DEDUCTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

— According to Reynolds and Muji 2005, it starts with general principles from which
consequences and phenomena are deducted until a particular is attained for students
to know:
a. What are the results to be derived?
b. How are they derived?
c. How are they used?
— It usually begins with presentation of a generalization, a rule or concept definition
(Gunter, Estes & Schwab, 2003.

Syntax for Deductive Reasoning (Borich, 2004)

1. State a theory or generalization to be tested.

2. Form a hypothesis in the form of a prediction.
3. Observe or collect data to test hypothesis.
4. Analyze & interpret the data to determine if the prediction is true.
5. Conclude whether the generalization holds true in the specific context from which it
was taken.

1. Advance Organizer Model (David Ausubel, 1963)

— Advance organizer is a deductive information teaching model designed to teach
interrelated bodies of content and generalizations
— these are cognitive roadmaps that allow students to see where they have been and
where they are going (Eggen & Kauchak ,2001)
— Ausubel’s statement about advance organizer model:
“First, organizers provide advance ideational scaffolding. Second, they provide the
learner with a generalized overview of the major similarities and differences between the
two bodies of ideas before he encounters the new concepts individually in more detailed
and particularized form. Finally, they create an advance set in the ;learner to perceive
similarities and differences, and by avoiding overly explicit specification, encourage him
actively to make his own differentiations in terms of his own particular source of
confusion”.

Types of Organizers (Joyce Weil & Calhoun, 2004):

1. Expository Organizers. Provides a basic concept at the highest level of abstraction and lesser
concepts, helpful in providing scaffolding for unfamiliar materials.
2. Comparative Organizers. Designed to discriminate between the old and the new concepts to
prevent confusion caused by their similarity.

Significance of Advance Organizers

Advance organizers are of great significance in the teaching0-learning process. These
are highly inclusive concept that serve as an scaffolding and an umbrella into which more
detailed information in incorporated as learning progresses, provide a conceptual framework;
facilitate learning; pursue the purpose of giving students needed background information for
the upcoming lesson; and act as a kind of conceptual bridge between the new and the old
information (Moore, 2005).

Syntax for the Advance Organizer Model (Joyce, Weil & Calhoun, 2004)
Phase 1: Presentation of advance organizer
a. Clarify the aims of the lesson
b. Present organizer
 Identify defining attributes
 Give examples or illustrations when needed
 Provide context
 Repeat
 Prompt awareness of learner’s relevant knowledge and experience.
Phase 2: Presentation of Learning Task or material
a. Present material
b. Make logical order of learning material explicit
c. Link material to organizer

Phase 3: Strengthening of the Cognitive organization

a. Use principles of integrative reconciliation
b. Elicit critical approach to subject matter
c. Clarify ideas
d. Apply ideas actively

2. Presentation Teaching Model (Arrends, 2004)

— Requires a teacher to provide student with advance organizers before presenting
new information and to make special efforts during and following the presentation
to strengthen and extend student thinking.
Major phases:
1. Flow proceeds from the teacher’s initial attempt to clarify the aims of the lesson and to get
students ready to learn.
2. Presentation of an advance organizer
3. Presentation of new information
4. Conclusion with interactions aimed at checking students’ understanding of the new
information to extend and strengthen their thinking skills.

Syntax for the Presentation Model (Arends, 2004)

Phase
Phase 1: Clarify aims & establish set
Phase 2: Present advance organizer
Phase 3: Present learning materials
Phase 4: Check for understanding and
strengthen student thinking
Teacher Behavior
Teacher reviews the aims of the lesson and
gets students ready to learn.
Teacher presents advance organizer and
make sure that a framework for later
learning materials is provided and is
connected to students’’ prior knowledge.
Teacher presents learning materials and pays
special attention to their logical ordering and
meaningfulness to students.
Teacher asks questions and elicits student
responses to the presentation to extend
student thinking and encourage precise and
critical thinking.

3. Backward Design Model (Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe, 2005)

— centers on the idea that the design process should begin with identifying of the
desired results and then moving backwards to develop instruction (Moore, 2005).
— As an alternative approach to instruction anchored on deductive instruction,
Wiggins & McTighe created the backward design model for planning units of study.
The process starts not with the lesson, but with the teacher’s expectations for the
end result.
Stages of the backward design process:

Stage 1: Identify desired Results

Stage 2: Determine Acceptable Evidence

Stage 3: Plan Lesson Experiences & Instruction

Stage 1: Identify desired results. Identifies enduring understanding, the learning that
endures over the long term. Backward design uses a question format rather that unreasonable
objectives. The questions focus on the line of inquiry leading to the desired learning.

Stage 2: Determine acceptable evidence. Defines the form of assessment, which will
demonstrate that students have acquired the desired knowledge, understanding and skill.

Stage 3: Plan learning experience and instruction. Determines what sequence of teaching
and learning experiences will equip students to develop and demonstrate the desired
understanding. This includes the research-based repertoire of teaching-learning strategies and
the activities students will do during the lessons and what resources and materials will be
needed (Moore, 2005)

Tilestone (2004), suggests the following in the conduct of the backward design model:

1. Before Planning the Lesson

Ask:
a. What are my expectations for my students?
b. What do I want the end result to be?
2. After teaching the lesson
Ask:
a. What do I want the students to know in terms of factual knowledge?
b. What do I want them to be able to do in terms of processes?

4. Lecture Model (Moore, 2005)

— Lecture is an excellent way of presenting background information when building unit
frame of reference or when understanding a unit.
— The teacher presents information and follows it up with question-and-answer sessions.
— A form of instruction in which students receive information delivered in a verbal,
organized way by teachers (Eggen & Kauchak, 2001).
—
Lecture are appropriate when (Good & Brophy, 1994):
1. The objective is to present information
2. The information is not available in a readily accessible source.
3. The material must be organized in a particular way.
4. It is necessary to arouse interest in the subject.
5. It is necessary to introduce a topic before students read about it or provide instruction about
a task.
6. The information is original or must be integrated from different sources.
7. The information needs to be summarized or synthesized following discussions or inquiry.
8. Curriculum materials need updating or elaborating.
9. The teacher wants to present alternative points of view or to clarify an issue in preparation
for a discussion.
10. The teacher wants to provide supplementary explanations of materials that students may
have difficulty learning on their own.
5. Teacher Talk
— Encompasses lecturing to and talking with students.
Things to consider (Kellough & Kellough, 2003):
1. Teachers are cautioned to be mindful of talking too much. If a teacher talks too much, the
significance of the teacher’s words may be lost because some students will tune the teacher
out.

2. Avoid talking too fast. Students can hear faster than they can understand what they have
heard.

3. Be sure you are being heard and understood. Sometimes, teachers talk in too low a pitch or
use words not understood by many of the students or both.

4. Remember that just because students have heard something before does not necessarily
mean they understood it or learned it.

5. Resist believing that students have attained a skill, or have learned something that has been
taught previously.

6. Just because the speaking channel is engaged does not mean that the sensory input
channels should stop working. An exemplary teacher can talk, see and listen, and change her
physical location in the classroom without missing a beat in her discussion.

6. Lecture-Discussion Model (Eggen & Kauchak, 2001)

— A teacher centered approach to help students understand the organized bodies of

knowledge.
— It is grounded in the schema theory and David Ausabel’s concept of meaningful
learning.
— Helps learners link new and prior learning and relate different parts of new learning to
each other.

Syntax for the Lecture-Discussion Model:

1. Introduction 3. Comprehension Monitoring 5. Review & Closure

2. Presentation 4. Integration

Comparison between Inductive & Deductive Approaches:

Teaching Inductively Teaching Deductively

 Student collect, organize, and examine
data; identify common elements; make
generalizations based on common or
general elements (Moore, 2005)
 Students are first presented with specific
data and facts; and gradually through the
process of investigation and reasoning,
they form the generalization, rule, or
concept definition. (Gunter, Estes, &
Schwab, 2003)
 Students consider given generalizations
and provide supporting data. Deductive
thinking often requires that students
evaluate the merit of an activity, object,
or idea (Moore, 2005)
 The lesson begins with the presentation
of a generalization, a rule, or a concept
definition.
 Students are given specific examples,
along with facts, associated with a
generalization, concept, or rule.

 The presentation starts with real-life
examples and moves on to general rules
or principles. (Muiji & Reynolds, 2005)
 The teacher presents specific data from
which a generalization is to be drawn.
 Each student is allowed uninterrupted
time to observe or study the data that
illustrates the generalizations.
 Students are shown additional examples
and the non-examples containing the
generalization.
 Students attention is guided to the
critical (relevant) aspects of the data
containing the generalization and then to
its non-critical (irrelevant) aspects
 A generalization is made that can
distinguish the examples from non-
examples (Parker, 1991)
Source: Borich, G.D. (2007). Effective teaching methods: Research-based practice. Person Merrill/Prentice
Hall , stated by Agno, Lydia N. (2010). Principles of teaching 2. C&E Publishing Inc.
Principles in Presenting Information
(Arends, 2004)
1. Knowledge is organized & structured
around basic propositions and unifying
ideas. However, individuals differ in the way
their knowledge about particular topics is
organized.
2. The students’ abilities to learn new ideas
depend on their prior knowledge and existing
cognitive structures.
3. The teachers’ primary tasks to help
students acquire knowledge are as follows:
a. organizing learning materials in a
thoughtful and skillful way
b. Providing students with advance
organizers that will help active, anchor and
integrate new learning.
c. providing students with cues for
drawing information from their long-term to
their working memories.
4. Cognitive structures change as a result of
new information and thus become the basis
for developing new cognitive structures.
 In moving from general to specific,
students are encouraged to draw
inferences and make predictions based
on examples.
 The presentation starts with general
principles or rules and goes on to more
detailed or specific examples (Muiji &
Reynolds, 2005)
 The teacher introduces the generalization
to be learned
 The teacher reviews the task relevant
prior facts, rules and actions sequences
needed to from the generalization.
 Students raise a question, pose
hypothesis or make a prediction thought
to be contained in the generalization.
 Data, events, materials, or objects are
gathered and observed to test the
prediction.
 The results of the test are analyzed and a
conclusion is made as to whether the
prediction is supported by the data,
events, materials or objects that were
observed.
 The starting generalization is refined or
revised in accordance with the
observations.
Guidelines in Presenting Information
(Gunter, Estes & Schwab, 2003)
1. Analyze the content to be presented
according to the needs of the learners.
2. Chart the content from the most general to
the most specific material to be presented.
3. Break all the skills into small segments
and present in a logical order.
4. Develop an advance organizer for the
lesson that will provide a reference point for
the new material.
5. Select the main points or steps to be
presented and limit these to a reasonable
number, depending on the learners.
6. Select examples to illustrate each main
point and connect each point or step to the
one preceding it and to the advance
organizer.
7. Ask questions to check for understanding
and watch for signals from the class that
indicate lack of attention.
8. Summarize the main points and connect
them to the next phase of the lesson.
 Guidelines in Planning for Instruction
(Re-backward design model, Wiggins &
McTighe, 2005)
1. It is a need to ask what it is that we want
students to know and be able to do as a
result of the learning.
2. It is a must to examine how we will know
that our students are learning and that they
can perform tasks as a result of the learning.
3. It is a must to identify which instructional
practices will assure us that the students
have learned and that they can use the
information provided.
Guidelines for Teacher Talk-Re-Inductive
Teaching
(Muji & Reynolds, 2005)
1. Start the talk with an advance organizer.
2. The talk should be planned for it to have
a beginning and an end, with a logical order
in between.
3. Pacing is important.
4. Encourage student participation.
5. Plan a clear ending
General Guidelines for teacher Talk
(Kellough, 2003)
1. Directing: sharing teaching objectives
with the class, ensuring that pupils know
Guidelines in Preparing Advance
Organizers
(Eggen & Kauchak, 1988)
1. Present a large body of information prior
to learning.
2. Present organizers in concrete fashion.
3. Include examples that can help learners
identify the relationships between the ideas
in the organizer and the information.
6. Consolidating: maximizing opportunities
to reinforce and develop what has been
taught, through a variety of activities,
asking pupils either with a partner or as a
group to reflect on and talk through a
process, inviting them to expand their ideas
and reasoning, getting them to think of
different ways of approaching a problem,
asking them to generalize or to give
examples that match a general statement
7. Evaluating students’ responses:
identifying mistakes, using them as positive
what to do, and drawing attention to
important points.
2. Instructing: giving information and
structuring it well.
3. Demonstrating: showing, describing,
and modeling using appropriate resources
displays.
4. Explaining & Illustrating: giving
accurate, well-placed explanations and
referring to previous work or methods.
5. Questioning & Discussing: questioning
in ways that match the direction and pace
of the lesson, ensuring that all take part in
the discussion, listening carefully to the
student responses, and constructing
constructively.
teaching points by talking about them and
any misconceptions that led to them,
evaluating pupils’ presentations of their
work to the class, and giving them oral
feedback on their written work.
8. Summarizing: reviewing during and
toward the end of a lesson when has been
taught and what students have learned,
identifying and correcting
misunderstandings, making students to
present their work and picking out key
points and ideas, making limits to other
subjects, and giving students an insight
into the next stage of learning.