Module 2.

A Brief History of Language Teaching 1

Modern techniques for teaching foreign languages draw on a rich history,

originating in the study of Classical Latin in Europe and passing through
several stages. Different countries, organizations, and teachers prefer
different methods.
“there is … no convincing evidence from pedagogic research, including
research into second language instruction, that there is any universally or
‘best’ way to teach. Although, clearly, particular approaches are likely to
prove more effective in certain situations, blanket prescription is difficult to
support theoretically. The art of teaching does not lie in accessing a
checklist of skills but rather in knowing which approach to adopt with
different students, in different curricular circumstances or in different
cultural settings.” (Klapper 2001:17)

Studying educational theories can improve our teaching for several

reasons:
a. Theories can provide explanations for why certain techniques or
activities work;
b. They can also provide useful guidance to teachers who are trying to
think about their teaching methods or how they organise their syllabus;
they can provide inspiration for our classes;
c. They certify or clarify observations that teachers have already made in
their classes.
It is important to keep things in perspective and to analyse whether these
theories fit our teaching situation and our students before trying to
introduce them. There is moreover wide divergence in the various aims of
language teaching and learning. Quist (2000) discusses a ‘clash of
cultures’ in language teaching in universities, between the liberal tradition
which emphasises the cultural and intellectual aims of language teaching
and learning in Higher Education, and the instrumental paradigm which
emphasises ‘real-world’ skills with “an emphasis on speaking and
interpersonal skills at the cost of writing or accuracy” (Quist 2000: 131).
Richards and Rodgers (1985) design the distinction Approach, Design
and Procedure, encompassed within the overall concept of Method, “an
umbrella term for the specification and interrelation of theory and practice”
(Richards & Rodgers, 1985: 16-17) where
☺ Approach refers to the beliefs and theories about language,
language learning and teaching that underlie a method.
☺ Design relates the theories of language and learning to the form and
function of teaching materials and activities in the classroom.
☺ Procedure concerns the techniques and practices employed in the
classroom as consequences of particular approaches and designs.

According to Douglas Brown’s in Teaching by Principles: An Interactive

Approach to Language Pedagogy (Longman/ Pearson Education, White
Plains, New York, 2001: 15) methods are “specific, identifiable clusters of
theoretically compatible classroom techniques”, and methodology refers
to “pedagogical practices in general…Whatever considerations are
involved in ‘how to teach’ are methodological” .

Initial Approaches

Pedagogic approaches are typically informed by both a theory of language

and a theory of language learning. Debate and developments around the
methods of language teaching and learning have been ongoing since the
time of Comenius in the 17th century, if not before. The complexity of
contexts and the greater appreciation of the issues lead us to the
conclusion that the idea of a single, universal, optimum method for
teaching and learning modern languages does not exist. Instead, teachers
now acknowledge the need to adopt an informed eclectic approach,
incorporating elements from the range of methods available.

Most language teaching today emphasise oral communication, although

many Higher Education programmes, place greater emphasis upon
grammatical mastery and reading. Initial approaches came about before
the Second World War, when operational necessity fuelled a new interest
in language teaching methods. From the seventeenth to the nineteenth
centuries, Latin was studied in Europe as an intellectual exercise, with
students memorizing grammar and vocabulary with the aim of reading and
writing accurately. Students spent their time committing conjugations to
memory and wrestling with grammar and rhetoric.

The Grammar- Translation Method

Goals: to be able to read literature in target language, learn grammar rules
and vocabulary, develop mental acuity.
The Grammar -Translation Method appeared after modern languages
(French, German and English) started to be taught in schools. Literary
language was seen as superior to spoken language, culture equated with
literature and fine arts. For a long time, it was uncritically assumed that
this was the only way languages should be taught. Teachers of these new
languages fell back on the traditional way of teaching Latin, and so the
fundamentals of the language class did not change.
In USA, the Coleman Report in 1929 recommended an emphasis on the
skill of reading in schools and colleges as it was felt at that time that there
would be few opportunities to practise the spoken language. Grammar
was usually learned deductively on the basis of grammar rules and
examples. Students were also given lists of vocabulary together with their
translation equivalents in the mother tongue. They had to memorize all
these ‘facts’ about the language and they were often tested on their
knowledge by being asked to recite the paradigms or give the translation
of words. Then the students had to use their acquired knowledge by
translating sentences or texts from mother tongue (L1) to foreign language
(L2) or vice-versa. The method consisted of giving the students
grammatical rules and paradigms- lists of forms.
It focused on developing students’ appreciation of the target language’s
literature as well as teaching the language. Students were presented with
target language reading passages and answered questions that followed.
They also translated reading passages in the target language to the native
language. Class worked in a highly structured way, with the teacher
controlling all activities. The teacher had authority; students followed
instructions to earn what teacher knew. Most interaction was teacher to
student; student-initiated interaction and student-student interaction was
minimal. The approach emphasized vocabulary, grammar; reading,
writing were primary skills; pronunciation and other speaking/ listening
skills were not emphasized, native language provided key to meanings in
target language.
Means for evaluation: tests required translation from native to target and
target to native language; applying grammar rules, answering questions
about foreign culture, heavy emphasis placed on correct answers; teacher
supplied correct answers when students could not.

Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979:3) listed the major characteristics of

Grammar-Translation as follows:
✓ Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the
target language;
✓ Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words;
✓ Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are
given;
✓ Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and
instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words;
✓ Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early;
✓ Little attention is paid to the context of texts, which are treated as
exercises in grammatical analysis;
✓ Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected
sentences from the target language into the mother tongue;
✓ Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
The Grammar Translation method is known to be dull and monotonous for
students, but easy for teachers to implement and teach. It is still widely
used, even though there is no theory that justifies it or that “attempts to
relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology, or educational theory"
(Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
The Direct Method (The Oral Method or the Natural Method)

Goals: to communicate in target language; to think in target language.

The Direct Method grew out of dissatisfaction with previous methods of

instruction. According to it, classroom instruction is carried out entirely in
the target language, preferably by native speakers. It is essentially the
“product of enlightened amateurism” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). The
simple idea behind the direct method was that we learn languages by
hearing them spoken and engaging in conversation, reading and writing
can be developed later. The main principle was to immerse students in
the target language. It allows students to perceive meaning directly
through the target language because no translation is allowed. Visual aids
and pantomime are used to clarify the meaning of vocabulary items and
concepts. Students speak a great deal in the target language and
communicate as if in real situations. Reading and writing are taught from
the beginning through speaking and listening skills are emphasized.
Grammar is learned inductively. The teacher’s role is to direct class
activities, but students and teacher are partners in the teaching/ learning
process. Students are taught to associate meaning and the target
language directly. Grammar rules are learned and accompanied by
translations and notes in their native language.
New target language words or phrases are introduced through the use of
realia, pictures, or pantomime, never the native language. Students speak
in the target language a great deal and communicate as if in real
situations. Interaction: at first, teacher initiates all interaction and students
respond only nonverbal or with a few words in target language that they
have practised. Eventually, students initiate interaction. Students interact
with each other throughout the process, as directed by teacher. Great
importance is placed on students’ feelings, in making them feel confident
and relaxed. The approach emphasizes vocabulary, some explicit
grammar. Students focus on communicative use rather than form;
reading, writing also have place, translation clarifies dialogues’ meaning,
teacher uses native language, more at first than later, when necessary.
Means of evaluation: students’ normal in class performance is evaluated.
There are no tests, which would threaten relaxed environment; errors are
not immediately corrected; teacher models correct forms later during
class. Its drawbacks include the need for skilled native speakers as
teachers and the rigidity of trying to run classes completely in the target
language when sometimes a quick lapse into L1 would solve problems
more quickly.

Richards and Rodgers (2001: 12) summarized the principles as follows:

✓ Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target
language;
✓ Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught;
✓ Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded
progression organized around questions-and-answer exchanges
between teachers and students in small intensive classes;
✓ Grammar was taught inductively;
✓ New teaching points were taught through modelling and practice;
✓ Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects,
pictures; Abstract vocabulary was taught through association of
ideas;
✓ Both speech and listening comprehension were taught;
✓ Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

Situational Language Teaching

From the 1920s onwards, the Direct Method was developed into a more
sophisticated one called Situational Language Teaching. This method is
centred on the oral practice of carefully graded structures. Its key feature
was that language was explained using a situation, being then practised
by means of guided repetition, dictation, drills, and oral-based reading and
writing tasks. Situational language teaching emphasized oral practice,
grammar, and sentence patterns. It also introduced the extremely
influential P-P-P lesson model (presentation, practice, production). The
method consists of using concrete objects, pictures, and realia along with
actions and gestures to demonstrate the meaning of new items. This
allows teachers to dispense with explanation or L1.

Following the Second World War, and up to the 1980s, EFL was
dominated by a succession of methods that claimed to have the answers
to the problem of how to teach. While none of them provided a satisfactory
complete solution, many have useful elements.

The Audio-lingual/ Audiovisual Method (the Army Method)

It is an intensive, oral-based approach developed by the US Army to train

interpreters after World War II. It involves memorizing dialogues and doing
language drills. It went out of fashion due to at-tacks on its theoretical
foundations and disappointment in its results. It was also felt to be boring
and unsatisfying for students. In this method, grounded in the habit
formation model of behaviourist psychology and on a Structural
Linguistics theory of language, the emphasis was on memorisation
through pattern drills and conversation practices rather than promoting
communicative ability.

Characteristics of the Audio-Methods (Prator & Celce-Murcia, 1979)

✓ New material is presented in dialogue form;
✓ There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and
overlearning
✓ Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis taught
one at a time;
✓ Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills;
✓ There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by
inductive analogy rather than by deductive explanation;
✓ Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context;
✓ There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids;
 ✓ Great importance is attached to pronunciation;
✓ Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted;
✓ Successful responses are immediately reinforced;
✓ There is a great effort to get students to produce error-free
utterances;
✓ There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.

Total Physical Response (TPR)

Goals: to provide an enjoyable learning experience, stimulating feelings

of success and low anxiety, having a minimum of the stress that typically
accompanies learning a foreign language.
Created by James Asher, a professor of psychology, TPR is an excellent
complementary technique, especially for beginners' and children's
classes. As a self-contained method, however, it proved unsuitable at
intermediate and advanced levels. It places primary importance on
listening comprehension, emulating the early stages of mother language
acquisition and then moving to speaking, reading and writing.
Grammatical structures and vocabulary are emphasised, imbedded in
imperatives. The method is introduced in students’ native language, but
rarely used later in course. Meaning is made clear through actions.
Understanding precedes production; spoken language precedes the
written word. Students demonstrate their comprehension by acting out
commands issued by the teacher; teacher provides novel and often
humorous variations of the commands. Activities are designed to be fun
and to allow students to assume active learning roles. Activities eventually
include games and skills. At first the teacher’s role is to give commands
and students follow them. Once students are ready to speak, they take on
directing roles. Teacher interacts with individual students and with the
group, starting with the teacher speaking and the students responding
non-verbal. Means for evaluation: teacher can evaluate students through
simple observation of their actions. Formal evaluation is achieved by
commanding a student to perform a series of actions, students are
expected to make errors once they begun speaking. Teachers only correct
major errors and do this unobtrusively.

The Silent Way- Based on the premise that teachers should be silent while
students should produce language in the classroom, the Silent Way
depends on colored wooden rods and pronunciation charts to aid students
in figuring out language with minimal teacher input.
Suggestopedia- Slightly ridiculous method that was devised as a kind of
placebo, using scientific jargon and baroque music to create the right
learning mood in learners.
Whole Language- Whole language is based on "authenticity" of language.
It is characterized by only using authentic texts, having meaningful
interaction, and doing exercises with real purpose. The actual
characteristics of Whole Language are very hard to pin down beyond this.
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) - NLP is a set of working principles
for directing or guiding therapeutic change, which have been adapted for
EFL. It could be considered more an attitude than an approach.