sensors
Article
DAB Signal Preprocessing for Passive Coherent Location
Gustaw Mazurek






Citation: Mazurek, G. DAB Signal
Preprocessing for Passive Coherent
Location. Sensors 2022, 22, 378.
https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010378
Academic Editors: Piotr Samczynski,
Daniel W. O’Hagan, Jacek Misiurewicz
and Lorenzo Lo Monte
Received: 29 November 2021
Accepted: 3 January 2022
Published: 5 January 2022
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distributed under the terms and
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Sensors 2022, 22, 378. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010378
Faculty of Electronics and Information Technology, Warsaw University of Technology, Nowowiejska 15/19 Street,
00-665 Warsaw, Poland; g.mazurek@elka.pw.edu.pl
Abstract: Digital Audio Broadcast (DAB) transmitters can be successfully used as illumination
sources in Passive Coherent Location (PCL). However, extending the integration time in such a
configuration leads to the occurrence of periodical artifacts in the bistatic range/Doppler plots,
resulting from the time structure of the DAB signal. In this paper, we propose some methods of
signal preprocessing (based on symbol removal, substitution by noise, and duplication) that operate
on the DAB transmission frame level and improve the received signal’s correlation properties. We
also demonstrate that two of these methods allow us to avoid the mentioned artifacts and thus to
improve the quality of the range/Doppler plots with detection results. We evaluate the performance
of the proposed methods using real DAB signals acquired in an experimental PCL platform. We also
provide the analysis of the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) during the detection of a moving target which
shows that the proposed solution, based on symbol duplication, can offer around 3 dB of gain in SNR.
Finally, we carry out the computational complexity analysis showing that the proposed method can
be implemented with a minimal cost after some optimizations.
Keywords: passive bistatic radar; passive coherent location; digital audio broadcasting; DAB illumi-
nated PCL; signal preprocessing
1. Introduction
Broadcast radio and television transmitters, e.g., Frequency Modulated (FM), Digital
Audio Broadcast (DAB), and Digital Video Broadcasting-Terrestrial (DVB-T) are commonly
used as illumination sources for Passive Coherent Location (PCL) [1–3] due to their excellent
availability, high level of emitted power, and significant area coverage. Moreover, the broad (and
time-invariant) frequency spectrum of digital broadcast signals (DAB, DVB-T) has a positive
impact on the performance of PCL detection [4,5] in terms of range, Doppler resolution [6], and
predictable characteristics, when compared to analog FM transmission [7,8].
The performance calculations and initial trials of DAB-illuminated PCL are presented
in [4,9,10]. The results of experiments with DAB signals acquired during the NATO
campaign APART-GAS 2019 (Active Passive Radar Trials Ground-based, Airborne, Sea-
borne) in Poland [11] showed encouraging results in detecting airplanes of different sizes
flying in the range up to 20 km [12] from the moving PCL platform [13]. However, due to the
time-domain properties of the DAB signal, there were periodical artifacts sometimes visible
in bistatic velocity/range plots that obscure the images with detection results. Examples of
such images are shown in [12] and in Figure 1 as a reference. These disturbances appeared
with an integration time extended to 5 s. They were repeated on the bistatic velocity axis
with a period va ≈ 14.3 m/s that is strictly related to the signal’s wavelength (λ = 1.37 m
for the received DAB center frequency: 218.64 MHz) and the DAB transmission frame
duration [14,15] (TF = 96 ms)
λ
va = . (1)
TF
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
 𝜆
𝑣a = . (1)
𝑇F
Sensors 2022, 22, 378Due
to this connection with DAB signal timing, it is necessary to investigate the DAB 2 of 17

signal structure to find its influence on the quality of PCL detection images.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. Bistatic velocity/range plotvelocity/range
Figure 1. Bistatic with artifactsplot
(a) with
and its cross-section
artifacts (a) and itsfor R = 450 mfor
cross-section (b).R = 450 m (b).

Due to this methods

Several signal processing connectionare withproposed
DAB signalintiming, it is necessary
the literature to investigate
to reduce the the DAB
ambiguity peaks in signal structure to find
the Orthogonal its influence
Frequency on theMultiplex
Division quality of PCL (OFDM) detection
signalimages.
(mainly
Several signal processing methods are proposed
DVB-T) for passive radar applications. However, it must be noted that the DAB signal, in the literature to reduce the am-
biguity peaks in the Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) signal (mainly
despite the same modulation scheme (OFDM), has a different structure [16] due to its
DVB-T) for passive radar applications. However, it must be noted that the DAB signal,
synchronous design.despite the same modulation scheme (OFDM), has a different structure [16] due to its
In [17], methods for reducing
synchronous design.the ambiguity peaks in the cross-ambiguity function
were investigated for In the[17],
PCL systemforwith
methods DVB-T
reducing theillumination
ambiguity peaks signals.
in theThree methods function
cross-ambiguity
were proposed towerereplace the elements
investigated for theresponsible
PCL system forwith
the DVB-T
ambiguity peaks with
illumination idealThree
signals. 64- methods
were proposed
Quadrature Amplitude Modulationto replace
(QAM)the elements
symbols, responsible
zero power for the ambiguity peaks
components, andwith ideal
64-Quadrature
finally, random segments. Amplitude
The results showModulation
a significant (QAM)
reductionsymbols,
of thezero power components,
ambiguity peaks and
finally, random segments. The results show
but with some undesired reduction in detection capabilities. Since DVB-T signal is a significant reduction of the ambiguity
peaks but with some undesired reduction in detection capabilities. Since DVB-T signal
assumed, whose structure differs from DAB signal [16], some effects resulting from the
is assumed, whose structure differs from DAB signal [16], some effects resulting from
DAB signal structure
the DAB (i.e., repeatable
signal structuresymbols at the symbols
(i.e., repeatable beginning at theof beginning
each frame andframe and
of each
interrupted RF transmission)
interrupted RF were not considered.
transmission) were not Inconsidered.
this paper,In we focus
this mainly
paper, on these
we focus mainly on these
DAB-specific issues.
DAB-specific issues.
As demonstratedAs in demonstrated
[18], the side in peaks of the
[18], the sideambiguity
peaks of the function
ambiguity of OFDM
functionsignals
of OFDM signals
are caused by theare caused byof
periodicity thepilots.
periodicity of pilots. was
The solution The solution
proposed wastoproposed
eliminatetothe eliminate
side the side
peaks in the received signals to improve the performance of cognitive radio-based PCL. PCL. A
peaks in the received signals to improve the performance of cognitive radio-based
theoretical
A theoretical analysis analysis was
was provided for provided
general OFDM for general OFDM
signals signals
(e.g., WiFi,(e.g., WiFi, DVB-
WiMax, WiMax, DVB-T)
and confirmed by a series of simulations, but no experimental results with the real signals
T) and confirmed by a series of simulations, but no experimental results with the real
were presented. In [7], a multistage processing algorithm was developed for disturbance
signals were presented. In [7], a multistage processing algorithm was developed for
cancellation and target detection based on projections of the received signal in a subspace
disturbance cancellation
orthogonal andtotarget
both thedetection
disturbance based andonpreviously
projections of theThe
targets. received
describedsignal
work focused
in a subspace orthogonal to both the disturbance and previously targets.
on the use of FM radio signals, and experimental verification was performed only with The described
work focused onFM-illuminated
the use of FM PCL. radio signals, and experimental verification was
An efficient architecture
performed only with FM-illuminated PCL. of a coherent integration processor for DVB-T-based passive
bistatic radar was proposed
An efficient architecture of a coherent integration in [19]. The proposedfor
processor architecture
DVB-T-based consists of a frequency-
passive
bistatic radar was proposed in [19]. The proposed architecture consists of a frequency- based on
domain pulse compression module and a decimated keystone transform module
the chirp z-transform to compensate for the range migration effect caused by high-speed
domain pulse compression module and a decimated keystone transform module based
targets. The effectiveness and validity of the proposed design have been verified through
on the chirp z-transform to compensate for the range migration effect caused by high-
real-data experiments. A modular and reconfigurable passive radar architecture was also
speed targets. Theshown
effectiveness
in [20] basedandon validity of the proposed
a software-defined approach.designThankshave to been verified
efficient implementation
through real-datain experiments.
a multi-core A modular
machine, theand reconfigurable
system passive real-time
was able to perform radar architecture
processing of one or
was also shown two in [20] based on
surveillance a software-defined
channels and one reference approach.
channel. The Thanks to efficient
described signal processing
implementation in a multi-core machine, the system was able to perform real-timecalculation,
pipeline consisted of beamforming, adaptive filtering, cross-ambiguity function
adaptive detection, and plot extraction. In [21], a signal pre-processing method based on
Sensors 2022, 22, 378 3 of 17

a generalized multi-channel adaptive filter was developed to suppress the sea clutter in
a passive radar. The effectiveness of the proposed approach was verified using real-data
results with the illumination from a digital television broadcast transmitter. A multi-stage
procedure designed to remove clutter and strong echoes from moving targets was shown
in [22]. The proposed solution was intended to improve the dynamic range in PCL and
noise radars and thus facilitate the detection of weak targets. However, it was verified
using only simulations. A space-time Constant Modulus Algorithm (CMA) for multipath
removal on the reference signal in PCL was proposed in [23]. The adaptive equalization of
the reference signal based on an array of antennas and multiple receiving channels was
shown in simulations to recover the performance loss caused by multipath contribution.
In [24], the reconstruction of the reference OFDM signal by demodulation and remod-
ulation was presented to produce the perfect copy of the transmitted signal and thus to
remove the influence of multipath propagation. Additionally, digital signal equalization
was proposed to remove the spurious peaks in the ambiguity function caused by the pres-
ence of pilot sequences. The DVB-T signal’s cross-ambiguity function was also analyzed,
and several methods of its improvement for passive radar were proposed in [6,25–29]. A
preprocessing technique designed to improve the range resolution of PCL and to reduce the
unwanted side peaks in the ambiguity function by exploiting multiple signals (i.e., several
broadcast channels) was proposed in [6,30]. However, since the DVB-T signal was consid-
ered, the effects resulting from the specific structure of the DAB signal were not taken into
account, and the obtained results cannot be directly translated to DAB-illuminated PCL.
A target detection method by correlating a surveillance signal with a reconstructed
reference signal in DAB-based PCL was introduced and validated in [8]. It was experimen-
tally confirmed that reference signal reconstruction could be effectively employed for direct
signal interference suppression and PCL detection algorithms; however, the integration
time was only set to 500 ms, which limits the Doppler resolution.
The preprocessing method for DAB signal in PCL application was described in [31].
However, the presented results were limited to only eliminating the periodic ambiguity
peaks in the signal’s autocorrelation function, with no investigation into the influence on
the PCL detection results.
In this paper, we continue the work presented in [31]. We begin with a short review of
the essential properties of the DAB signal. Then we present four preprocessing methods
that improve the correlation properties of the DAB signal. Finally, we investigate their
influence on the quality of bistatic velocity/range plots with PCL detection results obtained
from real signals acquired in the field. We show that two of the presented methods
eliminate the periodical artifacts from the bistatic velocity/range plots reported in [12].
The main contribution of this work is a novel, simple yet effective algorithm of received
signal preprocessing in the temporal domain (at the DAB frame level) that improves the
readability of bistatic velocity/range images obtained from DAB-illuminated PCL in cases
of extended integration time (i.e., much longer than 96 ms).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Signal Acquisition and PCL Processing
For the experiments described in this paper, DAB signals acquired during APART-GAS
2019 campaign [11,12] have been employed. The illuminating transmitter was localized
near Koszalin, Poland, and operated at a VHF frequency of 216.84 MHz with an Effective
Radiated Power (ERP) level of 3.2 kW and vertical polarization. The PCL signal acquisition
platform was moving [13] because of the installation on a ship sailing on the Baltic Sea, near
the Polish coastline. The PCL receiver was based on a lightweight, four-channel configura-
tion with RSP duo devices described in [32]. Further details of the system setup, antenna
array, and supplementing hardware have been described in [12]. Two baseband DAB
signals acquired coherently from directional antennas (the reference and the surveillance)
have been digitized with 14-bit ADCs (sample rate Fs = 2 MHz) and stored. The remaining
two signals were reserved for multi-channel processing planned in the further research.
 The signal processing pipeline used for obtaining the bistatic velocity/rang
with PCL detection results consists of the clutter-removal filter (based on an ad
lattice filter) to suppress the direct path interference in the surveillance channel a
cross-ambiguity function calculator, as described in [12].
Sensors 2022, 22, 378 4 of 17

2.2. DAB Signal Structure

There have been four modes of DAB transmission defined historically [14],
The signal processing pipeline used for obtaining the bistatic velocity/range plots
practice,
with PCL only Mode
detection I has
results remained
consists of thein the current filter
clutter-removal specification
(based on (ver. 2.1.1) since J
an adaptive
2017
lattice[15].
filter)The transmitted
to suppress signal
the direct pathisinterference
divided into frames
in the and symbols
surveillance in the
channel and the time d
cross-ambiguity function calculator, as described in [12].
and subcarriers in the frequency domain. The parameters of the DAB sign
summarized
2.2. DAB Signalin Table 1.
Structure
There have been four modes of DAB transmission defined historically [14], but in
Table 1. Main
practice, parameters
only Mode of the DAB
I has remained signal
in the in Mode
current I.
specification (ver. 2.1.1) since January
2017 [15]. The transmitted signal is divided into frames and symbols in the time domain and
Parameter Value
subcarriers in the frequency domain. The parameters of the DAB signal are summarized in
Number
Table 1. of transmitted subcarriers 1536
Subcarrier spacing 1 kHz
Table 1. Main parameters of the DAB signal in Mode I.
Transmission frame duration (𝑇F ) 96 ms
Symbol duration 1 Parameter Value 1246 μs
Number of transmitted subcarriers 1536
Null symbol duration 1297 μs
Subcarrier spacing 1 kHz
OFDM symbols
Transmission framein frame:
duration (TF2) 96 ms 76
1
• Symbol duration
Symbols with PR signal 1246 µs 1
Null symbol duration 1297 µs
• OFDM
Symbols
symbolswith FIC2 data
in frame: 76 3
• • Symbols with
Symbols with PRMSC
signal data 1 72
• Symbols with FIC data 3
1 With
• guard interval. 2 Without Null symbol.
Symbols with MSC data 72
1 With guard interval. 2 Without Null symbol.
The DAB transmission employs a Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Mu
The DAB transmission employs a Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex
(COFDM) modulation scheme with a signal bandwidth of 1.536 MHz [16]. The sp
(COFDM) modulation scheme with a signal bandwidth of 1.536 MHz [16]. The spectrum of
of
thethe acquired
acquired DABDAB
signal signal is in
is shown shown
Figure in
2. Figure 2.

Figure
Figure 2.2.Frequency
Frequency spectrum
spectrum of theof thesignal.
DAB DAB signal.

In the temporal domain, the signal consists of consecutive frames of constant duration
(TF ). Each frame begins with the Null symbol, which is a period with RF emission turned
off that allows the coarse synchronization of the receiver. The occurrence of the Null symbol
is clearly visible in the signal’s envelope, as depicted in Figure 3.
 In
In the
the temporal
temporal domain,
domain, the
the signal
signal consists
consists of
of consecutive
consecutive frames
frames ofof constant
constant
duration
duration(𝑇(𝑇FF).).Each
Eachframe
framebegins
beginswith
withthetheNull
Nullsymbol,
symbol,which
whichisisaaperiod
periodwith
withRF
RFemission
emission
Sensors 2022, 22, 378 turned
turned off
off that
that allows
allows the
the coarse
coarse synchronization
synchronization ofof the
the receiver.
receiver. The
The occurrence 5 of
occurrence of
of 17
the
the
Null
Nullsymbol
symbolisisclearly
clearlyvisible
visiblein
inthe
thesignal’s
signal’senvelope,
envelope,as asdepicted
depictedininFigure
Figure3.
3.

Figure
Figure3.3.Amplitude
Amplitudeplot
plotof
ofthe
theDAB
DABsignal
signal(one
(onecomplete
completeframe).
frame).

The first symbol

The first symbol transmitted
transmitted in in the the frame
frame withwith the
the RFRF carrier
carrier turned
turned on on isis aa Phase
Phase
Reference
Reference (PR) symbol. It is intended for the synchronization of the time, frequency,and
Reference (PR)
(PR) symbol.
symbol. It
It is
is intended
intended for
for the
the synchronization
synchronization of
of the
the time,
time, frequency,
frequency, and
and
phase
phase
phase ofof the
of the following
the following
following datadata symbols.
data symbols.
symbols. Since Since it consists
Since itit consists
consists ofof OFDM
of OFDM subcarriers
OFDM subcarriers transmitted
subcarriers transmitted
transmitted
with
withstrictly
with strictlydefined
strictly definedphase
defined phaseoffsets,
phase offsets,it
offsets, ititis
isisaaapure
puredeterministic
pure deterministicpart
deterministic partof
part ofthe
of the signal,
thesignal, repeated
signal,repeated
repeatedin in
in
every
every
everyDABDAB frame.
DABframe.
frame.TheThe structure
Thestructure
structureof of a complete
ofaacomplete
completeDAB DAB frame
DABframe is illustrated
frameisisillustrated
illustratedin in Figure
inFigure
Figure4. 4. After
4.After
After
the
the PR
thePR symbol,
PRsymbol,
symbol,threethree Fast
threeFast Information
FastInformation
InformationChannel Channel
Channel(FIC) (FIC) OFDM
(FIC)OFDM symbols
OFDMsymbolssymbolsare are transmitted
aretransmitted
transmittedwith with
with
a significantly
aasignificantly reduced
significantlyreduced
reduceddatadata
dataraterate for
ratefor system
forsystem organization
systemorganization
organizationand and service
andservice control
servicecontrol purposes
controlpurposes
purposes[15] [15]
[15]
(p.
(p. 16).
(p.16). Eventually,
16).Eventually,
Eventually,the the remaining
theremaining
remaining72 72 OFDM
72OFDM OFDMsymbolssymbols
symbolsof of the
ofthe Main
theMain Service
MainService Channel
ServiceChannel
Channel(MSC)(MSC)
(MSC)
are
aretransmitted
are transmittedwith
transmitted withthe
with the
thefull
fulldata
full rate
data
data rate
ratecontaining
containing
containing thethe
compressed
the compressed
compressed digital audio
digital
digital streams
audio
audio and,
streams
streams
occasionally,
and, additional data service components [15] (p. 11).
and,occasionally,
occasionally,additional
additionaldata dataservice
servicecomponents
components[15] [15](p.
(p.11).
11).

Figure
Figure 4.4.DAB
Figure4. DABframe
DAB frameorganization.
frame organization.
organization.

2.3.
2.3. DAB
2.3.DAB Signal
DABSignal Correlation
SignalCorrelation Properties
CorrelationProperties
Properties
The
The spectrum of the acquired DAB
The spectrum
spectrum of
of the
the acquired
acquired DAB signal
DAB signal and
signal and its
and its amplitude
its amplitude waveform
amplitude waveform have
waveform have6 been
have been
been
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 17
depicted
depicted
depictedin in Figures
inFigures 2
Figures22and and
and3, 3, respectively.
3,respectively. The
respectively.The autocorrelation
Theautocorrelation function
autocorrelationfunction computed
functioncomputed
computedfor for
forthis
this
this
signal
signalis
signal isisshown
showninin
shown inFigure
Figure
Figure 5, 5,
with
5, with
withthethe
power
the levels
power
power normalized
levels
levels normalized
normalized to thetocentral
to the correlation
the central
central peak.
correlation
correlation
peak.
peak.
Besides
Besidesthe thepeak
peakat atττ==0,0,several
severalside
sidepeaks
peaksatatmultiples
multiplesof of 𝑇𝑇FF occur.
occur.Such
Suchambiguity
ambiguity
peaks of the illuminating signal are generally undesirable in radar applications
peaks of the illuminating signal are generally undesirable in radar applications [17,26,29]. [17,26,29].
As
As shown
shown in in [31],
[31], these
these side
side peaks
peaks come
come from
from the
the deterministic
deterministic partsparts of
of the
the DAB
DAB signal,
signal,
i.e.,
i.e.,the
thePR PRandandFIC
FICsymbols
symbolsin inthe
theframe.
frame.Therefore,
Therefore,the
theremoval
removalor orsubstitution
substitutionof ofthese
these
symbols
symbols improves
improves the the signal’s
signal’s autocorrelation
autocorrelation function,
function, as as will
will bebe demonstrated
demonstrated in in the
the
following subsection.
following subsection.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Autocorrelation
Autocorrelation of
of DAB
DAB signal.
signal.

2.4. DAB Signal Preprocessing

A method of DAB signal preprocessing was presented [31] that works in the time
domain with the complex baseband DAB signal x(n). That method employs signal
envelope measurements to detect the Null symbol, which occurs at the start of each frame.
 Sensors 2022, 22, 378 6 of 17

Besides the peak at τ = 0, several side peaks at multiples of TF occur. Such ambiguity
peaks of the illuminating signal are generally undesirable in radar applications [17,26,29].
As shown in [31], these side peaks come from the deterministic parts of the DAB signal,
i.e., the PR and FIC symbols in the frame. Therefore, the removal or substitution of these
symbols improves the signal’s autocorrelation function, as will be demonstrated in the
following subsection.

2.4. DAB Signal Preprocessing

A method of DAB signal preprocessing was presented [31] that works in the time
domain with the complex baseband DAB signal x(n). That method employs signal envelope
measurements to detect the Null symbol, which occurs at the start of each frame. The
envelope is smoothed by processing the amplitude of the x(n) signal in a moving average
filter with N = 128 taps
1 N −1
N k∑
e(n) = | x (n − k)|. (2)
=0

The mean signal level is estimated in a similar way by long-term averaging (e.g., M = 106)
of the amplitude
1 M −1
M k∑
eavg (n) = | x (n − k)|. (3)
=0
If the signal envelope e(n) falls below the fixed threshold, i.e., when e(n) < 0.3 eavg (n),
the beginning of the Null symbol is detected. When the signal envelope rises above the
threshold in this state, the beginning of the PR symbol is detected, and the time instant of
this situation (n0 = n) is stored as a reference for the subsequent operations. This method
has been shown [31] to perform satisfactorily with the high-SNR signal, for example,
when x(n) is the reference signal from the PCL receiver. However, if synchronization to
noisy signals is required, more robust frame synchronization methods (e.g., based on the
correlation techniques) may still be implemented [33–35].

2.4.1. Clearing of PR and FIC Symbols

After detecting the PR, the part of the baseband signal containing the four initial
symbols of the frame (PR, 3 × FIC) is cleared by changing the relevant samples to zero

x (n)0,
(4)
n = n0 − Nmargin , . . . , n0 + 4 × Nsymb

where Nmargin = 128 is applied to compensate the envelope detector’s latency, and
Nsymb = 2492 is the OFDM symbol duration expressed in samples. The frame structure
after this modification is shown in Figure 6. The deterministic components (PR and FIC
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW
symbols) that repeat from frame to frame have been removed, and only a random part (i.e., 7 of 1
MSC symbols) has been left.

Figure6.6.DAB
Figure DABframe with
frame cleared
with PR and
cleared PR FIC
andsymbols.
FIC symbols.

It has been shown [31] that after the PR and three FIC have been deleted from the
It has been shown [31] that after the PR and three FIC have been deleted from th
received DAB frames, the periodical ambiguous peaks are no longer visible in the signal’s
received DABfunction,
autocorrelation frames, as
thedepicted
periodical ambiguous
in Figure 7. peaks are no longer visible in the signal’
autocorrelation function, as depicted in Figure 7.
 Figure 6. DAB frame with cleared PR and FIC symbols.

It has been shown [31] that after the PR and three FIC have been deleted from the
received
Sensors 2022, 22, 378DAB frames, the periodical ambiguous peaks are no longer visible in the signal’s 7 of 17
autocorrelation function, as depicted in Figure 7.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Autocorrelation
Figure 7.function of DABfunction
Autocorrelation signal after clearing
of DAB signal of PRclearing
after and FIC of symbols (a)symbols
PR and FIC and its (a) and its
close-up (b). close-up (b).

The side peaks atThe

±1 side peaks atin±Figure
ms visible 1 ms visible in Figure
7b result from7bthe result frominterval
guard the guard interval
(and cyclic(and cyclic
prefix insertion) in the OFDM signal. Several methods of
prefix insertion) in the OFDM signal. Several methods of reducing these peaks havereducing these peaks have already
been investigated
already been investigated [17,25,26]. [17,25,26].
The same modification is performed synchronously (i.e., on the same sample indexes)
The same modification is performed synchronously (i.e., on the same sample
on the signal xs (n) from the surveillance channel
indexes) on the signal 𝑥s (𝑛) from the surveillance channel
𝑥 (𝑛) ≔ 0, xs (n)0,
(5)
𝑛 = 𝑛 − 𝑁 = n, 0…−, 𝑛Nmargin
n +4× . . , n0 + 4 × Nsymb
,.𝑁 (5)

before feeding itbefore

to thefeeding
input itoftothe
the input of the PCL detection
PCL detection algorithm.algorithm. As a continuation
As a continuation of the work
of the
presented in [31], we investigate another three methods
work presented in [31], we investigate another three methods of DAB signal of DAB signal preprocessing for
PCL applications, which are described further.
preprocessing for PCL applications, which are described further.
2.4.2. Insertion of Synthetic Noise
2.4.2. Insertion of Synthetic Noise previously, the time instant of the start of the frame (n ) is determined
As described 0
As describedwith
previously, the time instant
envelope detection. of the
After that, start of
the signal the frame
samples (𝑛 )the
carrying is determined
null, PR, and FIC sym-
bols from both
with envelope detection. Afterthethat,
reference and thesamples
the signal surveillance channelthe
carrying are null,
replaced
PR,byand
the complex
FIC noise
symbols from both the reference and the surveillance channel are replaced by the complex
x ( n ) w ( n ),
noise x s ( n ) ws ( n ) , (6)
n=𝑥(𝑛)
n0 −≔N𝑤(𝑛), − N , . . . , n + 4 × N
margin null 0 symb
𝑥 (𝑛) ≔ 𝑤 (𝑛),
(6)
where w(𝑛 n)=and
𝑛 w−s (𝑁
n) are statistically
− 𝑁 , …independent
, 𝑛 + 4 × 𝑁realizations of the Gaussian noise (with
their variances scaled to the estimated power level of the DAB signal), and Nnull is the
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW
where 𝑤(𝑛) andduration
𝑤s (𝑛) are statistically
of the null symbolindependent
(in samples)realizations of longer
that is slightly the Gaussian noise
than in case of the data
symbol (N
(with their variances scaled to the estimated power level of the DAB signal), and 𝑁null is 8.
symb ) [14]. The frame structure after this modification is shown in Figure
the duration of the null symbol (in samples) that is slightly longer than in case of the data
symbol (𝑁symb ) [14]. The frame structure after this modification is shown in Figure 8.
The received signals have constant power and no emission discontinuities, thanks to
this modification. The periodical peaks are not visible in the signal’s autocorrelation
function, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure
Figure DAB
8. 8. frame
DAB structure
frame with Null,
structure with PR,Null,
and FIC
PR,symbols
and FICsubstituted
symbolsbysubstituted
noise. by noise.
The received signals have constant power and no emission discontinuities, thanks
2.4.3.
to DuplicationThe
this modification. of MSC Symbols
periodical peaks in
arePlace of Null,
not visible PR,
in the FIC Symbols
signal’s autocorrelation
function, as shown
After in Figure
finding 7.
the start
of the frame (𝑛 ) as described previously, the signal
carrying the null, PR, and FIC symbols from both the reference and the surv
channel are replaced by the copies of the selected MSC symbols from the previou
𝑥 (𝑛) ≔ 𝑥 (𝑛 − 𝑁 ),
𝑥 (𝑛) ≔ 𝑥 (𝑛 − 𝑁 ),
 Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Sensors 2022, 22, 378 8 of 17

Figure 8. DAB frame structure with Null, PR, and FIC symbols substituted by noise.
2.4.3. Duplication of MSC Symbols in Place of Null, PR, FIC Symbols
FigureAfter
8. DABfinding
frame structure with
the start of Null, PR, and
the frame (nFIC symbols
0 ) as substituted
described by noise.the signal samples
previously,
2.4.3. Duplication of MSC Symbols in Place of Null, PR, FIC Symbols
carrying the null, PR, and FIC symbols from both the reference and the surveillance channel
2.4.3. After finding
Duplication
are replaced the
of MSC
by the start
copies of of
thethe
Symbols in frame
Place of
selected (𝑛Null,
MSC ) as described
PR,
symbols FICfrom previously,
Symbols
the previous theframe
signal samples
carrying the null, PR, and FIC symbols from both the reference
After finding the start of the frame (𝑛 ) as described previously, the signal samples and the surveillance
channel are replaced by the
carrying the null, PR, and FIC symbolscopies of the
x (n selected
− Nsthe
) x (nboth
from ), reference and the surveillanceframe
MSC symbols from the previous
channel are replaced by the copies of the 𝑥(𝑛) ≔ 𝑥(𝑛
n ) xs ( n −
xs (selected MSC − 𝑁, ),
Ns )symbols from the previous frame (7)
n = n0 − Nmargin 𝑥
𝑥(𝑛) ≔ (𝑛)
− 𝑥(𝑛≔ 𝑥 (𝑛
Nnull−, .𝑁. .),, n𝑁
− ),
0 + 4 × Nsymb (7)
𝑛 = 𝑛 −𝑥 𝑁(𝑛) ≔ 𝑥−(𝑛 𝑁− 𝑁, …), , 𝑛 + 4 × 𝑁 (7)
where the time shift Ns 𝑛results= 𝑛 −from𝑁 the − 𝑁 ,N
index …C0, 𝑛(5+≤4 N ×C0 𝑁 ≤ 72) of the first MSC symbol
where
that wasthe
copied from 𝑁
time shift s results
the previous from the index
frame into the 𝑁C0 (5 ≤ 𝑁of
position C0 ≤
the72) of the
Null first MSC symbol
symbol
that was
where copied
the time 𝑁s results
shiftfrom the previous
from theframe
indexinto 𝑁C0 the
(5 ≤ 𝑁C0 ≤ 72)
position of the Null
of the firstsymbol
MSC symbol
that was copied from the previousNframe s = (77 into
−the N position
) × N of .the Null symbol (8)
𝑁s = (77 −C0 𝑁 ) ×symb 𝑁 . (8)
𝑁s = (77 − 𝑁 ) × 𝑁 . (8)
The frame
The frame structure
structure afterafter this modification
this modification is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 9. 9.
The frame structure after this modification is shown in Figure 9.

Figure9.9.DAB
DABframe
framestructure
structurewith
withNull,
Null, PR,and
and FICsymbols
symbolsreplaced
replacedby
by MSCsymbols.
symbols.
Figure
Figure 9. DAB frame structure with Null, PR,PR,
and FICFIC
symbols replaced by MSCMSC
symbols.

The
The
The side
side
side effect
effect
effect ofofof partial
partial
partial signal
signal
signal duplication
duplication
duplication (7)
(7)
(7) is isisthe
the theintroduction
introduction
introduction ofofadditional
additional
of additional side
side side
peaks
peaks in
in the
the autocorrelation
autocorrelation plot
plot of
of the
the signal
signal (with
(with adjacent
adjacent pairs
pairs
peaks in the autocorrelation plot of the signal (with adjacent pairs of peaks resulting from of
of peaks
peaks resulting
resulting from
from
thecyclic
the
the cyclicprefix
cyclic prefix
prefix insertion
insertion
insertion [17]),
[17]),
[17]), as depicted
asasdepicted
depicted in Figure
ininFigure
Figure10 10 N10
forforC0𝑁for
= 𝑁C0However,
69.
C0 = 69.
=However,
69. However,
the the the
position
position
of
position of
theseofpeaksthese
these peaks
ispeaks
strictly isdetermined
strictly
is strictly determined
(8) and
determined (8) and
(8)thus
and can thus
thus be can be modified
canmodified
be modified by selecting
by selecting thethe
by selecting the
copied
symbols
copied
copied (NC0 ).(𝑁C0
symbols
symbols (𝑁).C0 ).

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure10.
10.Autocorrelation
Autocorrelationof of
DAB signal
DAB after
signal copying
after of MSC
copying symbols
of MSC (a) and
symbols (a) its
and close-up (b). (b).
its close-up
Figure 10. Autocorrelation of DAB signal after copying of MSC symbols (a) and its close-up (b).
2.4.4.Duplication
2.4.4. Duplicationofof MSC
MSC Symbol
Symbol in Place
in Place of Null
of Null Symbol
Symbol
2.4.4. Duplication of MSC Symbol in Place of Null Symbol
Afterfinding
After finding the
the start of
of the
theframe
frame(n(𝑛0 ) as seen
) as previously,
seen the the
previously, signal samples
signal carrying
samples
After
the Null
carrying the finding
symbolNullfrom the
both
symbol start ofboth
the the
the reference
from frame
and the
reference) asand
seen
thepreviously,
(𝑛 surveillance channel arethe
surveillance signalby
replaced
channel samples
copies
are
carrying
of
replaced bythe
one MSC Null
symbol
copies symbol
selected
of one MSC fromsymbol both
the the from
previous
selected reference
frame and theframe
the previous surveillance channel are
replaced by copies of one MSC symbol selected from the previous frame
x (n) x (n − Ns ),
xs (n) xs (n − Ns ), (9)
n = n0 − Nmargin − Nnull , . . . , n0

where Ns , as previously (8), is determined by the index NC0 (5 ≤ NC0 ≤ 76) of the copied
MSC symbol. The frame structure after this modification is shown in Figure 11.
 𝑥(𝑛) ≔ 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑁 ),
𝑥 (𝑛) ≔ 𝑥 (𝑛 − 𝑁 ),
𝑥(𝑛) ≔ 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑁 ), (9
𝑥𝑛 (𝑛) 𝑥 (𝑛
= 𝑛≔ − 𝑁 − 𝑁 ),− 𝑁 ,…,𝑛 (9)
𝑛 =𝑛 −𝑁 −𝑁 ,…,𝑛
Sensors 2022, 22, 378 where 𝑁s , as previously (8), is determined by the index 𝑁C0 (5 ≤ 𝑁C0 ≤ 76) 9ofof the 17 copied

MSC𝑁symbol.
where The frame
s , as previously (8), isstructure after
determined by this
the index 𝑁C0 (5 ≤ 𝑁
modification ≤ 76) of
isC0shown inthe
Figure 11.
copied
MSC symbol. The frame structure after this modification is shown in Figure 11.

Figure
Figure
Figure11.11.
11.DABDAB
DAB frame
frame
frame structure
structure
structure with with
with Null
Null Null symbol
symbol
symbol replaced
replaced
replaced byby MSC
MSC bysymbol.
MSC symbol.
symbol.

Asmentioned
As Asmentioned
mentioned previously,additional
previously,
previously, additional side
side
additional peaks
peaks
sidehave have
peaks been
been introduced
introduced
have thisthis
been introduced wayway in
inthis way in
theautocorrelation
the autocorrelation function
function of of the
the signal.
signal. Additionally,
Additionally, because because
of of unchanged
unchanged PR and PR
FIC and
the autocorrelation function of the signal. Additionally, because of unchanged PR and FIC
FIC symbols,
symbols, the periodical
the periodical side peaks
side peaks in the in the autocorrelation
autocorrelation function function of the are
of the signal signal
stillare
symbols, the periodical side peaks in =the69).
autocorrelation function ofthis thekind
signal are stil
present, as shown in Figure 12 (𝑁C0 = 69).
still present, as shown in Figure 12 (N C0 Besides these drawbacks, this kind of signal of
Besides these drawbacks,
present,
signal
modification asisshown
modification isin
interesting Figure
interesting 12in (𝑁
in PCL signal C0 =
PCL 69). processing
signal
processing Besides
and will be these
and drawbacks,
will
further be further
analyzed. Itthis kind of signa
analyzed.
should
be noted that the only modified part of the frame was the Null symbol with no RF signal noIt should
modification
It should be is
noted interesting
that the onlyin PCL
modifiedsignalpartprocessing
of the frame andwaswill
thebe further
Null symbolanalyzed.
with
be signal
RF notedSince
emission. that the
the Since
emission. only
Null modified
the part of
Null position
symbol symbol isthe
positionframe wasPR,
is known,
known, and the Null
andFIC symbol
PR, symbols
FIC symbols with
are are no
leftleftRF signa
unchanged,
emission.the
unchanged, the
SinceDAB
DAB frames
the
frames Null after
after this
symbol
this modification
positioncan
modification can
is still
be be
known,
still demodulated
and PR, and
demodulated and
FIC decoded, are lef
symbols
decoded,
for
for example,totothe
example,
unchanged, reconstruct
reconstruct
DAB frames thereference
the reference
after this signal
signal [8,24]. can still be demodulated and decoded
[8,24].
modification
for example, to reconstruct the reference signal [8,24].

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure12. 12.Autocorrelation ofof
Autocorrelation DAB signal
DAB with
signal one
with MSC
one symbol
MSC copied
symbol in place
copied of Null
in place symbol
of Null (a) (a)
symbol
and
anditsitsclose-up
close-up(b).
(b).
(a) (b)
3.3. Results
Results
Figure 12. Autocorrelation of DAB signal with one MSC symbol copied in place of Null symbol (a
The
andThe performance
its performance
close-up (b). ofofthe
the proposed
proposed methods
methods of of
thethe
DABDAB signal
signal preprocessing
preprocessing hashas been
been
compared with the help of the PCL signal processing algorithm
compared with the help of the PCL signal processing algorithm described in [12], which described in [12], which
consists
consists ofofthe
3. Results theclutter
clutterremoval
removalfilterfilterand
andthe thecross-ambiguity
cross-ambiguityfunction function calculator.
calculator. TheThe
signalprocessing
signal processingalgorithms
algorithmsdescribed
described in in
thethe previous
previous section
section areare implemented
implemented in the
in the
The performance
pre-processing blockthat ofisthe
thatis proposed
placed before methods
the clutter ofremoval
the DAB signal
filter (see preprocessing
Figure 13). has been
pre-processing block placed before the clutter removal filter (see Figure 13). TheThe
compared
signalprocessing
signal
with the
processingalgorithms help of the
algorithms(implemented PCL
(implemented signal
inin
processing
Matlab
Matlab
algorithm
environment)
environment) getget
described
thethe
raw raw baseband which
baseband
in [12],
consists
signals
signals of theinclutter
acquired
acquired the
thesystemremoval
system describedfilter
described and
in [12]
in [12] the
(with cross-ambiguity
time
(with delays
time and phase
delays function
and calculator. Th
shifts corrected
phase shifts
signal
using theprocessing
method algorithms
based on pilot described
signals in
[32,36]) the
and previous
return the
corrected using the method based on pilot signals [32,36]) and return the cross-ambiguity section are
cross-ambiguity implemented
function in th
plots as output.
pre-processing
function The integration
block that
plots as output. time
Theisintegration was
placed before set to 5
time the s in all
wasclutter the following
set to removal experiments.
5 s in allfilter
the (see This
Figure 13). Th
following
allowed
experiments. us to
signal processing extend
This allowedvelocity
us to resolution
algorithms extend and thus
velocity
(implemented into
resolutioninvestigate
Matlab thusthe
andenvironment) sea clutter
to investigate structure
get the sea
raw baseband
2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW (during the storm and calm seas) and distinguish slow-moving 10 of 17
targets from the clutter,
clutter structure (during the storm and calm seas) and distinguish
signals acquired in the system described in [12] (with time delays and phase shift slow-moving targets
which,
from thein general,
clutter, is a challenging
which, in general, isproblem [21]. problem [21].
a challenging
corrected using the method based on pilot signals [32,36]) and return the cross-ambiguity
function plots as output. The integration time was set to 5 s in all the following
experiments. This allowed us to extend velocity resolution and thus to investigate the se
clutter structure (during the storm and calm seas) and distinguish slow-moving target
from the clutter, which, in general, is a challenging problem [21].

Figure 13. Signal processing pipeline used for performance evaluation.

Figure 13. Signal processing pipeline used for performance evaluation.

3.1. Clearing of PR and FIC Symbols

After removing the periodical parts of the DAB frames (i.e., the PR and FIC symbols)
by clearing their sample values, the periodical artifacts are still visible in the bistatic
velocity/range (v/R) plane, as shown in Figure 14. What is essential, is that these artifacts
Sensors 2022, 22, 378
Figure 13. Signal processing pipeline
Figure 13. Signal used for performance
processing pipeline usedevaluation.
for performance evaluation. 10 of 17

3.1. Clearing of PR and

3.1. FIC Symbols
Clearing of PR and FIC Symbols
3.1. Clearing
After removing of PR andparts
the periodical FIC Symbols
of the DABparts frames (i.e.,DAB
the PR and (i.e.,
FIC symbols)
After removing the periodical of the frames the PR and FIC symbols)
by clearing their by clearing their sample values, the periodical artifacts are stilland
After
sample removing
values, the
the periodical
periodical parts of
artifacts the DAB
are frames
still (i.e.,
visible the
in PR
the FIC symbols)
bistatic
visible in the bistatic
by
velocity/range (v/R) clearing their
plane, as shown sample values,
in Figure the periodical
14. What artifacts
is essential, are
is thatstill visible in
these artifactsthe bistatic
velocity/range (v/R) plane, as shown in Figure 14. What is essential, is that these artifacts
velocity/range (v/R) plane, as shown in Figure 14. What is essential, is that these artifacts
are even intensified by ca. 15 dB when compared to Figure 1. One moving object
are even intensified by ca. 15 dB when compared to Figure 1. One moving object is visible is visible
are even intensified by ca. 15 dB when compared to Figure 1. One moving object is visible
at R = 1.2 km, v =at
at50
R m/s,
R = 1.2 but
= 1.2 km,its
km, vv==echo
5050m/s,will
m/s, beitsobscured
but
but its echo
echo will by
will the artifacts
be obscured
be obscured at
by thebybistatic velocities
the artifacts
artifacts at bistatic
at bistatic velocities
velocities
being multipliesbeingof 𝑣 (1). This
amultiplies
being multiplies of vof 𝑣 (1). This effect can cause false detections, and, in general, it
effect can cause false detections, and, in general,
a (1).a This effect can cause false detections, and, in general, it degrades
it
degrades the detection
degrades and
the detectionthetracking
detection
and theand
tracking performance
thetracking
performance of the
the considered
performance
of the considered ofpassive
the radar.
radar.The
considered
passive passive
The radar. The
artifacts
artifacts stay visible
stay when
artifacts the
stay
visible clutter-removal
visible
when filterfilter
when the clutter-removal
the clutter-removal is bypassed (see
filter
is bypassed isFigure
(see Figure15).
bypassed 15).(see Figure 15).

(a) (a) (b) (b)

Figure 14. PCL detection
Figure results
14.
Figure 14. PCL after clearing
PCLdetection
detectionresults ofafter
resultsPR and
after FICofsymbols
clearing
clearing PRofand in
PR FIC
andthe DAB
FIC frame:
symbols
symbols in in(a)
the DAB bistatic
the DAB(a)
frame: frame: (a) bistatic
bistatic
velocity/range plane; (b) its cross-section
velocity/range
velocity/range plane;(b)
plane; atits
(b)its selected range.
cross-section
cross-section at selected
at selected range.
range.

Figure 15. PCL detection

Figure results
15.
Figure 15. PCL after
PCLdetectiontheresults
detection clearing
results ofthe
thethe
after
after PRclearing
andofFIC
clearing ofsymbols
the theand
PR (bypassed
PRFIC
and clutter-(bypassed
FIC symbols
symbols (bypassed clutter- clutter-
removal filter). removal filter).
removal filter).

3.2. Replacing of Null, PR and FIC Symbols by Noise

3.2. Replacing of Null, PR and FIC
3.2. Replacing Symbols
of Null, by Noise
PR and FIC Symbols by Noise
The replacement of the Null, PR, and FIC symbols by the noise leads to a raised noise
The replacementThe of the Null, PR, and
replacement of theFIC symbols
Null, PR, in by FIC
and the noise leads to a raised noiseto a raised noise
floor in the detection results (as shown Figure symbols
16) since bythethe noise leads
introduced noise cannot
floor in the detection
floor results
in the (as shown
detection in Figure
results (as 16)
shown since
in the introduced
Figure 16) since noise
the
be suppressed with the clutter-removal filter. The bistatic v/R plane looks similar cannot
introduced be noise cannot be
to the
suppressed with the clutter-removal
suppressed
previous casewith
from the filter. Thethe
clutter-removal
Figure 15 with bistatic v/Rclutter-removal
filter.
bypassed plane
The looksv/R
bistatic similar buttothe
plane
filter, the
looks similar to the
periodical
previous case from Figure
previous
artifacts are 15
case with
from
even morethe bypassed
Figure 15 with
intensified. clutter-removal
theartifacts
These bypassed filter, but
clutter-removal
are approx. 20 dBthe periodical
more filter, but than
intensive the periodical
in
artifacts are even more
the
artifacts intensified.
reference (Figure
are even These
1). The
more artifacts are
moving object
intensified. approx.
These 20 km
R = 1.2
atartifacts dB
aremore intensive
isapprox.
obscured 20bydB than
the noiseintensive
more and is than
therefore undetectable.
22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17
22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

in the reference (Figure 1). The moving object at R = 1.2 km is obscured by the noise and
Sensors 2022, 22,in the reference
is378
therefore (Figure 1).
The moving object at R = 1.2 km is obscured by the noise and
undetectable. 11 of 17
is therefore undetectable.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 16. PCL detection results after noise insertion in place of Null, PR, and FIC symbols in the
DAB frame:
Figure (a) bistatic
16. PCL Figurevelocity/range
detection results
16. after plane;
PCL detectionnoise (b) after
results its cross-section
insertion in place
noise of at
insertion R =place
Null,
in 450 m.
PR, of
and FICPR,
Null, symbols
and FICinsymbols
the in the
DAB frame: (a) bistatic velocity/range
DAB frame: (a) bistaticplane; (b) its cross-section
velocity/range plane; (b) its at R = 450 m.at R = 450 m.
cross-section
After reducing the power of the inserted noise by 6 dB, the noise floor is lower and
the movingreducing
After After
object at the reducing
R = power
1.2 km of the inserted
the
emerges power
fromofthethenoise,
noiseinserted noise
by 6asdB, thebynoise
marked 6
indB, the noise
floor
Figure 17 flooraand
is lower
with is
redlower and
the movingFurther
rectangle. the
object atmoving object
R = 1.2 km
reduction at
ofemergesR = 1.2 km
fromnoise
the inserted emerges
the noise,
powerfrom the noise,
as results
markedininan as marked
Figure
even17lowerin Figure
a red17 with a
with noise
red rectangle. Further reduction of the inserted noise power results in an even lower noise
rectangle.
floor. WhenFurther reduction
the inserted of power
noise the inserted noise
is at least power
9 dB lower results
than intheanDABevensignal
lowerpower,
noise
floor. When the inserted noise power is at least 9 dB lower than the DAB signal power, the
floor. When the
the situation insertedconverges
converges noise power
situation toward the is of
case
toward
at least
theclearing
9 dBthelower
case of clearing
thanofthe
samples
the samples
DABframe
initial signal
of initial
power,
symbols,
frame symbols, shown
the situation
shown in Figureconverges toward
14. However,
in Figure the case
it should
14. However, of clearing the
be emphasized
it should samples
be emphasizedthat of initial
thatwith frame
this method,
with this symbols,
method,thethe periodical
shown in artifacts
periodical Figure 14.
are However,
constantly it should
visible in be
the emphasized
bistatic v/R that
plane.
artifacts are constantly visible in the bistatic v/R plane. with this method, the
periodical artifacts are constantly visible in the bistatic v/R plane.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 17. PCL detection
Figure 17. results after the
PCL detection insertion
results after theof noise of
insertion with reduced
noise power:
with reduced (a) bistatic
power: (a) bistatic veloc-
velocity/range
Figure 17. PCLplane; (b) itsplane;
detection
ity/range cross-section
results(b)after at Rinsertion
the = 450 at
its cross-section m.R =of450
noise
m. with reduced power: (a) bistatic
velocity/range plane; (b) its cross-section at R = 450 m.
3.3. Duplication of3.3. Duplication
Five MSC Symbolsof Five MSC Symbols
3.3. Duplication When
of Five MSC the Null, PR, and FIC symbols at the beginning of the frame are replaced by the
Symbols
When the Null, PR, and FIC symbols at the beginning of the frame are replaced by
copies of selected five MSC symbols from the previous frame, the periodical artifacts are
Whenof
the copies the Null,
selected PR,
fiveand
eliminated MSC FIC
from the
symbols
symbols at the
bistaticfrom thebeginning
v/R plane previous of in
theFigure
frame,
as depicted
frame
the are replaced
periodical artifacts
18 (their intensity
byis at least
the
are copies of selected
eliminated from fivebistatic
20 dB the
lower MSC
than insymbols
v/R plane
Figure from
1). as the previous
depicted
After such frame,
in Figure
a signal the(their
18
modification, periodical artifacts
intensity
the adaptive is at
clutter-removal
are eliminated from
least 20 dB lowerfilter
thanthe bistatic
in properly
[12] Figure 1). v/R plane
After such
removes as depicted
a signal
the direct in Figure
pathmodification, 18 (their intensity
the adaptive
interference, which is
clutter-
yields a low at
background
least 20 dB
removal lower
filter [12]than
noise in Figure
properly
level 1).the
removes
visible in Afterthesuch
plot. a signal
direct
The echo frommodification,
path interference, the adaptive
which
the moving object is yields
visible onclutter-
athelow
bistatic v/R
removal filter [12]
plane at R
properly = removes
1.2 km the
(marked direct
with a path
red interference,
rectangle). The which yields
characteristic
background noise level visible in the plot. The echo from the moving object is visible on a
spread low
spectrum of
background
the bistatic v/R the
noise
plane sea
level clutter
at Rvisible [21]
= 1.2 km can also
in (marked be
the plot. withobserved.
The echo
a redfrom the moving
rectangle). object is visible
The characteristic spread on
the bistaticofv/R
spectrum theplane at R = 1.2
sea clutter [21]kmcan(marked
also be with a red rectangle). The characteristic spread
observed.
spectrum of the sea clutter [21] can also be observed.
Sensors 2022,
Sensors 22,22,
2022, 378x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17 12 of 17
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure18. 18.PCL
PCLdetection
detection results
results
detection afterMSC
after
results MSCsymbols
after symbols
MSC duplication
duplication
symbols totonull,
null,PR,
duplication PR, andFIC
toand
null,FIC symbols:
symbols:
PR, (a)(a)symbols:
and FIC
bistatic velocity/range
velocity/range plane;
plane;(b)
(b)its
itscross-section
cross-sectionatatRR==450
450m.
m.
(a) bistatic velocity/range plane; (b) its cross-section at R = 450 m.

Thedetection
The detectionresults
detection results of
ofthe
results considered
thethe
of considered
consideredmoving
moving object
moving are
object areshown
object shown ininFigure
are shown in19
Figure 19forfor
Figure thethe
19 for the
subsequent time
time stamps.
stamps. For
Fortt==1220.56
1220.56s,s,the
theecho
echofrom
fromthis
thisobject
objectisisatatRR= =900
900m,m,v =v 6.6
= 6.6
subsequent time stamps. For t = 1220.56 s, the echo from this object is at R = 900 m, v = 6.6 m/s,
m/s, and it merges
merges with
with the
the clutter
clutter strip
stripatatthis
thisscale
scale(not
(notshown
shownhere).
here).DueDuetotothe thelonglong
and it merges with the clutterthe
strip at this object’s
scale (not shownmigration
here). Due to the long integration
integration time
time inin relation
relation to
to the moving
moving object’svelocity,
velocity, migrationofofthe thedetection
detection
time in relation to the
results is observed.
observed. This
moving
This effect
object’s
effect may
may be
velocity, migration
be compensated
compensatedusing
of the
usingmore
detection
moreadvanced
results
advancedcoherent
is observed.
coherent
This effect may
integration be compensated
algorithms [19].
algorithms [19]. using more advanced coherent integration algorithms [19].

Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17

Figure 19.
Figure 19.PCL
PCLdetection
detectionresults after
results MSCMSC
after symbols duplication,
symbols subsequent
duplication, time stamps.
subsequent time stamps.

3.4. Substitution of the Null Symbol by Selected MSC Symbol

The simplified method of copying just one MSC symbol from the previous frame in
place of the Null symbol gives the same improvement (depicted in Figure 20) as in the
previous case. The periodical artifacts are removed from the bistatic v/R plane, and the
echo from the moving object is still visible at the low-level background noise.
Sensors 2022, 22, 378 13 of 17

Figure 19. PCL detection results after MSC symbols duplication, subsequent time stamps.

3.4. Substitution
3.4.ofSubstitution
the Null Symbol
of thebyNull
Selected MSC
Symbol by Symbol
Selected MSC Symbol
The simplifiedThe
method of copying
simplified method just
ofone MSC just
copying symbol from symbol
one MSC the previous
from frame in
the previous frame in
place of the Null
placesymbol givessymbol
of the Null the same improvement
gives (depicted in Figure
the same improvement 20) in
(depicted as Figure
in the 20) as in the
previous case.previous case. The
The periodical periodical
artifacts artifacts are
are removed fromremoved fromv/R
the bistatic theplane,
bistatic v/R
and theplane, and the
echo from theecho fromobject
moving the moving object is
is still visible at still visible at the
the low-level low-levelnoise.
background background noise.

(a) (b)
Figure 20. PCLFigure
detection
20. results after MSC
PCL detection symbol
results afterduplication
MSC symbol in place of Nullinsymbol:
duplication place of(a) bistatic
Null symbol: (a) bistatic
velocity/range plane; (b) its cross-section at R = 450 m.
velocity/range plane; (b) its cross-section at R = 450 m.

4. Discussion4. Discussion
The PR and FIC The PR andin
symbols FIC
thesymbols
DAB framein the DAB frame
constitute constitute a part
a deterministic deterministic
of the signalpart of the signal
that results inthat results in
periodic periodic
peaks peaks
in the in the autocorrelation
autocorrelation functionfunction
of the of the received
received signal.signal. Another
Another source source
of theof ambiguity
the ambiguity peaks
peaks is the
is the presence
presence of of guard
guard intervals,filled
intervals, filledwith
withthe the cyclic prefix,
cyclic prefix, which is common in all systems with OFDM modulation. modulation. These
These unwanted
unwanted peaks in the
peaks in the autocorrelation function can be removed by clearing certain partsthe
autocorrelation function can be removed by clearing certain parts of of received
the signal or
filling them with noise. However, they correspond to relatively
received signal or filling them with noise. However, they correspond to relatively long long distances in the range
domain (150 km for the symbol duration, and 14,400
distances in the range domain (150 km for the symbol duration, and 14,400 km for thekm for the frame duration T F ) [17]
frame duration that𝑇Flie far that
) [17] beyond thebeyond
lie far operatingtherange of therange
operating considered passive radar
of the considered [12] and thus have
passive
radar [12] andno visible
thus haveinfluence
no visibleoninfluence
the plotson with
thedetection
plots with results.
detection results.
The main problemThe main problem
of the of the
considered considered
system was thesystem was of
presence theperiodical
presence artifacts
of periodical artifacts
in the bistatic velocity/range plane with a long integration time (5 s) applied to s)
in the bistatic velocity/range plane with a long integration time (5 applied to extend
extend
resolution in the bistatic velocity. Such artifacts can cause false
resolution in the bistatic velocity. Such artifacts can cause false detections, obscure echoes detections, obscure echoes
from objects from objects moving at specific velocities, and disturb tracking.
moving at specific velocities, and disturb tracking. In some situations, these In some situations, these
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
artifacts can even be more intensive than the weak signals
artifacts can even be more intensive than the weak signals from the targets, as shown in from the targets, as shown in
Figures 1 andFigures
21, with1 different
and 21, with different
scales scales
and target andmarked
echo target echo marked by a rectangle.
by a rectangle.

Figure 21. Bistatic velocity/range plot with artifacts and weak target (close-up).
Figure 21. Bistatic velocity/range plot with artifacts and weak target (close-up).

The experimental results described in this paper show that clearing PR and FIC
symbols in the DAB frame (see Figure 6), despite correcting the autocorrelation function,
does not remove the mentioned periodical artifacts, but quite the opposite, it makes them
even more intensive. The second method (replacing the Null, PR, and FIC symbols with a
noise) not only does not remove the artifacts but also raises the noise floor in the bistatic
 Figure 21. Bistatic velocity/range plot with artifacts and weak target (close-up).

The experimental results described in this paper show that clearing PR a

symbols in the DAB frame (see Figure 6), despite correcting the autocorrelation fu
Sensors 2022, 22, 378 does not remove the mentioned periodical artifacts, but quite the opposite, 14 of 17 it mak

even more intensive. The second method (replacing the Null, PR, and FIC symbol
noise) not only does not remove the artifacts but also raises the noise floor in the
The experimental results described in this paper show that clearing PR and FIC
velocity/range
symbols in the DAB plane,
framewhich makes
(see Figure the detection
6), despite correctingof theobjects difficult,
autocorrelation or even imp
function,
as
doesdemonstrated
not remove thein Figuresperiodical
mentioned 16 and 17. artifacts, but quite the opposite, it makes them
Finally,
even more the periodical
intensive. The secondartifacts in the bistatic
method (replacing the Null,velocity/range
PR, and FIC symbolsplanewithcoulda be re
noise) not only does not remove the artifacts but also raises the noise
by copying part of the previous DAB frame (i.e., the selected MSC symbols) in plac floor in the bistatic
velocity/range plane, which makes the detection of objects difficult, or even impossible, as
Null, PR, and FIC symbols in the current frame (see Figure 9), synchronously in b
demonstrated in Figures 16 and 17.
reference
Finally,and the surveillance
the periodical signals.
artifacts in Although
the bistatic an additional
velocity/range plane couldpeak in the autocor
be removed
function
by copyingispart introduced in this
of the previous DABway frame(see
(i.e.,Figure 10),MSC
the selected its position
symbols) incan be of
place shifted
the beyo
Null, PR, and FIC symbols in the current frame (see Figure 9), synchronously
operating range of the PCL radar by an appropriate selection of the copied MSC s in both the
reference and the surveillance signals. Although an additional peak in the autocorrelation
(8). The example plots with moving object’s detection results after such a modific
function is introduced in this way (see Figure 10), its position can be shifted beyond the
the
operating rangesignal
received are shown
of the PCL radar byinan Figures
appropriate 18 selection
and 19, of andthein animations
copied MSC symbols S2, S4 prov
the Supplementary
(8). The example plots with Materials.
moving The animations
object’s S1 and
detection results S3such
after areaavailable
modification asina referen
the received
show signal detection
the initial are shown in Figures
results 18 and 19,
without and in animations
modifications S2, S4
in the provided
received in
signals.
the Supplementary Materials. The animations S1 and S3 are available
To evaluate the performance of this method, the Signal to Noise Ratio (SN as a reference and
show the initial detection results without modifications in the received signals.
estimated for the object detected in the processed signal that was shown in Figure
To evaluate the performance of this method, the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) was
noise level
estimated forwas averaged
the object over
detected theprocessed
in the bistatic signal
velocity/range
that was shownplanein (excluding
Figure 19. Thethe clutt
at v ≈level
noise 0), was
andaveraged
the signal
overlevel was velocity/range
the bistatic a peak valueplane of the target area
(excluding bounded
the clutter zone with
at v ≈ 0), and the signal level was a peak value of the target
rectangles in Figure 19. The comparison of SNR values obtained this way area bounded with the red with t
rectangles in Figure 19. The comparison of SNR values obtained this way with the raw
signals (i.e., without any modifications) and with the method described in Sectio
signals (i.e., without any modifications) and with the method described in Section 3.3 is
depicted
depicted inin Figure
Figure 22, showing
22, showing an average
an average gain of 3.6 gain
dB. of 3.6 dB.

Figure 22.Improvement
Figure 22. Improvement of achieved
of SNR SNR achieved
by MSC by MSCduplication.
symbols symbols duplication.

An equally good improvement in the detection plot can be obtained by copying just
An equally good improvement in the detection plot can be obtained by copy
one MSC symbol from the previous DAB frame in place of the Null symbol, leaving all
one
the peaks insymbol
MSC from
the signal’s the previous
autocorrelation DAB frame
function, in place
as depicted of the
in Figure 12. Null symbol,
It turns out lea
that the presence of repeatable intervals without the emission of the signal (i.e., the Null
symbols) is the reason for periodical artifacts observed in the bistatic velocity/range plane
in case of long integration times that cover multiple DAB frames. After fixing these short
discontinuities in the received signal (in a way that does not introduce additional noise to
the signal), the periodical artifacts are no longer visible in the detection results, as depicted
in Figures 18–20.

Computational Complexity Analysis

The computational costs of the described solution result mainly from calculating the
moving averages (2) and (3) of the complex signal’s magnitude. In practical implementation,
Sensors 2022, 22, 378 15 of 17

these computations may be simplified by calculating and comparing squared magnitudes

without square root calculations

N −1
1
p(n) =
N ∑ s ( n − k ), (10)
k =0

M −1
1
pavg (n) =
M ∑ s(n − k) (11)
k =0

where s(n) is a squared magnitude of the signal’s complex sample

s(n) = xreal (n)2 + ximag (n)2 . (12)

The moving average filters (10) and (11) can be implemented recursively by adding the
current value of (12) to the previously calculated p(n − 1), pavg (n − 1), and subtracting its
historical value (from the beginning of the time window), fetched from a circular buffer.
Moreover, the sum of squares (12) can be calculated only once for each signal sample,
then used in both moving averages and stored in the buffer (with the length of M). An
additional real multiplication may be performed for each sample to perform thresholding
by comparing (10) with the scaled value of (11). After the proposed optimization, the
calculation of (10) and (11), and thresholding for each sample would require only three real
multiplications, five additions/subtractions, and two divisions, as summarized in Table 2.
Furthermore, the divisions may be cheaply realized by bit shifting, provided that N and M
are the powers of two. It should be kept in mind that the results of computations would be
valid after filling up the circular buffer (i.e., after processing M input samples) and should
be ignored prior to that point.

Table 2. Computation costs (per sample) of the proposed algorithm.

Operation Number of Operations

Real multiplications 3
Real divisions 1 2
Real additions 3
Real subtractions 2
1 May be replaced by bit shifting for certain values of M, N.

5. Conclusions
The proposed modification of the received DAB signals at the transmission-frame
level has very little computational complexity since it employs only two moving-average
computations, thresholding and synchronous copying of parts of the two input signals.
Thus, it may be introduced at the beginning of the signal processing pipeline designed
for the DAB-illuminated passive bistatic radar, as shown in Figure 13, with a minimal
computational cost. Such an improvement allows extended integration time (i.e., much
longer than the DAB transmission frame duration). This, in turn, provides increased
Doppler resolution (desired in the presence of a broadband sea-clutter) without periodical
artifacts in range/Doppler plots caused by the time structure of the DAB signal, and with
around 3 dB of gain in SNR, when compared to the processing of raw DAB signals.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https:
//www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/s22010378/s1, Videos S1 and S2: Subsequent PCL detection
results without modifications in DAB signal, Figures S3 and S4: Subsequent PCL detection results
with MSC symbols copied in place of Null, PR, FIC symbols in DAB frame.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Sensors 2022, 22, 378 16 of 17

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The author would like to thank K. Kulpa, and M. Malanowski for providing raw
signals and DSP algorithms (the clutter-removal filter and cross-ambiguity function calculator) used
to obtain the images with PCL detection results.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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