The writers of this paper:

1. Fitriani Ramadhanti Supena (1908103234)

2. Laeni (1908103135)
Subject: Curriculum Analysis and Development

INTRODUCTION
According to Agustin and Puro (2016) Curriculum is the heart of a school. Each
school will attempt to create or compile a curriculum as possible so that it can accommodate
the demands and the needs that must be continuously assessed and developed appropriate to
the circumstances by taking into account the challenges that exist so that the direction of
development will be aligned to answer the challenges ahead. Curriculum covers all the
learning experiences provided to students under the guidance or school responsibilities,
which is not only limited to the number of subjects alone but a learning experience beyond
the written subjects, such as habits, attitudes, morals and others (Azhar, 2011).
The function of curriculum is as guidelines in the implementation of activities related
to  education in schools for parties related, either directly or indirectly, such as the teacher,
headmasters, supervisors, parents, community and the students themselves (Kurniawan &
Noviana, 2013). Furthermore, Muhaimin & Abdul Mujib in Bahri (2011) state that there are
seven functions of curriculum. There are:
1. the curriculum as a study program, namely: A set of subjects that can be studied by
students in schools or other educational institutions;
2. the curriculum as content, namely: data or information contained in class books
without being equipped with other data or information that allows learning to occur;
3. the curriculum as a planned activity, namely: planned activities about what will be
taught, and how it can be taught with good results; 
4. the curriculum as a learning outcome, namely: a complete set of goals to obtain a
certain result without specifying the intended ways to obtain those results, or a set of
planned and desired learning outcomes; 
5. the curriculum as cultural reproduction, namely: transfer and reflection of the cultural
items of the community, so that the children of the younger generation of the
community can understand and own them; 
6. the curriculum as a learning experience, namely: the entire learning experience
planned under the leadership of the school; 
 7. the curriculum as production, namely: a set of tasks that must be carried out to
achieve the goals;

The Historical Background of Language Learning Method

Arranging a curriculum in learning comes from the creation of syllabus which only
consist of the general materials that should be taught to the learners. However, the curriculum
itself needed more explanation, not only to serve the teachers about the materials but the time
to teach, media or tools, and specification of books that are used in the learning process. 
Curriculum is related to the method in the learning process. The method itself has its
period and developed by the time. The educators of language learning are still looking for the
effective methods that are used in the learning process. These are well known as language
learning methods:
a. Grammar Translation Method (1800–1900)
Even though it was popular in 1800-1900 era, but Grammar Translation
Method might be used in this era too because from the pedagogical process point
of view, the method is still considered to be effective used for teaching owing to
three reasons i.e. 
1. It is the easiest and the shortest way of explaining meaning of words
and phrases;
2. This method requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers
(Brown, 1994);
3. Learners have a few difficulties to understand the lessons since the
medium of instruction is the students’ mother tongue, which is used
to explain conceptual problems and to discuss the use of a particular
grammatical structure of a second or foreign language being learn.
The teachers of language who reject The Grammar Translation Method
normally convey all they have in mind about the method. It has already been
stated in the previous part that Grammar-translation classes are usually conducted
in the students’ native language. Grammar rules are learned deductively in which
students learn grammar rules by rote, and then practice the rules by doing
grammar drills and translating sentences to and from the target language. More
attention is paid to the form of the sentences being translated than to their content.
There is not usually any listening or speaking practice, and very little attention is
placed on pronunciation or any communicative aspects of the language. The skill
exercised is reading, and then only in the context of translation.

b. Direct Method (1890–1930)

Important for extrapolation of current ideas of foreign
language education are the methods of teaching foreign languages. Depending
on the purpose and task, one or the other approach to teaching prevails;
most commonly used lexical or grammatical methods; synthetic and
analytical methods. According to the development of which skills are the
purpose of learning, distinguish oral and reading methods. By way of
semantization of material - translated and direct methods. On the principle of
organizing the material, the traditional method is contrasted with the method
of programmed learning.
Each method has objective value under certain conditions.
Foreign educators believe that direct methods are more appropriate to use in
small groups, in a multilingual or monolingual audience, if the teacher does
not speak the language of the students and is tasked with teaching oral
language within a restricted subject area. Comparative methods can only be
used in a monolingual audience when the learner speaks the students' mother
tongue. Mixed methods are applied depending on the purpose and specific
learning environment of the foreign language. 
The Bloomfield method is one of the variants of the direct method.
The concept of Bloomfield is revealed in the following terms: learning a
foreign language is aimed at practical purposes - the ability to speak and
understand speech; training is done on an oral basis and with an oral advance,
by creating associations; imitation and memory are very important;
purposeful work is being done to develop auditory perception and auditory
memory. The author concluded that the ordinary educational system does not
allow to mobilize the reserves of the individual. In the base of the method is
the development of suggestion problems in pedagogy, the so-called
suggestopedia, in this form of experiential learning much attention is paid to
the connection of the educational process with the personal interests and
motives of students. 
c. Structural Method (1930–1960)
The structural approach mainly employs the techniques of the direct
method but the reading and writing skills are not wholly neglected. The
structural approach is based on the sound principles of language learning. The
structural approach says that the arrangement of the words in such a way as to
form a suitable pattern may make the meanings of the language clear to us.
Any language has its own structure and skeleton which gives this language a
decent appearance. A structure is a pattern and a particular arrangement of
words which indicate grammatical meanings. It may be a word, a phrase or a
sentence.
Structural approach was criticized because it was only suitable for
lower grades. Continuous teaching of structures and their repetition make the
atmosphere dull and boring. It also neglected the reading and writing abilities
and there was also a lack of skilled teachers.

d. Reading Method (1920–1950)

The meaning-based curriculum did not dominate reading instruction
until the second quarter of the 20th century. Beginning in the 1930s and
1940s, reading programs became very focused on comprehension and taught
children to read whole words by sight. Phonics was not to be taught except
sparingly and as a tool to be used as a last resort.
In the 1950s Rudolf Flesch wrote a book called Why Johnny Can't
Read, a passionate argument in favor of teaching children to read using
phonics. Addressing the mothers and fathers of America, he also hurled severe
criticism at publishers' decisions that he claimed were motivated by profit, and
he questioned the honesty and intelligence of experts, schools, and teachers.
The book was on the bestseller list for 30 weeks and spurred a hue and cry in
the general population. It also polarized the reading debate among educators,
researchers, and parents.

e. Audiolingual Method (1950–1970)

The Audio-lingual Method is still in use today, though normally as a
part of individual lessons rather than as the foundation of the course. These
 types of lessons can be popular as they are relatively simple, from the
teacher’s point of view, and the learner always knows what to expect.
Some of the most famous supporters of this method were Giorgio
Shenker, who promoted guided self learning with the Shenker method in Italy,
and Robin Callan, who created the Callan method.

d. Situational Method (1950–1970)

The oral approach is a method in which children use whatever hearing
they get from their surroundings. They also take help from the context to
understand and use language. The target is to develop the skills in the
individual so that he can communicate and function independently. This
approach helps in the development of reading and writing skills (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001).
The oral approach was developed from the 1930s to the 1960s by
British applied linguistics such as Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornsby. The main
difference between the oral approach and the direct method was that the
methods which were developed under this approach had theoretical principles
about the selection, grading and presentation of the content and material. This
sequencing of the content would lead to better learning with a good knowledge
of vocabulary and grammatical patterns. In this approach all the points of
language were to be presented in “situations” which led to the second name of
the approach i.e. situational language teaching. Although the teachers are not
aware of this approach today, it had a long lasting impact on language
learning. However, its focus on oral practice, grammar and sentence patterns is
still supported by the teachers.

e. Communicative Approach (1970–present)

Communicative language teaching was developed in the era of
revolutions in British language teaching traditions from the late 1960s. Before
communicative language teaching, situational language teaching was in
practice in Britain for language teaching. Communicative language teaching
was actually developed in opposition to the audiolingual method which
focuses on drilling and memorization. Communicative language teaching
focuses on developing the ability of communication in learners in real life
 situations. It focuses on meaning rather than accuracy (Richards and Rodgers,
2001).

Vocabulary Selection
Vocabulary is one of the most obvious components of language and one of the first
things applied linguists turned their attention to. What words should be taught in a second
language? This depends on the objectives of the course and the amount of time available for
teaching. Educated native speakers are thought to have a recognized vocabulary of some
17.000 words. but this is a much larger number of words than can be taught in a language
course. Not all the words that native speakers know are necessarily useful for second
language learners who have only a limited time available for learning.

Random Selection–unreliable Results 

Li and Richards (1995) examined five introductory textbooks used for
teaching Cantonese (the language spoken in Hong Kong) in order to determine what
words the textbook compilers considered essential for foreigners to learn and the
extent to which textbook writers agreed on what constitutes the basic vocabulary of
Cantonese as a second language. The distribution of words in the five books is as
follows:
Words occurring in one of the texts                1, 141 words = 63,4%
Words occurring in two of the texts                    313 words = 17,4%
Words occurring in three of the texts                  155 words = 8,6%
Words occurring in four of the texts                   114 words = 6,3%
Words occurring in all of the texts                        72 words = 4,3%
It can be seen that a substantial percentage of the corpus (63.4 percent)
consists of words that occurred in only one of the five texts. These words could not
therefore be considered to belong to the essential vo- cabulary of Cantonese for
second language learners and would not be worth learning. Only words that occurred
in three or more of the texts could reasonably be described as being important
vocabulary, because three or more of the textbook writers in- cluded them in their
textbooks.

The Highest Frequency 

 Some of the earliest approaches to vocabulary selection involved counting
large collections of texts to determine the frequency with which words occurred, since
it would seem obvious that words of highest frequency should be taught first.
For example, it was discovered that a small class of words (around 3,000)
accounted for up to 85 percent of the words used in everyday texts but that it would
take an extra 6,000 words to increase this by 1 percent. It was also found that about
half the words text occur only once. However, recognizing 85 percent of the words in
a text is not the same as understanding 85 percent of the text.
Text comprehension is not just a function of the proportion of familiar words,
but depends on a number of other factors as well, such as the subject matter of the
text, the way in which the writer approaches the subject, and the extent to which the
reader is already familiar with the subject.
Word frequencies are important in planning word lists for language teaching. But
frequency is not necessarily the same thing as usefulness because the frequency of
words depends on the types of language samples that are analyzed.

Learners Need
The text or language samples must be relevant with the needs of target
learners. Words with the highest frequency and words with the highest frequency and
the widest range are considđered to be the most useful ones for the purposes of
language teaching
Other criteria were therefore also used in determining word lists. These included:
● Teachability
Vocabulary can be easily illustrated through pictures or by demonstrations
● Similarity
Some vocabulary may be selected because they are similar to words in native
language. For example, English and French have many cognates such as table, page,
and nation, and this may justify their inclusion in a word list for French-speaking
learners.
● Availability
Groups of words that come up when a certain topic is thought of. For example,
classroom calls to mind desk, chair, these words might therefore be worth teaching
early in a course.
● Coverage 
 Words that cover or include the meaning of other words may also be useful. For
example, seat might be taught because it includes the meanings of stool, bench, and
chair.
● Defining power
Some words could be selected because they are useful in defining other words, even
though they are not among the most frequent words in the language. For example,
containers might be useful because they can help define bucket, jar, and carton.

The procedures of vocabulary selection lead to the compilation of a basic vocabulary, that is
● A target vocabulary for a language course is usually grouped or graded into levels,
such as the first 500 words, the second 500 words, and so on. 
● Word frequency and word pattern, one of the most important lexical syllabuses in
language teaching was Michael West's A General Service List of English Words
(1953), which contains a list of some 2,000 "general service words considered
suitable as the basis for learning English as a foreign language", The list also presents
information on the frequencies of different meanings of each word based on a
semantic frequency count, The General Service List in- corporated the findings of a
major study on vocabulary selection by the then experts in the field: The Interim
Report on Vocabulary Selection, published in 1936 (Faucett, Palmer, West, and
Thorndike 1936).
● General Service List was for many years a standard reference in making decisions
about what words to use in course books, graded readers, and other teaching
materials. Hindmarsh (1980) is another important vocabulary list and contains 4,500
words grouped into 7 levels

Grammar Selection and Gradation

The need for a systematic approach selecting grammar for teaching purposes was also
a priority for applied linguists from the 1920s. The number of syntactic structures in a
language is large, as is seen from the contents of any grammar books and a number of
attempts have been made to develop basic structures lists for language teaching.
The following principles have been used or suggested as a basis for developing grammatical
syllabuses.
● Simplicity and centrality
 This recommends choosing structures that are simple and more central to the basic
structure of the language than those that are complex and peripheral. By these criteria
the following would Occur in an introductory-level English course: The train arrived.
(Subject Verb) She is a journalist. (Subject Verb Complement) The children are in the
bedroom. (Subject Verb Adverb) We ate the fruit. (Subject Verb Object) I put the
book in the bag. (Subject Verb Object Adverb)
● Frequency
Frequency of occurrence has also been proposed in developing grammatical
syllabuses, but relatively little progress was made in this area for some time because
of the difficulty of deciding on appropriate grammatical units to count and the
difficulty of coding grammatical structures for analysis.
● Subject and verb ellipsis
example: "Don't know" instead of "I don't know." Topic highlighting, such as "That
house on the comer, is that where you live?"
● Tails
Such as the following phrases at the end of sentences: "you know," "don't they?"
● Reporting verbs
Reporting verbs, such as "I was saying," "They were telling me."
● Learnability
It has sometimes been argued that grammatical syllabuses - should take into account
the order in which grammatical items are acquired in second language learning.
For example, Dulay and Burt (1973, 1974) of development of grammatical items,
based on data elicited during interviews with second language learners at different
proficiency levels:
1. Nouns 11. WH questions
2. Verbs 12. Present continuous
3. Adjectives 13. Directions
4. Verb be 14. Possessive adjectives
5. Possessive pronouns 15. Comparatives
6. Personal pronouns 16. Offers
7. Adverb of times 17. Simple future
8. Request 18. Simple past
9. Simple present 19. Infinitives/gerunds
10. Futures 20. First conditional
 In addition to decisions about which grammatical items to include in any syllabus, the
sequencing or gradation of grammatical items has to be determined. The need to sequence
course content in a systematic way is by no means a recent concern.
The following approaches to gradation are possible:
● Linguistic distance: Lado (1957) proposed that structures that are simi- lar to those in
the native language should be taught first. "Those elements that are similar to [the
learner's] native language will be simple for him and those elements that are different
will be difficult" (Lado 1957, 2).
● Intrinsic difficulty: This principle argues that simple structures should be taught
before complex ones and is the commonest criterion used to justify the sequence of
grammatical items in a syllabus.
● Communicative need: Some structures will be needed early on and can- not be
postponed, despite their difficulty, such as the simple past in English, since it is
difficult to avoid making reference to past events for very long in a course.
● Frequency: The frequency of occurrence of structures and grammatical items in the
target language may also affect the order in which they appear in a syllabus, although
as we noted, little information of this sort is avail- able to syllabus planners.
In addition to these factors, in designing a course one is also faced with a choice
between two approaches to the sequencing of items in the course, namely, a linear or a
cyclical or spiral gradation. With a linear gradation, the items are introduced one.at a time
and practiced intensively before the next item appears. With a cyclical gradation, items are
reintroduced throughout the course. In a course in which the material is ordered cyclically the
individual items are not presented and discussed exhaustively, as in strictly linear gradation,
but only essential aspects of the item in question are presented initially. These items then
keep recurring in the course, and every time new aspects will be introduced which will be
related to and integrated with what has already been learned.

Assumption Underlying Early Approaches to Syllabus Design

The writer of this paper is analyzing the assumption that is underlying in early
approaches to syllabus design. Based on (Richard, 2001) the writers know that there are some
assumptions:
1. The basic units of language are vocabulary and grammar
Based on this assumption, many teachers are using the vocabulary and grammar as its
material to begin the learning process. The vocabulary might help students to
 understand the sentences which are provided in the textbook or coursebook and
grammar will assist students to learn how to create a group of words into a good
sentence.
2. Learners everywhere have the same needs
Every learner has different needs because students come from different background of
studies and the teachers have to adjust students’ needs.
3. Learners’ need are identified exclusively in terms of language needs
In language learning, of course students’ needs are identified by the terms of language
needs itself because the students will learn about the small form of language before
they are going to learn more to make a good sentence or define a condition in written
or orally.
4. The process of learning a language is largely determined by the textbook
Learning process is determined by practice. When they are learning about speaking,
they have to confidently speak up in front of many people to implement what they
have learnt; when they learn about reading, the input might be come from the
textbook because the text itself coming from the book or might be sourced from the
internet; when the students learn about listening, of course it will be rarely use
textbook and practice it through audio; and the writing itself seemed the output of
reading. It means, if we read more, we are expected to be able to write—even though
there are several students who are unable to make a good paragraph for practicing
writing.

CONCLUSION
Curriculum has its own time of development because as the teachers and curriculum
developer, we have to consider a lot of the effectiveness in students’ learning process. The
result of implementation the curriculum into a specific class means the curriculum developer
are expecting the teachers might develop the learning process and materials that is being
taught.

REFERENCE
Kaharuddin, A. (2018). The communicative grammar translation method: a practical method
to teach communication skills of English. ETERNAL (English, Teaching, Learning,
and  Research Journal), 4(2), 232-254.
Onishchuk, I., Ikonnikova, M., Antonenko, T., Kharchenko, I., Shestakova, S., Kuzmenko,
 N., & Maksymchuk, B. (2020). Characteristics of foreign language education in
foreign countries and ways of applying foreign experience in pedagogical universities
of Ukraine. Revista Romaneasca Pentru Educatie Multidimensionala, 12(3), 44-65. 
Richards, J.C. 2001. Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. 
Azhar M. Nur. (2011). Tugas Guru Sebagai Pegembang Kurikulum. Jurnal Ilmiah
DIDAKTIKA Agustus. Vol. XII No. 1, 559-67
Agustin, R.S., & Puro, S. (2016). Strategy Of Curriculum Development Based On Project
Based Learning (Case Study : SMAN 1 Tanta Tanjung Tabalong South Of
Kalimantan). PROSIDING ICTTE FKIP UNS 2015. Vol 1, Nomor 1,
Kurniawan, O.,  & Noviana, E. (2013). Penerapan Kurikulum 2013 dalam Meningkatkan
Keterampilan, Sikap dan Pengetahuan. Jurnal Primary Program Studi Pendidikan
Guru Sekolah Dasar Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan Universitas Riau.
Volume 6, Nomor 2 
Bahri, S. (2011). Pengembangan Kurikulum Dasar dan Pengembangamnya. Jurnal Ilmiah
Islam Futura

Fitriani Ramadhanti Supena (1908103234)

Laeni (1908103135)
Class : TBI 6B
Course: Curriculum Analysis and Development
Theme: The Origin of Language Curriculum Development

5 Questions:
1. What are the factors that must be considered in vocabulary selection and also in
grammar selection and gradation?
2. What are obstacles that happen when developing a language curriculum?
3. How long does the curriculum developers ensure to the education sectors that the
curriculum that has been made is effective to the language learning process?
4. When will we change the curriculum if the old curriculum seems not suitable
anymore with the language learning process?
5. What is an ideal curriculum that should be implemented in students' language learning
process?