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Communitarianism: Amitai Etzioni
Communitarianism: Amitai Etzioni
which brought him to be and which nourishes rights all individuals command, the focus of
him … all this creates a significant obligation to liberalism. Responsive communitarians offered
belong for whoever would affirm the value of a “new golden rule”: “Respect and uphold soci-
this freedom; this includes all those who want to ety’s moral order as you would have society
assert rights either to this freedom or for its
respect and uphold your autonomy to live a full
sake. (Taylor 1985: 206, emphasis added)
life” (Etzioni 1996: xviii).
Some scholars argue that the liberal vision is Responsive communitarians argue that the
not atomized, and the initial conflict between preservation of the social bonds is essential for
liberals and communitarians has been over- the flourishing of individuals and of societies.
stated or misconceived (Bell 2010). Simon This led to their view that states should “sus-
Caney, for instance, notes Rawls’s contention tain and promote the social attachments cru-
that “the theory of a well-ordered society cial to our sense of well-being and respect,
stresses that the interests and ends of individ- many of which have been involuntarily picked
uals depend upon existing institutions” (Rawls up during the course of our upbringing” (Bell
1975: 547, quoted in Caney 1992: 279). Caney 2010). For liberals, this idea is treated as if it
also points out that Rawls, despite his emphasis requires the state to determine the good and
on autonomy, is not hostile to the notion of an then direct its laws toward promoting that
embedded self, citing Rawls’s insight that “Only good, which is considered a grievous error.
in the social union is the individual complete” Liberals argue that citizens may fundamentally
(Rawls 1971: 525, quoted in Caney 1992: 279). disagree about what the good is, and so
Indeed, as Caney concludes, “many liberals attempts by the state to pursue a specific good
explicitly endorse the embeddedness thesis” will limit the freedom of those citizens who
(1992: 277). Philip Selznick has similarly disagree. Better, liberals argue, to have the state
affirmed this “liberal communitarianism” (or remain neutral among various competing
“communitarian liberalism”) (Selznick 1994: teleologies.
16). While there may have been disputes at the Communitarians counter that such a posi-
margins between strong communitarians and tion conflates the concepts of state and society
strong liberals (or libertarians), most liberals (or community). The underlying reason is that,
did not deny the formative role of commu- from a strict liberal viewpoint, social pressures
nities, even if they continued to prize choice as (which can lead people who violate the norms –
a normative good and tended to value freedom “deviants” – to be ostracized), as well as state
over community (Bell 2010). coercions, both violate individual freedoms.
Communities, critics write, use their moral
voice to oppress people, are authoritarian by
Responsive Communitarians
nature, and pressure people to conform.
A second wave of communitarianism was However, from a communitarian viewpoint,
launched in 1990 in response to the increased informal social controls are vastly superior to
atomization of western societies, especially the state coercion, because they ultimately leave
USA and Britain in the Reagan and Thatcher the choice of violating social norms up to the
years (documented by scholars such as Robert individual, letting her determine whether or
Bellah). not she is willing to pay the social costs – as all
Attempting to counter this trend, a group innovators and social change leaders have – or
calling itself “responsive communitarians,” conform. In contrast, state coercion pre-empts
founded by Amitai Etzioni with William A. such a choice, as one sees in all oppressive
Galston, called for a balance between liberty regimes.
and social order, arguing that individuals faced A comparison of the great success of public
responsibilities for their families, communities, smoking bans to the grand failure of Prohibition
and societies – above and beyond the universal in the USA is revealing. The former relied
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heavily on new shared norms and on informal Old communities (e.g., traditional villages,
communal controls, while the latter relied on tribes, and clans) were geographically bounded
the state to enforce a law not based on widely and the only communities of which people
shared values. Given that some behaviors must were members. In contrast, new communities
be ordered in all societies, the best one can are often limited in scope and reach. Members
hope for is a world in which these behaviors are of one residential community are often also
largely promoted and enforced by informal members of other communities – for example
social processes, with the state acting only to work, ethnic, or religious ones. As a result,
enforce these norms at the margins, in order to community members have multiple sources of
keep the communal consensus from fraying. attachments and, if one threatens to become
(At the same time, the norms themselves are overwhelming, individuals will tend to pull
constantly recast by various changes in the back and turn to another community for their
communal composition.) attachments. This multicommunity member-
Hence, responsive communitarians pay ship protects the individuals from both moral
special attention to social institutions, which oppression and ostracism. However, incon-
form the moral infrastructure of society: gruity between the values of a person’s multiple
families, schools, communities, and the communities may substantially weaken the
community of communities. Through families moral voice; thus the importance of the next
and schools, societies impart the community’s level moral community.
shared norms and values onto its new mem- In short, the moral voice is most power-
bers. Those members are free to accept or ful when people are members of only one
reject those norms and either embrace or leave community, and it can be overwhelming in
the community, but the community has a role such cases. It is more moderated when individ-
in inculcating them. uals are members of several communities, but
Critics of communitarianism charged that it still suffices to undergird the needed social
this approach is hostile toward individual rights order, as long as the various members share at
and autonomy – even that it is authoritarian. least some core values.
Derek Phillips, for instance, remarks, commu- For the same basic reason it is a valid criti-
nitarian thinking … obliterates individual cism to argue that a total and monolithic
autonomy entirely and dissolves the self into community can drive people to conformism, if
whatever roles are imposed by one’s position in this means that such a community will push
society” (1993: 183). Other critics argue that people to sacrifice large parts of their individual
communities are dominated by power elites or differences in order to follow shared values.
that one group within a community will force But total communities are rare in modern soci-
others to abide by its values. eties, while multicommunity attachments are
It is true that communitarians, in casting much more common. In other words, it is
doubt on the desirability of a polity composed likely misguided to worry about traditionalism
of atomized choosers, harbor an impulse in the modern context.
toward shared values and consensus building. Furthermore, dominance by power elites
Yet responsive communitarians do not favor and other forms of authoritarianism are not
rolling back individual rights, but rather, paral- basic or inherent features of community, but
leling them with concerns for the common reflections of the way it has been distorted. To
good and the discharge of social responsibil- be fully or even highly communitarian, com-
ities. They further counter that behind many of munities require authentic commitment of
these criticisms lies an image of old, or total, most – if not all – of their members to a set of
communities, which are neither typical of core values. To attain such a commitment, the
modern society nor necessary for, nor compat- values that are being fostered need to be truly
ible with, a communitarian society. accepted by the members and responsive to
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their underlying needs. If some members of the community, nor even a satisfactory definition
society are excluded from the moral dialogue, of what community is” (in Bell & Newby 1974:
or are manipulated into abiding by the moral xliii) and suggests that the term be completely
voice, or if their true needs are ignored, they avoided.
will eventually react to the community’s lack of In response, Amitai Etzioni has argued that
responsiveness in an antisocial manner. In community can be defined with reasonable
short, communities can be distorted by those precision. Community has two characteristics:
in power, but then their moral order will be first, a web of affect-laden relationships among
diminished, and they will either have to a group of individuals, relationships that often
become more responsive to their members’ crisscross and reinforce one another (as
true needs or transform into some other non- opposed to one-on-one or chain-like individual
communitarian social pattern. relationships); and second, a measure of com-
Still other critics have accused communitar- mitment to a set of shared values, norms, and
ians not merely of overlooking the less attrac- meanings, and a shared history and identity –
tive features of traditional communities, but of in short, a particular culture.
longing to revive these features. According to These cultures change over time through a
Michael Taves, the communitarian vision con- process of moral dialogue, which occurs when a
cerns itself mostly with “reclaiming a reliance group of people engage in a process of sorting
on traditional values and all that entails with the values that will guide their lives. Such dia-
regard to the family, sexual relations, religion, logues are distinct from the deliberative ideal
and the rejection of secularism” (Taves 1988: that is found in many discussions of democracy.
7–8). Amy Gutmann pointedly remarks that That model assumes that citizens can debate
communitarians “want us to live in Salem” controversial matters in a logical and rational
(Gutmann 1985: 319), a community of strong way, without letting their emotions dominate.
shared values that went so far as to accuse non- This precept tends to downplay nonrational but
conformist members of witchcraft during the still valid considerations, such as ethical or reli-
seventeenth century. Early communitarians gious deliberations. (It may also overstate citi-
might be charged with being, in effect, social zens’ ability to analyze complex public matters.)
conservatives, if not authoritarians; however, Communitarians recognize that although
there is no necessary link here. In fact, respon- moral dialogues take place constantly in well-
sive communitarians do not seek to return to formed societies – which most democracies are –
traditional communities, with their authori- and frequently result in the affirmation of a new
tarian power structure, rigid stratification, and direction, this generally occurs only after
discriminatory practices against minorities prolonged and often difficult discourse.
and women. Responsive communitarians seek Finally, communitarians have noted that
to build communities based on open participa- communities need to be embedded socially
tion, dialogue, and truly shared values. Linda and morally in more encompassing entities if
McClain, although a critic, nonetheless recog- violent conflict among them is to be avoided.
nizes this feature of the responsive communi- Society should not be viewed as composed of
tarians, writing that some communitarians do millions of individuals, but as pluralism (of
“recognize the need for careful evaluation of communities) within unity (the society). The
what is good and bad about [any specific] tra- existence of subcultures and dissent does not
dition and the possibility of severing certain undermine societal unity as long as there is a
features … from others” (McClain 1994: 1030). core of shared values and institutions.
Several critics argue that the concept of
community is of questionable value because it SEE ALSO: Burke, Edmund (1729–97);
is so ill defined. Thus, Margaret Stacey argues Community ; Fabianism; Liberalism; Rawls, John
that, “There has never been a theory of (1921–2002); Taylor, Charles (1931–)
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