 1990
calcarenite and foraminifera, algae, and volcaniclastic given
massive calcilutite bryozoa and input
interbedded with echinoids
clayey pebble
conglomerate,
marlstone and
tuffaceous
biocalcarenite
Bedded limestone, Larger benthic and Volcaniclastic/clastic Not described No information Masria et al., 1981
tuffaceous clastic planktonic input and water given
lst., massive lst., foraminifera depth
intercalated
conglomerate,
breccia, sandy
limestone and
marl
Biomicrite, Algae, foraminifera, Irregular basement Mouldic and No information Francis, 1988
biomicrudite, corals topography, rel. sea vuggy porosity. Some given
biosparrudite level change recrystallization and
and biolithite (transgression), dolomite
Light grey and Foraminifera locally Water depth Contains no pyrite No information Trail, 1967
well-bedded abundant given
limestone,
contains no
volcaniclastic
material
Limestone and Rare planktonic Water depth Not described No information Bain et al., 1975;
calcarenite with a foraminifera, given Carman, 1990
few argillaceous agglutinating
and silty beds foraminifera,
and algae
Table 6 (continued)
Ogar Limestone Fak Fak, Eocene to Late 500 m on NE On continental Core and immediately
(OG) (NGLG) Palau Karas/Adi, Miocene Onin Peninsula and basement. flanking deposits of
Irian Jaya adjacent islands Interfingers with patch and platform
Onin Lst. reefs on an open marine
shelf
Onin Limestone Fak Fak, Early Eocene to 2000 m or more On continental Mostly open marine
(ON) (NGLG) Pulau Karas/Adi, Late Miocene basement. shelf; rarely
Irian Jaya Interfingers with shallow-marine to
Ogar Lst. slightly evaporitic
Openta Formation Misool, Irian Jaya Middle Miocene 1100 m, thinning Conformable on Shallow marine
(OP) to 100 m in W Kasim. (reefs and shoals)
Unconformable
on Fafanlap and
Facet Fm.
Paniai Group (PA) Kaimana, Omba, Latest 2000 m On continental Shallow carbonate
(undivided) – Enarotali, Waghete, Cretaceous? – basement platform
NGLG. (Includes W Irian Jaya Middle Miocene? (Includes Waripi
Waripi and and Yawee)
Yawee)
Punam Limestone New Ireland and Late Miocene to Minimum 200 m Associated with Middle to lower
(PN) Djaul Islands, Early Pliocene onshore, offshore and overlying island bathyal pelagic
NE PNG 200 – 500 m arc volcanics. deposition
Exposed as (water depth>500 m)
fault-blocks
Puragi Formation Taminabuan, Late Cretaceous? – 144 m in Puragi 1 Conformable on Probably sabkha;
(not on map) Ransiki, Middle Eocene well, thickens to Jass Fm. either shallow lagoon,
W Irian Jaya E. no outcrop in Continental or local high feature
Taminabuan basement high periodically desiccated
and flooded due to
small sea-level
fluctuations
Puwani Limestone Wewak, N PNG Late Oligocene to Generally less Extensional Wewak Deposited as low
(PW). partly. Middle Miocene than 100 m, Trough at N edge energy shallow water
equiv. to discontinuous of continental shelf fringing reefs or atolls
Chuingai Lst. lenses also>300 m or as isolated shallow
thick, water carbonate
platforms

Massive reef Abundant corals, Water depth Vuggy porosity, No information Robinson et al.,
limestone, coralline algae, dolomitic in places given 1990a,b
dolomitic in larger benthic
places some foraminifera,
chalky and thin bryozoa,
shale interbeds echinoid spines
and ostracods
Fine-grained, Abundant planktonic Water depth Rarely No information Robinson et al.,
well-bedded lst., foraminifera and microcrystalline, given 1990a,b
some argillaceous nannoplankton; rare granular and
lst. with thin coral and mollusc dolomitic
marlstone fragments
intercalations
Coralline limestone, Corals, molluscs, Water depth Recrystallized No information Pigram et al., 1982;
calcarenite, foraminifera given Rusmana et al., 1989
locally marly
or conglomeratic
Well-bedded to Foraminifera, algae, Water depth Not described No information Pigram and
massive algal- bryozoa, coral, given Panggabean, 1989;
foraminiferal mollusc and Robinson et al., 1990e;
biomicrite, echinoid fragments. Dow et al., 1990
calcarenite, Contains minor
calcareous ooids
sandstone and
glauconitic siltstone
Massive, friable, Planktonic Water depth, Not described No information Hohnen, 1978; Stewart
packed forami- foraminifera Volcaniclastic input given and Sandy, 1988
niferal biomicrite via air-fall input,
with variable, Some bottom
though minor currents
tuffaceous content
Algal limestones Algal limestones Water depth, salinity Not described No information Pigram and Sukanta,
with cryptoolites, with cryptoolites. and clastic influx given 1989; Pieters et al.,
overlain by ssts. Miliolids 1983, 1990
with claystone
beds and shale
with dolomite
and anhydrite
Massive to nodular Abundant larger Water depth, clastic Biomicrite: little No information Hutchison and Davies,
coralgal reef lst. benthic foraminifera, input, depositional interparticle given 1978; Wilson et al.,
(boundstones and corals, algae, energy, basement (5 – 10%) and 1993
bafflestones), molluscs, bryozoa, highs intraparticle (5%)
sandy and pebbly echinoids porosity. Also
lst. pelletal mouldic and vuggy
biosparite, some porosity. Blocky
biopelsparite, calcite spar,
intraclast dissolution seams
biopelsparite, and stylolites
minor sandstone
and siltstone

Table 6 (continued)
Rumbati Limestone Fak Fak, Irian Jaya Middle – Late 110 m Area of continental Shallow marine
Member (RT) Miocene basement platform in a back-reef
(NGLG) interfingers with facies
Onin and Tawar
Sagewin Limestone Sorong, Sagewin Miocene 750 m Near margin of Shallow marine to
(SG). Equiv. to Is., W Irian Jaya continental crust slope? Overlies
Koor and part volcanics
of Waigeo Fm?
Sekau Formation Along S margin Early to Middle Discontinuous, Lateral equiv. and Platform margin,
(SE). (NGLG) of Ayamaru Plateau, Miocene 30 – 50 m overlies Kais. fore-reef below wave-
Equiv. Sekau Taminabuan, Lateral equiv, base. Coral growth in
Mm. of Kais Fm., Ransiki, and overlain by muddy waters. Reef
lower Karabra W Irian Jaya basinal Klasafet. margin encroached by
and Klasafet Continental basinal facies
argillaceous lst. basement high
Sohano Limestone Bougainville Island, Pleistocene – some 100 m (290 ft) Volcanic arc Uplifted shallow
(SH) E of PNG lower Miocene marine reef or platform,
foraminifera- barrier reef and back-
reef area
Song River Huon Peninsula, Miocene – Pliocene 2800 m N edge of Forereef to bathyal
Calcarenite (SR) PNG basement, area, resedimentation,
associated possibly some
volcanic activity submarine volcanics
Suloga Limestone Woodlark Island, Early Miocene 160 m (500 ft), Volcanic arc, Low relief shoals and
(SL) E of PNG thins to W lull in volcanism shallow marine
platforms around
volcanic island
Sumboi Marlstone Yapan, Irian Jaya Late Miocene to 500 m N of main Open shallow marine
(SM) Pliocene continental crust, to bathyal
convergent setting
Tawar marlstone Fak Fak, Irian Jaya Middle – Late 200 m Area of continental Outer neritic to upper
member (RT) Miocene basement bathyal
(NGLG) interfingers with
Onin and Rumbati

Fine grained Large and some Water depth Scattered pyrite No information Robinson et al., 1990b
dolomitic small foraminifera given
limestone
containing
scattered pyrite
Calcarenite, Planktonic Water depth, Not described No information Amri et al., 1990
calcilutite, foraminifera clastic/volcaniclastic given
calcareous input
siltstone and
sandstone, thin
intercalations of
volcaniclastics
at base
Calcirudite, Corals, limestone Water depth, Not described Traces of oil and Pigram and Sukanta,
Reef limestone, clasts, Planktonic reworking from minor production 1989; Pieters et al.,
Limestone and benthic platform margin. 1983, 1990
conglomerate, foraminifera, algae, Clastic input from N
limestone and molluscs, echinoids of Ransiki
calcareous
mudstone or
marlstone.
Carbonate clasts
and some corals
in growth position
White massive to Corals, algae, Volcaniclastic input, Not described No information Blake and Miezitis,
crudely bedded echinoids, molluscs, and irregular given 1967
limestone, coral foraminifera basement topography
boundstone,
Calcarenite Larger benthic Water depth, Not described No information Robinson, 1973
(dominates) foraminifera, rich volcaniclastic input, given
interbedded with in planktonic protected setting rel.
calcilutite, some foraminifera and to volcanics
tuffaceous layers algal fragments
Dark-grey to black Foraminifera Water depth and Small pyrite No information given Trail, 1967
and fine-grained, volcanic or clastic crystals and calcite
massive or bedded input veins
limestone, grades or
erosional contact into
siltstones and tuffs
Foraminiferal marl Abundant planktonic Water depth, clastic Not described No information Atmawinata et al., 1989
and sandy marl, foraminifera input given
intercalated with
limestone, muddy
sst. And
conglomeratic sst.
Marlstone, friable Planktonic Water depth Not described No information Robinson et al., 1990b
fine-grained foraminifera and given
limestone and nannoplankton
calcareous
siltstone
Table 6 (continued)
Tibini Limestone South Sepik Middle Miocene 900 – 1200 m Along N margin Barrier reef along N
Member (TB) region, PNG (Tf1 – 2) in upper of continental shelf margin of continental
(of Yangi Beds) part, but may be shelf
older (Te) at base
Tipsit Limestone Huon Peninsula, Early – Middle 500 m Fringing land area Shallow lagoonal area
(TP) Markham, PNG Miocene to open marine shelf
Touiawaira Southern Papuan Middle Eocene 3–7 m Associated with Lenticular interbed
Limestone Mainland, Samarai, Kutu Volcanics within Kuta Volcanics,
Member (TW) E PNG shallow water shoal
Wai Formation Ransiki, Irian Jaya Late Miocene – 100 m Unconformable on Shallow-marine
(not on map) Pleistocene Kemum Fm. (with reef buildups)
Associated with to alluvial with
upper Miocene – nearby unstable
Pliocene (fault-bounded) high
strike – slip Ransiki relief landmass
Fault
Wainukendi Biak, W Irian Jaya Late Oligocene to 500 – 600 m Area of volcanic arc Neritic
Formation (WN) Early Miocene
Walordori Biak, Irian Jaya Early Miocene 600 m Limestones Littoral to neritic
Formation (WL) overlying island
arc volcanics
Wardo Formation Biak, Irian Jaya Late Miocene – 250 m N of main Probably slope
(WD) Pliocene continental crust, deposits-Interfingers
(N18 – N19) convergent setting with marls of Korem
Formation
Waripi Formation Kaimana, Omba, Latest Cretaceous? – 200 m, On continental Shallow marine
(WA) (lower unit Waghete, Irian Jaya earliest Eocene? 600 + m (Omba) basement carbonate platform.
of Paniai) – NGLG. Basal part
Equiv. to Baham current-swept
or Puragi to NW carbonate/clastic shelf.

Generally Foraminifera, Water depth Not described No information Dow et al., 1972
fine-grained corals, given
limestone, some
interbeds of
calcareous shale
Lignite and Molluscs and Water depth, Not described No information Robinson, 1973;
siltstones at base, planktonic clastic input given Tingey and Grainger,
mostly micritic foraminifera at base. 1976
limestone Foraminifera and
algae
Limestone Larger benthic Water depth, Not described No information Smith and Davies,
foraminifera volcanic activity given 1973, 1976; Carman,
1990
Reef limestone Foraminifera, algae, Clastic input and Cavernous, No information Pieters et al., 1990
(boundstone, mollusc, echinoid water depth recrystallized, given
rudstone, and coral fragments calcite-veined
wackestone,
packstone and
grainstone)
conglomerate, sst.,
marlstone to
calcareous
mudstone
Crystalline Larger benthic Water depth, clastic Not described No information Masria et al., 1981
limestone, foraminifera input given
conglomerate
lenses and
intercalated marls
Fossiliferous Planktonic Water depth, Not described No information Masria et al., 1981
limestone and foraminifera, larger volcaniclastic and given
greywacke, marl, benthic foraminifera, clastic input
partly tuffaceous molluscs, echinoids,
intercalated thin algae and corals
sandstones and
crystalline
limestones
Marly and sandy Planktonic Water depth, Not described No information Masria et al., 1981
limestone, upper foraminifera clastic input given
part white chalk
Well bedded sandy Biocalcarenite Water depth, clastic Some dolomitization Potential Pieters et al., 1983;
calcarenite and commonly contains input, depositional hydrocarbon Pigram and
biocalcarenite, ooids. Miliolids, energy reservoir Panggabean, 1989;
quartz sandstone, Planktonic and small Robinson et al., 1990e;
siltstone, locally benthonic Panggabean, 1990;
glauconitic, foraminifera and Dow et al., 1990; Brash
minor mudstone, bryozoa et al. 1991
dolostone and
calcilutite

Table 6 (continued)
Wedge Hill Yule, Southern Pliocene 350 m Area of folding, Deeper water dark
Limestone (WH) PNG shallow water mudstone grades
carbonates on upwards into
developing calcareous mudstone,
anticlines overlain by shallow
water carbonates. Line-
ar reefs on tectonic
islands
Wurui Limestone Yapen, Irian Jaya Early Late Up to 1000 m N of main Slope deposits?
(WR) Miocene continental crust,
convergent setting
Lst. of Yagroner Sepik Basin, PNG Middle to Late Not given Associated with Low energy, shallow
Hills Eocene accreted volcanic marine setting
(not on map) arc.
Yalam Limestone New Britain, Middle Miocene 1000 – 1200 m Associated with Shallow water
(YL) NE of PNG (Tf), N. New volcanic arc carbonates deposited
Britain, other areas, during long gradual
Early Miocene to subsidence with no
Early Pliocene nearby volcanism and
no nearby eroding
landmass
Yawee Limestone Omba, Waghete, Eocene – Middle Up to 2000 m On continental Open shallow-marine
(Y) (upper unit Irian Jaya Miocene, may be a basement shelf
of Paniai) or hiatus in the Early
Lengguru Fm. – Oligocene (Waghete)
NGLG. Equiv.
to Faumai, Sirga
and Kais to N
and NW
Zaag Limestone (Z) Misool, Irian Jaya Middle Eocene – >600 m Conformable on Shallow marine
Oligocene Daram sandstone
In addition to these carbonate formations or members, limestone units are also reported from a number of different clastic or volcaniclastic
formations in New Guinea—The New Guinea Limestone Group (NGLG is sometimes given as undifferentiated into members as in Fak Fak,
Steenkool).

Base mudstones Abundant reef Water depth and Not described Used as road Brown, 1977
interbedded with corals, algae, clastic input aggregate
limestones, fragmented molluscs,
upwards coralgal echinoid spines,
lsts. Bioclastic bryozoa and
sandstones, reef-associated larger
occasional pebble benthic foraminifera
conglomerates
Bedded and massive Planktonic Water depth, Not described No information Atmawinata et al., 1989
calcarenite, foraminifera clastic input given
calcilutite and
minor calcirudite,
intercalated
chalky limestone,
marl, sandy marl
and calc.
Sandstone
Thinly bedded, Larger benthic Water depth, Compaction No information Wilson et al., 1993
stylobedded foraminifera, depositional energy (mechanical and given
packed Nummulites, chemical), syntaxial
biomicrites coralline algae, overgrowths, drusy
echinoderm and calcite. Late stage
bryozoans. Minor fractures and blocky
corals and planktonic calcite
foraminifera
Bioclastic limestone Coral, bryozoan Water depth Partly recrystallized Possible economic Davies, 1973
with thick and molluscan and includes patchy source of lime
interbeds of remnants dolomitization
clayey biomicrite
and chalky
limestone,
mudstones, rare
calcareous
siltstone and
conglomerates
at base
Calcarenite, chalk, Larger benthic Water depth, Porosities often Potential reservoir Pieters et al., 1983;
marlstone, foraminifera, corals, clastic input low, but may be lithology Pigram and
minor sandstone, algae and bryozoa. (Oligo-Miocene) fractured Panggabean, 1989;
claystones and Contains ooids clastic member with Panggabean, 1990;
dolostones. coals Dow et al., 1990; Brash
Biocalcarenite et al., 1991
and biomicrite.
Little oolitic
calcarenite and
sandy calcarenite
Calcarenite, minor Ooids, larger benthic Water depth Recrystallized. No information Pigram et al., 1982;
calcilutite, foraminifera Oolitic limestone given Rusmana et al., 1989
locally oolitic (Borelis, Nummulites, locally dolomitic
Discocyclina)
Fig. 18. Diagram showing the tectonic drift of New Guinea (from Pigram et al., 1982), cross-section through the foreland fold belt of the
southern Birds Head (from Panggabean and Hakim, 1986) and stratigraphic correlation in the region (see references in diagram).
Fig. 19. Depositional models for carbonate development in New Guinea.

islands, either fringing volcanic arcs or associated deposited in deeper basinal areas bordering the north-
with ophiolitic rocks. The predominantly upper ern and eastern margins of the shelf surrounding the Fly
Eocene Moor Limestone on Yapen and adjacent parts Platform (Carman, 1990). The Oligocene was a time of
of Irian Jaya is around 150 m thick and is intercalated deformation of sediments in the Mobile Belt of PNG
with tuffs. The Nannamajiro Limestone of Early and there are few limestones of this age from this area
Oligocene age from Enarotali is composed of shal- or the area of the volcanic arc to the north (Dow, 1977).
low-water carbonates containing larger benthic fora- During the Early Miocene, carbonate sedimenta-
minifera interbedded with tuffaceous biocalcarenite. tion of the Darai Formation developed over the Fly
The upper Oligocene to lower Miocene Darante For- Platform, but was prevented from occurring to the east
mation includes locally massive reefal limestones, due to formation of the deep-water Aure Trough.
interbedded with basaltic lavas. The Lelet, Mundrau, Throughout much of the rest of the Mobile Belt,
Suloga, Lakit, Keriaka and Yalam Limestones are all mountain areas were acting as sources for sediment
Neogene shallow-marine limestones from the islands shed into the Aure Trough. Miocene carbonates of the
Northeast of PNG, which either contain volcaniclastic Puwani, Chiungai and Tibini Limestones accumulated
debris or grade laterally or vertically into volcanics. in a range of shallow water settings often on basement
Other carbonates, such as the Miocene Nasai Lime- highs around the margins of the Sepik Basin (Wilson
stone or the Pliocene Naringet Limestone, contain et al., 1993). In the central and northwestern part of
little volcanicalstic material and probably developed the Huon Peninsula shallow lagoonal to open marine
away from the arc, or during periods of volcanic carbonates of the Tipsit Limestone accumulated dur-
quiescence. The Mio-Pliocene Punam Limestone con- ing the Early to Middle Miocene. The Mio-Pliocene
sists mainly of pelagic deposits, with some tuffaceous Gowop Limestone accumulated over much of the rest
material, which accumulated in a bathyal setting. In of the Peninsula. Shallow-water carbonates of this unit
Irian Jaya, the Miocene Koor Formation (part of the containing volcaniclastic material and few macrofos-
New Guinea Limestone Group in Mar), interfingers sils accumulated on a faulted high, with deeper-water
with the Moon Volcanics associated with the volcanic and slope deposition occurring to the north and east
arc. These carbonates are up to 500 m thick and (Song River Calcarenite; Robinson, 1973). In the
formed on an unstable shelf with patchy reef growth southern part of PNG localised predominantly Mio-
close to a tectonically active landmass and volcanic cene shallow-water carbonates include the Adau,
activity. Other thick carbonate successions in northern Boera, Kido, Gidobada and Castle Hill Limestone.
Irian Jaya or the adjacent islands, associated with
volcanics include the Miocene Maruni, Walordori 9.4. Uppermost Cenozoic carbonates of New Guinea
and Napisendi Formations.
Carbonates from the area of the Mobile Belt in During the Pliocene or latest Miocene areas of
Papua New Guinea were deposited in a range of shelf, carbonate production had been greatly reduced related
shelf-margin to bathyal settings. Paleocene to Eocene to major thrusting, folding, uplift and erosion through-
shelf carbonates developed to the north and east of an out New Guinea. Late Cenozoic slope to shallow-
area of non-deposition or erosion centered on the Fly water carbonates of the Manokwari, Wardo, Mokmer
Platform (Carman, 1990). These carbonates such as the and Sumboi Formations formed around the islands to
Baruni, Foasi River, Chimbu or Yala Limestone are the north of Irian Jaya. The Plio-Pleistocene Aktari
often quartzose bioclastic limestones, containing abun- Formation of Misool formed as shallow-marine reefs
dant larger benthic foraminifera. A shallow-water high, and shoals with some paralic influence (Pigram et al.,
known as the Wana Swell, is interpreted to have been a 1982). Upper Miocene to Quaternary shallow-water to
region of carbonate production to the northeast of this bathyal carbonates, such as the Wai Formation, are
shelf area. Other areas of Eocene shallow-water carbo- associated with areas of strike – slip faulting (Pieters et
nate production, sometimes associated with volcanics al., 1989). The Pliocene Wedge Hill Limestone of
are known from the Sepik Basin and from southern southern New Guinea is inferred to have formed as
PNG. Cherty limestones containing pelagic biota, of linear reefs on developing anticlines (Brown, 1977).
the Chimbu, Nebilyer and Juliade limestone were Shallow-water carbonates of the Legare and Marabu
Limestones locally fringed land areas in southern and vant to consider equatorial carbonate development on
northern PNG, respectively. The Barida Beds are a a basinal-scale (Fig. 20). Smaller scale tectonic set-
thick succession of planktonic foraminifera-rich marls tings, such as continental passive margins, rifted
and limestones, which accumulated in the deep-water margins or microcontinental blocks, island arcs, back-
Wewak Trough of northern PNG (Hutchison and arc, forearc, foreland and strike slip basins have all
Davies, 1978). In the Huon Gulf, drowning and occurred in Southeast Asia during the Cenozoic. In
backstepping of modern carbonate platforms, associ- many of these tectonic settings, a variety of carbonate
ated with rapid tectonic subsidence and eustasy has depositional settings developed within laterally
been documented from foredeep setting (Fig. 19; restricted areas. The margins of the Makassar Straits,
Galewsky et al., 1996). which developed as a backarc basin between Sula-
wesi and Borneo, is a good example where isolated
9.5. Modern carbonates carbonate platforms, land-attached shelves, and local-
ised buildups formed throughout the Cenozoic and
Modern carbonates developed as fringing reefs are still present today.
along the coastline of the Birds Neck and PNG, Due to the huge range of factors that can influence
around the islands off the north coast, or as offshore carbonate sedimentation, each carbonate depositional
reefs (Salm and Halim, 1984; Maniwavie et al., 2000). environment and its resulting deposits would be
The southern reefs of Papua New Guinea are a unique. However, there are a number of end member
continuation of the Great Barrier Reef. Many of the depositional environments that have occurred in
other areas around Irian Jaya are muddy coastlines, Southeast Asia. These are land-attached carbonate
associated with extensive mangrove development, and shelves, isolated platforms, and more localised depos-
reefs are not common (Muller, 1995). its which accumulated during limited periods of time.
The nature of the margins of shelves and platforms
varies from rimmed to unrimmed (ramps), depending
10. Discussion: equatorial carbonate deposition on whether the dominant organisms formed construc-
during the Cenozoic tional reefal frameworks or not. Any of the carbonate
depositional systems could become drowned or
The Cenozoic carbonates of Southeast Asia devel- smothered by clastics/volcaniclastics and so drowned
oped in a wide variety of depositional settings and or incipiently drowned platforms were not considered
formed in a range of plate tectonic settings. Fulthorpe as separate cases. Slope and basinal carbonate depo-
and Schlanger (1989), studying upper Oligocene to sitional environments may develop around any of the
lower middle Miocene carbonates, mainly from shallow-water areas. Redeposited carbonates, often
around the South China Sea and Philippines, defined composed of texturally and compositionally immature
three main tectonic settings. These were (1) passive units, were derived from shallow-water carbonate
continental margins, (2) convergent plate boundaries areas throughout the Cenozoic in Southeast Asia.
(island arcs) and (3) obliquely convergent plate These may be derived from steep margins to rimmed
boundaries. Although this encompasses most major or unrimmed carbonate systems, because faulting and
settings of equatorial carbonates, it does not include associated platform margin collapse often influenced
areas such as rifted microcontinental blocks or intra- the morphology of shallow-water margins in this
oceanic volcanic arcs. In Southeast Asia, the major active tectonic region (cf. Wilson et al., 2000).
tectonic regime of individual regions has often altered Land-attached shelves include mixed carbonate-
due to plate tectonic changes during the Cenozoic. clastic shelves, fringing or barrier reefs and more
For example, New Guinea has changed temporally extensive rimmed or unrimmed shelves. In equatorial
and spatially from a passive continental margin, to a regions, major clastic input onto marine shelves often
convergent plate boundary with an element of oblique hinders extensive development of shelf carbonates,
convergence. Given this variability, and the fact that such as bordering land areas of the Sunda Craton (cf.
similar smaller-scale tectonic settings are present Wilson and Lokier, in press). However, extensive
within these major settings, it is perhaps more rele- land-attached shelves did develop in the region adja-
408
Fig. 20. Equatorial carbonate development showing depositional settings and tectonic context.
cent to uplifted, karstified limestone areas, or where depositional environments (cf. Grötsch and Mercad-
clastic input was restricted to near-shore areas, or ier, 1999; Vahrenkamp, 2000; Wilson et al., 2000).
channeled away from carbonate producing areas. Therefore tectonics, oceanography, relative sea level
Land-attached shelves that developed first as change and type of carbonate producers strongly
unrimmed shelves and then rimmed shelves include affected isolated platform development and morphol-
the Berai and Paternoster Platforms of Southeast ogy. In Southeast Asia, many of the large-scale plat-
Borneo and the New Guinea Limestone. Mixed car- forms were initially dominated by larger benthic
bonate-clastic shelves and fringing reefs were very foraminifera and coralline algae during the Paleogene.
common during the later part of the Neogene and are Although these were also common components on
still extensively developed today around the many Neogene platforms, coral reefal rims or patch reefs
uplifted or volcanic islands of Eastern Indonesia and typically formed. If the platform underwent rapid
the Philippines. These develop best where there was relative subsidence it was the reefal areas with their
some clastic bypassing of shallow-water areas, or high accumulation rates that were best able to ‘keep
during periods of limited clastic input. The Great up’ with relative sea level rise, whereas other areas of
Barrier Reef initially developed in more arid climates, the platform drowned (cf. Erlich et al., 1990, 1993). In
but since drifting northwards towards the equator, the areas such as New Guinea which experienced rapid
humid climate of the northern region of the reef has subsidence due to thrust loading under convergence in
resulted in considerable clastic input onto the shelf the Neogene, small-scale reefal platforms/buildups, or
landward of the main barrier reef (Davies et al., 1989). pinnacle reefs of the Kais Formation developed from
The development of all these land-attached shelves an original extensive platform (Gibson-Robinson and
critically depends on the amount of clastic or volcani- Soedirdja, 1986).
clastic development (Wilson and Lokier, in press), Localised and ephemeral carbonates formed very
influenced by climatic variations or relative sea level commonly in Southeast Asia in a range of tectonic
change, with most extensive carbonate development settings. These include minor carbonates on faulted
during times of transgression or highstands. highs, isolated knoll reefs or pinnacle reefs surrounded
Isolated platforms developed extensively by deeper water, patch reefs or shoals on clastic
throughout Southeast Asia and other equatorial shelves, delta-front patch reefs or carbonates associ-
regions in a wide variety of tectonic settings. How- ated with volcanics. For these deposits, carbonate
ever, regardless of their size almost all developed on producers are acting as opportunists, colonizing areas
bathymetric highs bypassed by major siliciclastic or within the photic zone when conditions become
volcaniclastic input. In Southeast Asia, as with areas favourable. Alternatively, if conditions become unfav-
like Belize, most highs formed structurally as horst ourable in a region of extensive carbonate sedimenta-
blocks or faulted footwall highs, although occasional tion, production may become restricted to localized
antecedent topographic highs were sites of carbonate areas (cf. Gibson-Robinson and Soedirdja, 1986). In
initiation. Carbonate producers once established on many cases, carbonates developed on slight bathymet-
bathymetric highs within the photic zone, if able to ric highs, which had the advantage of placing them in
‘keep-up’ with relative sea level rise formed thick the photic zone and potentially channeling some clastic
platform accumulation accentuating depth variations material away from the highs. The highs were either
between platform tops and surrounding basins. Plat- structural in origin or sometimes stratigraphic highs,
forms, often tens of kilometres across, commonly such as delta-front mouth bars or earlier clastic covered
developed on faulted highs in passive margin, rifted reefs or shoals (cf. Wilson and Lokier, in press).
margin, backarc or forearc areas. Despite the varia- Development of these localised carbonates was crit-
bility in tectonic settings many of these platforms ically dependent on rate and type of siliciclastic or
developed a marked asymmetry. Asymmetry was volcaniclastic input, compared with rate of carbonate
influenced by a variety of factors including differ- production and relative subsidence. The abundant and
ential subsidence on syntectonically active rotating narrow shelves bordering land areas or volcanic islands
faultblocks, windward/leeward effects or variations in in Southeast Asia favoured localised carbonate sedi-
production rates of carbonate producers for different mentation when clastic supply was reduced in an area.
Reduced clastic supply may be caused by oceano- equatorial Cenozoic carbonates compared with their
graphic changes, allocyclic switches in depocentres, (sub)tropical counterparts.
such as delta lobe abandonment, tectonic or volcanic Before discussing equatorial carbonates, it is nec-
quiescence, or relative sea level rise. Although equa- essary to look at perceived views of ‘warm-water’
torial carbonates are traditionally thought to form in carbonate sedimentation. The original ‘warm-water’
clear waters, recent studies have shown that they can chlorozoan assemblage of Lees and Buller (1972)
tolerate considerable clastic influx (Woolfe and Lar- included a significant contribution from hermatypic
combe, 1998; Wilson and Lokier, in press). corals and/or calcareous green algae in addition to
marine components such as molluscs, foraminifera
10.1. Southeast Asian Cenozoic carbonates and and echinoderms. Barnacles never contributed signifi-
implications for equatorial carbonates cantly and bryozoans were rare constituents of the
assemblage. Non-skeletal components, such peloids,
It has long been recognised that warm-water, or ooids and aggregate grains predominantly occur with
tropical carbonates, from within 30° of the equator, the warm-water association and of these ooids and
are very different from their cool-water or temperate aggregates are restricted to areas with chlorozoan
counterparts. Working on modern carbonate sedi- sediments and raised salinities (Lees, 1975). In apply-
ments, Lees and Buller (1972) distinguished the ing patterns of modern carbonate sedimentation to the
warm-water chlorozoan assemblage from the cooler- Cenozoic, James (1997) coined the term ‘Photozoan
water foramol assemblage. Recent publications Association’ instead of Chlorozoan, emphasising the
focused on temperate carbonates have highlighted light-dependent nature of the major biotic compo-
differences between warm- and cool-water carbonate nents. The definition of a ‘Photozoan Association’ is
sedimentation (cf. Nelson, 1988; Rao, 1996; James an association of benthic carbonate particles including
and Clarke, 1997). However, in emphasizing differ- (1) skeletons of light-dependent organisms, and/or (2)
ences between warm- and cool-water settings are we non skeletal particles (ooids, peloids, etc.) plus or
in danger of overlooking major variations within minus (3) skeletons from the Heterozoan Association
Cenozoic warm-water carbonates? Until recently, (predominantly light-independent organisms plus or
one of the problems in analysing warm-water carbo- minus coralline algae). James (1997) regarded the
nates was the relatively limited dataset of well Chloralgal Association containing, calcareous green
documented Cenozoic examples, such as from the algae but no corals, which occurs under raised or
Bahamas, Florida, Persian Gulf and Belize (cf. lowered salinities (>43 – 45% and < 33%; Lees,
Purser, 1973; James and Ginsburg, 1979; Tucker 1975) as part of the Photozoan Association. James
and Wright, 1990). In the last decade, many more (1997) stated that attributes of Photozoan deposits are
Cenozoic warm-water carbonate examples have been that (1) a variety of shallow rimmed shelves, open
described, including the Mediterranean (Franseen et shelves, ramps and reefs occur, (2) carbonate mud is
al., 1996), Brazilian shelf (Testa and Bosence, 1998), abundant, (3) marine cementation, micritization and
Pacific and Indian Oceans (Camoin and Davies, bioerosion are common and (4) aragonitic and high
1998). Looking at Lees (1975) dataset of modern Mg-calcite mineralogies dominate. Although Ceno-
carbonates just 6% of the localities came from within zoic equatorial carbonates of Southeast Asia and areas
10° north or south of the equator, and of these only such as Belize or Pacific atolls are extremely diverse,
two were from Southeast Asia. Although Lees it is shown below that they do not always conform to
(1975), advocated caution in applying the ideas these perceived views of warm-water carbonates, and
gained from modern carbonates to study ancient that they differ significantly from (sub)tropical carbo-
deposits, many workers often use present day nates (summarized on Table 7).
warm-water carbonate models as analogues for their
Cenozoic counterparts. Combining the data on mod- 10.2. Skeletal components
ern (Tomascik et al., 1997) and Tertiary carbonates
from Southeast Asia (this paper) with other published Bioclasts, together with micrite and cement are
examples, gives us the ability to take a fresh look at the dominant components of Cenozoic equatorial
Table 7
Comparison between equatorial, (sub)tropical and temperate carbonates (after Nelson, 1988; James, 1997)
Equatorial-humid (Sub)tropical-arid Temperate
Latitude Between 15/20°N and 15/20°S Between 15/20°and Beyond 30°N or S, but
30°N or S not into sub-polar areas
Tectonics Unstable (to stable) Stable to unstable Stable to unstable
Terrigenous High (for shelves) – isolated Low Low to high
supply platforms may be low
Bottom water Warm-generally >22°C Warm may be 18 – 22 °C Cool 5 – 10 °C
temperature
Salinity Normal to reduced Normal to hypersaline Normal (to reduced)
Skeletal grains Photozoan or heterozoan + Photozoan association or Heterozoan association
association-dependent on factors heterozoan+, influenced
such as biogeography, biotic by salinity, nutrients and
evolution, oceanography and biogeography. Algal
nutrients. Algal laminites/ laminites/stromatolites
stromatolites rare may be common
Non-skeletal grains Coated grains and aggregates Coated grains and Coated grains and aggregates
absent. Peloids produced, aggregates common. absent. Peloids produced,
but low preservation potential Peloids common and but low preservation
preserved potential
Marine cementation Not common, except in Common Not common
high-energy margins
Micritisation and Very common Common Bioerosion common,
bioerosion less micritization?
Micrite Common—due to physical and Common—due to physical, Not common (outer
biological processes biological and chemical? shelves may be common
processes due to physical processes)
Mineralogy Aragonitic or calcitic-depending Aragonitic or calcitic- Predominantly calcitic
on dominant organisms depending on dominant
organisms and
precipitates
Dissolution Role of seafloor dissolution? Dissolution less pronounced Role of seafloor
Meteoric leaching of aragonitic than equatorial regions dissolution?
components common
Accumulation rates Moderate to high—depends Moderate to high—depends Moderate— 0.2 m/ka
on biota, typically 0.2 – 1 m/ka on biota and precipitation
rates, typically 0.2 – 1 m/ka
Platform drowning Drowning possible, related to Drowning possible-related to Stranded or starved
clastic input, tectonic subsidence tectonic subsidence, eustasy facies—if below photic
or eustasy and environmental stress zone (not light-dependent)
such as salinity increase
Associations with Associations with mixed Associations with Associations with clastics
other rock types carbonate-clastic deposits, evaporites common common, but due to
siliciclastics and moderate accumulation rates
volcaniclastics common may be smothered more quickly
than equatorial carbonates
Platform structure Framework constructing Thin unrimmed shelves Unrimmed shelves/ramps and
photozoan associations-thick (particularly if raised salinity), shoals common. Isolated
rimmed platforms, buildups, rimmed shelves and narrow unrimmed platforms/banks
fringing reefs, barrier reef common. fringing reefs common.
Clastic—rich if land-attached Isolated rimmed or
Non-framework constructing unrimmed platforms
photozoan associations—unrimmed
platforms, shoals and mixed
carb-clastic shelves common
carbonates. Although a wide variety of skeletal common in Southeast Asia waters (Tomascik et al.,
bioclasts are present, skeletons of light-dependent 1997; Jordan, 1998). Ooids and aggregates are best
organisms predominate, hence the ‘Photozoan Asso- developed around the tropics at around 25° north and
ciation’ of James (1997), seems appropriate. Arago- south where evaporation exceeds precipitation. How-
nitic components such as scleractinian corals and ever, in areas where open oceanic conditions prevail,
Halimeda are common at the present day and were such as the Great Barrier Reef, ooids and aggregates do
also major contributors through the Neogene, as in not always form around the tropics.
the chlorozoan assemblage of Lees and Buller
(1972). However, during this time period there was 10.4. Marine cementation
considerable local variations and in some localities
high magnesium calcitic photozoans dominated. For It is a generally held belief that marine cements are
examples, larger benthic foraminifera and coralline abundant in warm-water carbonate sediments and
algae dominate deposits of the modern Paternoster observations of cans cemented into reefs attest to
Platform of Borneo, the Miocene Liuhau Platform of how rapidly these processes can take place. Yet diving
the South China Sea and the Wonosari Formation of over modern carbonate sediments in Southeast Asia or
Java. Although these deposits are ‘photozoan asso- from descriptions of other modern equatorial carbo-
ciations’, heterozoan or heterozoan+ (rhodoalgal of nates the sediment is predominantly unconsolidated
Carannante et al., 1988) associations are found on and lacks marine cements (cf. Gischler and Lomando,
some tropical shelves, due to temperature, salinity 1999). Looking at the Cenozoic carbonates of South-
and nutrients variations (James, 1997). In Southeast east Asia, although the data is far from complete,
Asia, although corals are present in some Paleogene marine cements are not often reported and meteoric
deposits, calcitic organisms such as larger benthic and burial processes appear to predominate. Where
foraminifera and coralline algae dominate, and there marine cements are recorded, they generally comprise
appears to have been a significant regional change in a minor component (Lokier, 2000) or are most com-
marine biota towards the end of the Paleogene (cf. mon in high-energy settings (Park et al., 1992; Wilson
Wilson and Rosen, 1998). This change is seen in et al., 1999; Grötsch and Mercadier, 1999). Marine
other tropical carbonate deposits mostly around the cements, it therefore seems from preliminary findings,
Eocene/Oligocene boundary. Reasons for this change are not common in equatorial carbonates, except those
in dominant biota are not fully understood and have formed in high-energy environments. This is presum-
been related to biotic evolution, plate tectonics, ably due to high equatorial rainfall diluting marine
climate and possibly oceanographic changes (cf. areas, making marine cement precipitation less likely
Wilson and Rosen, 1998). On a species and generic than around the tropics, except where large volumes
level, there are strong provincial differences in of seawater are flushed through sediments.
marine biota between areas such as Southeast Asia
and the Caribbean. 10.5. Micritization and bioerosion
10.3. Coated grains and aggregates Micritization, resulting from boring by microrgan-
isms, is common in modern shallow-water equatorial
Coated grains, such as ooids, and aggregates are carbonates, and is often seen in Cenozoic examples.
lacking from equatorial carbonates and the deposits are Bioerosion is also a very common process in modern
almost entirely bioclastic in nature. A few Paleogene equatorial environments, and the presence of borings
carbonates from Nusa Tenggara and the New Guinea in bioclasts suggests it was also important during the
Limestone Group do contain ooids, but these formed Cenozoic. However, it is only during the Cenozoic
in more southerly (sub)tropical latitudes (cf. Pigram et that fish and sponges appear to have become the
al., 1982; 1990). As Lees (1975) showed, ooids and dominant bioeroders and macroborers, perhaps related
aggregates were only present when salinity always to nutrient changes or diversification of reefs and
exceeds 35.8%. These conditions do not generally associated biota (Bellwood, 1996; Perry and Bertling,
occur at the equator; salinities of 32% or less are 2000). Increased nutrient availability may stimulate
the growth of algae, and/or infaunal suspension producers dominated over aragonitic organisms. Cal-
feeders (Hallock and Schlager, 1986; Perrin et al., citic larger benthic foraminifera were also major
1995) and reefs associated with terrestrial runoff in sediment contributors during the Paleocene and
Southeast Asia often show abundant evidence for Eocene in many other tropical areas such as the
encrustation and bioerosion (cf. Wilson and Lokier, Mediterranean and Caribbean. Predominantly calcitic
in press). mineralogies are thought to be a distinguishing fea-
ture of cool-water carbonates (Chave, 1967; Nelson,
10.6. Carbonate mud 1988; James, 1997). The question, if these calcitic
deposits containing abundant larger benthic foramin-
Micrite is common in low-energy, equatorial car- ifera are cool-water carbonates, has been raised
bonates throughout the Cenozoic. Although there is (James, 1997). However, there is no evidence to
little data available on the origin of this micrite, most support this hypothesis. There is a strong correlation
is likely to be related to the physical or biological between modern and Cenozoic larger benthic fora-
breakdown of calcareous skeletons, such as algae. minifera restricted to low-latitudes, generally between
There is unlikely to be any significant chemical the tropics, where minimum surface water temper-
precipitation of carbonate mud as may be the case atures are not less than 18 °C or 20– 22 °C for most
in (sub)tropical latitudes (cf. Lees, 1975). There is species (Murray, 1973, 1987; Reiss and Hottinger,
not enough data to study amounts of micrite in 1984; Hallock and Glenn, 1986; Buxton and Pedley,
equatorial compared with (sub)tropical latitudes or 1989). It is inferred that spatial and temporal varia-
to quantify if any changes have taken place during tions in dominant biota and hence mineralogy reflect
the Cenozoic. biotic evolution and biogeographic differences (cf.
Adams, 1983; Wilson and Rosen, 1998). In this
10.7. Peloids context, it seems most unlikely that predominantly
calcitic deposits are always indicative of cool-water
Peloids may form in a variety of ways, such as by conditions (cf. James, 1997).
grain micritization or as faecal pellets. Peloids are
present in modern equatorial sediments, and if micri- 10.9. Dissolution
tization and bioerosion were ubiquitous they might be
expected throughout Cenozoic tropical carbonates. In cool-water areas, seafloor dissolution has been
Although peloids are common in Cenozoic carbonates suggested, although its role and magnitude is unclear
from the (sub)tropics, they are far less abundant in (cf. James, 1997). In equatorial regions where seafloor
Southeast Asian deposits. Where present in equatorial cementation is less important than around the tropics,
limestones peloids are preserved within bioclasts or in the possible role of dissolution is undocumented.
areas associated with shelter porosity. This apparent Early aragonite dissolution and chalkification (partial
anomalous paucity of peloids in equatorial Cenozoic dissolution) commonly affects Neogene carbonates in
carbonates probably results from a preservational bias Southeast Asia and has been attributed to karstifica-
due to only minor early marine cementation (cf. Lees, tion. Although this is undoubtedly the case in many
1975). examples, all examples are not clearcut and where
early dissolution is associated with marine diagenesis
10.8. Mineralogy (cf. Park et al., 1995) it is possible that seafloor
dissolution played a role. Due to high rainfall in
The original mineralogy of warm-water carbonates equatorial regions if subaerially exposed, carbonates
will depend on the spatial and temporal variations in will undergo intensive leaching and meteoric diagen-
the dominant carbonate producing organisms and/or esis. Karstification and associated meteoric diagenesis
precipitates. In Southeast Asia the dominant carbo- strongly influenced aragonitic-rich Neogene carbo-
nate producers during the Neogene were aragonitic nates affected by repeated subaerial exposure due to
with lesser amounts of Mg calcitic organisms. How- combined tectonic and glacioeustatic sea level fluctu-
ever, for the Paleogene in Southeast Asia, Mg calcitic ations. However, glacioeustatic sea level fluctuations
were less influential during the Paleogene and calcitic buildups show evidence for repeated subaerial expo-
elements are less prone to leaching and consequently sure prior to ‘drowning’ (cf. Vahrenkamp, 2000). For
meteoric diagenesis appears to have been less impor- the calcitic photozoan associations more typical of the
tant during this period. In arid regions around the Paleogene, due to their low rates of accumulation,
tropics during the Miocene, meteoric leaching and drowning may occur due to eustatic or tectonic
cementation was less pronounced than in equatorial induced relative sea level rise (cf. Wilson, 1999).
regions (cf. Sun and Esteban, 1994). The cool-water heterozoan associations, which can
keep producing below the photic zone, if ‘drowned’
10.10. Rates of accumulation may result in stranded or starved facies (cf. James,
1997). In comparison, the photozoan association
Rates of production for modern and Quaternary which rely on light do drown and those with slower
reefal carbonates are up to 10 m/ka (cf. Jones and accumulation rates are less likely to recover or form
Desrochers, 1992). Offshore Java, the Pulau Seribu ‘catch-up’ successions if subsequently returned to the
reefs have production rates of between 0.3 and 1 m/ka basal part of the photic zone.
(Park et al. 1992), and similar accumulation rates have
been inferred for Neogene reefal carbonates in South- 10.12. Associations with other rock types
east Asia from sedimentological or isotopic con-
straints (Park et al. 1995; Grötsch and Mercadier, High annual rainfall in equatorial regions is
1999). However, as Schlager (1981, 1989) showed unlikely to result in associations of carbonate deposits
even given compaction effects and potential hiatuses, with major evaporitic deposits, as is commonly
these rates are significantly higher than for many reported in (sub)tropical latitudes (cf. Sun and Este-
ancient carbonates. Cool water carbonates in compar- ban, 1994). In Southeast Asia carbonates are only
ison, have lower accumulation rates comparable with associated with major evaporitic deposits in localities
the rock record and perhaps as James (1997) sug- which developed in more southerly latitudes, such as
gested are a better analogue for Mesozoic and Pale- New Guinea during the Paleogene. In humid equato-
ozoic carbonates. However, equatorial carbonates rial regions weathering is intense, and associations
dominated by calcitic photozoan associations, such between clastics or volcaniclastics and carbonates are
as during the Paleogene in Southeast Asia also have common, particularly for shelf deposits (cf. Woolfe
low production rates, up to an order of magnitude less and Larcombe, 1998; Lokier, 2000; Wilson and Lok-
than for modern reefal or oolitic deposits (0.2 – 0.3 m/ ier, in press). In shelf settings, the carbonates com-
ka; Wilson et al., 2000). Rather than just applying monly developed during transgressive and highstand
cool-water carbonate models to deposits that accumu- flooding of shelves, whereas thick clastic packages
lated slowly, the variability in warm-water carbonate tend to accumulate during lowstands (cf. Roberts and
production rates needs to also be considered in the Syndow, 1996a). Yet equatorial carbonate and clastic
study of ancient carbonates. deposits are not mutually exclusive and photozoan
carbonates do develop in turbid water depending on
10.11. Platform drowning light penetration and sediment accumulation rates.
There are many examples during the Cenozoic in
Although reefal Holocene warm-water carbonates Southeast Asia where mixed carbonate-clastic shelves
generally have no problem in keeping up with rela- developed, or localised buildups or shoals formed on
tively rapid sea level rise (cf. Schlager, 1981), carbo- clastic shelves, delta-front areas or active volcanic
nate platforms or buildups in Southeast Asia are often highs (cf. Roberts and Syndow, 1996b; Wilson et al.,
overlain by deeper water facies and have apparently 1999; Lokier, 2000).
drowned (cf. Erlich et al., 1990, 1993). There are a
variety of reasons for ‘drowning’ in the region. This 10.13. Platform structure
include high rates of tectonic subsidence in some
basins, potential environmental stress from clastic, A diverse array of carbonate depositional systems
volcaniclastic or nutrient input, and many Miocene are present in equatorial carbonates. The choralgal
photozoan associations typical of the Neogene of transient carbonates were related to opportunist pro-
Southeast Asia tend to give rise to potentially thick duction.
rimmed shelf (cf. Read, 1982), fringing reef, barrier The equatorial carbonates of Southeast Asia
reef or buildup deposits. In comparison, photozoan differ from their (sub)tropical and temperate counter-
associations dominated by non-framework building parts in a number of important ways (Table 7). South-
organisms, such as prevailed during the Paleogene in east Asia carbonates are dominated by bioclasts,
Southeast Asia, tend to result in unrimmed shelves or coated grains and aggregates are rare and although
ramps and shoals developing (see above). Tectonics, peloids are produced, they have low preservation
eustasy, clastic or volcaniclastic input, and local potential. Marine cementation appears to be less
oceanographic conditions will all potentially influence important in equatorial regions than around the
platform structure. In comparison, carbonates around tropics, whereas dissolution, with the possibility of
the tropics tend to develop thin shelf or lagoonal seafloor dissolution is more important. Cool-water
deposits often formed on unrimmed shelves or some- carbonates are predominantly calcitic, whereas
times associated with narrow fringing reefs (cf. Sun warm-water carbonates may be predominantly arago-
and Esteban, 1994). In these settings, unfavourable nitic or calcitic, depending on the major bioclasts.
conditions, such as increased salinity or temperature Accumulation rates of equatorial carbonates vary,
changes, may result in temporal or spatial restrictions again dependant on the dominant bioclasts and may
to carbonate and particularly reefal development. be comparable with cool-water carbonate accumula-
tion rates or with the higher rates associated with
warm-water coral reefs. Equatorial carbonates are not
11. Summary associated with evaporites, they occur in a range of
depositional settings, and were often affected by
This work reviews equatorial carbonates in coeval clastic influx, tectonism or volcanism. Depo-
sitional facies and platform structure, although highly
Southeast Asia during the Cenozoic. It is intended
to provide a first point of reference for any worker variable in equatorial regions, often differs consider-
interested in carbonate development in the region. ably from (sub)tropical or temperate regions.
Carbonate successions from six areas are dis- There was an important change in Southeast
cussed, these are: (1) Sumatra, (2) Java and Bali, (3) Asian carbonates from successions dominated by
Borneo and southern South China Sea, (4) Sulawesi, larger benthic foraminifera to those often containing
Nusa Tenggara and the Moluccas, (5) Philippines and reefal corals around the beginning of the Neogene. As
(6) New Guinea. For each limestone unit, the location, a consequence of this biotic change, together with
age, thickness, tectonic setting and depositional set- changes in carbonate accumulation rates, plate tec-
ting is presented on maps and tables. Details of tonic context, eustatic and climatic influences, plat-
lithologies, biota, controls on deposition, diagenesis, form development and diagenesis differed for the
economic potential and principal references for each Paleogene and Neogene.
formation are also tabulated. This work has implications for the global evolu-
Globally, Southeast Asia is the best region to tion of carbonates, regional geology marine biology,
study Cenozoic equatorial carbonates because they are palaeoclimatology, palaeoceanography and explora-
at their most extensive and diverse in the region. tion geology.
Carbonate sedimentation in the region spanned the
Tertiary, occurred in the full range of plate tectonic
settings and in a diversity of depositional settings. The Acknowledgements
location and development of equatorial carbonates
was commonly influenced by clastic influx, tectonics, The bulk of this work was undertaken during a
eustasy and oceanography. Extensive carbonate plat- postdoctoral appointment with the London University
forms were best developed on shelves with limited Southeast Asia Research Group at Royal Holloway
clastic input or on isolated bathymetric highs. When College. The Group, and Robert Hall and Diane
conditions were favourable, localised and sometimes Cameron in particular, are thanked for providing
financial and logistical support. The consortium of Adinergoro, U., 1973. Reef – Limestones in the Sukabumi Area (SW
companies; ARCO Indonesia, LASMO Indonesia, Java). Indonesian Petroleum Association, Proceedings 2nd An-
nual Convention, 109 – 120.
MOBIL Oil Indonesia, EXXON, Canadian Petroleum Ajam, S.O., Henzell, L.A., Wang, J., Syarif, A.M., Soedirdja, H.,
Indonesia, Union Texas Petroleum and Unocal pro- 1982. Wellsite evaluation of the Miocene carbonates in the Sal-
vided funding for the research group and are gratefully awati Basin. Indonesian Petroleum Association, Proceedings
acknowledged. Additional funding for fieldwork and/ 11th Annual Convention, 357 – 378.
Alam, H., Paterson, D.W., Corbin, S.G., Syarifuddin, N., Busono, I.,
or technical support was provided by British Petro-
1999. Reservoir potential of carbonate rocks in Kutai Basin
leum, Maersk Oil, LASMO Runtu and Unocal and Region, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Journal of Asian Earth
these companies are also thanked. Logistical support Sciences 17, 203 – 204.
was also provided by the Geological Research and Ali, M.Y., 1992. Carbonate cement stratigraphy and timing of hy-
Development Centre in Bandung, Indonesia. This drocarbon migration: an example from Tigapapan Unit, offshore
work has benefited from discussions with many Sabah. Geological Society of Malaysia, Bulletin 32, 185 – 211.
Ali, M.Y., 1995. Carbonate cement stratigraphy and timing of dia-
people, with Tony Barber, Dan Bosence, Robert Hall, genesis in a Miocene mixed carbonate-clastic sequence, offshore
Stephen Lokier and Brian Rosen deserving special Sabah, Malaysia: constraints from cathodoluminescence, geo-
mention. Thanks to reviewers; Trevor Burchette and chemistry, and isotope studies. Sedimentary Geology 99,
Jürgen Grötsch, for their comments, which signifi- 191 – 214.
cantly improved this manuscript. Amin, T.C., Rustandi, E., Gafoer, S., 1986. Geologic map of the
Manna and Enggano Quadrangle, Sumatra (Quadrangles 0910
and 0911) Scale 1:250,000. Geological Survey of Indonesia,
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Wilson M. E. J. — Cenozoic carbonates in

ARTICLE in SEDIMENTARY GEOLOGY · MARCH 2002

Cenozoic carbonates in Southeast Asia: implications for

Received 26 June 2000; accepted 18 September 2001

Fig. 4. Depositional setting and models for carbonate development in Sumatra.

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

(continued on next page)

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

(continued on next page)

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

Bojongmanik W Java, Bogor Miocene Lenses Intra-arc Localised biostromes

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

(continued on next page)

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

(continued on next page)

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Ngrayong Formation Madura Middle Miocene Backarc Mixed carbonate clastic

Nyalindung W Java, Bogor Miocene Lenses Intra-arc Shelf/mixed carbonate

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

(continued on next page)

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Prapatagung NW Bali Pliocene Not given Interarc Shallow marine to

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

Fig. 7. Depositional setting and models for carbonate development in Java.

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

(continued on next page)

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

Fig. 10. Models of carbonate development in Borneo.

Ambeuwa Tukang Besi, Late Miocene to Up to 2500 m Compressional Bathyal to shelf

Buara Formation Kolaka, Pleistocene to 200 m Compressional Shelfal setting?

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Coral Limestone N Arm Pliocene 300 m Intraarc —within Isolated fringing/patch

Eemoiko Kolaka, Late Miocene to 300 m Compressional Shallow shelf and

Fufa Beds Seram Middle – Late Up to 660 m in Post orogenic in Near-shore

Lerea Formation Poso, Central Paleogene 200 m Sedimentary cover Bathyal

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Paumbapa Sumba. W of Oligocene +/ 1500 m Shallow sea, Shallow sea, shelfal/

Puri Formation (PU) Waigeo Pliocene >400 m Post-collisional Shelfal/shelf margin

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

(continued on next page)

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Tanpakura SE Sulawesi Late Eocene – ? Bordering Rimmed shelf, 15 – 20

Lithologies Biota Controls on Diagenesis Economic Principal references

Calcilutite Planktonic Water depth. Not described No information Sikumbang and

(continued on next page)

Formation Name Location Age Thickness Tectonic setting Depositional setting

Tonasa Western South Early/Middle 300 m To west of volcanic Large-scale syntectonic