UNIVERSITY OF ANTIQUE

SIBALOM, ANTIQUE
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Interaction between Cells and their Environment

The Extracellular Space
An overview of how cells are organized into
tissues and how they interact with one
another and with their extracellular
environment.
If we begin at the plasma membrane and
move outward, we can examine the types of
extracellular elements that surround various
types of cells.

Glycocalyx (cell coat)

 It is located on the outer surface of the plasma
membrane
 The glycocalyx is thought to mediate cell–cell
and cell–substratum interactions, provide
mechanical protection to cells, serve as a
barrier to particles moving toward the plasma
membrane, and bind important regulatory
factors that act on the cell surface.
 This layer is very prominent in some types of
cells, such as the epithelial cells that line the mammalian digestive tract.

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
 An organized network of extracellular
materials presents beyond the immediate
vicinity of the plasma membrane. Many type
of animal cells are surrounded by an ECM
 Rather than being inert filler material, ECM
is a dynamic, physiologically active
component of all living tissues.
 In addition to providing structural support
for the cells embedded within a tissue,
provides both physical and biochemical
signals– These signals guide their division, growth & development. In other words, ECM
largely determines how a tissue looks and functions.
 ECM takes diverse forms in different tissues and organisms but it composes of similar
protein. Most protein ls in cells are compact and globular; those of extracellular space are
extended and fibrous
 Among their diverse function, ECM proteins serve as scaffolds, girders, mortar and wire
 ECM is very prominent in connective tissues (cartilages, bones, tendons, and corneal
stroma)
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

One of the best defined extracellular matrices is the basement membrane (or basal
lamina).The basement membrane (or basal lamina) it is a continuous sheet 50 to 200 nm thick
that (1) surrounds nerve fibers, muscles, and fat cells; (2) underlies the basal surface of epithelial
tissues, such as the epidermis of the skin), or the lining of the digestive and respiratory tracts;
and (3) underlies the inner endothelial lining of blood vessels.
Functions of Basement membrane
 Basement membranes provide mechanical
support for the attached cells
 Generate signals that maintain cell survival,
serve as a substratum for cell migration,
 Separate adjacent tissues within an organ,
and act as a barrier to the passage of
macromolecules.

COMPONENTS OF EXTRACELLULAR
MATRIX
The major components of extracellular matrices
include collagens, proteoglycans, and a variety
of proteins, such as fibronectin, and laminin.
a. Collagen
 Comprise a family of fibrous
glycoproteins that are present only in
extracellular matrices
 Found throughout the animal kingdom and provide high tensile strength
 Estimated at 1 mm in diameter and can suspend a weight of 10 kg (22lb) without
breaking
 The most abundant protein in the human body having 25% of all protein
 Collagen is produced primarily by fibroblasts which can also be seen in other types of
connective tissues
 To date, 28 distinct human types collagen are identified, each type is restricted to sites in
body but 2 or more can be present together in the same ECM; functional complexity can
be achieved by mixing several types in same fibers hence called “heterotypic.”
 There are many differences among collagen family members, but all shares 2 important
structure features:
All collagen molecules are trimers
consisting of 3 polypeptide chains, called α
chain
Along at least part of their length, the three
polypeptide chains of a collagen molecules
are wound around each other to form a rod-
like triple helix
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

 Α chains of collagen molecules contain large amount of proline (&lysine) residues are
hydroxylated after synthesis of the collagen polypeptide
 There are also fibrillar collagens (types I,
II, III), they assemble into rigid, cable-like
fibrils, which in turn assembles into thicker
fibers that are typically large enough to be
seen in microscope
 Gives their abundance and widespread
distribution, serious disorders can be caused
by abnormalities in fibrillar collagen
formation such as:
Burns or Traumatic injuries to internal
organ can cause scar tissue buildup (largely
fibrillar collagen)
Type I collagen mutations- osteogenesis imperfecta, potentially lethal condition
characterized by extremely fragile bones, thin skin and weak tendons
Type II collagen mutations- alter cartilage properties; causes dwarfism and skeletal
deformities
b. Proteoglycans
 Basement membrane and other ECMs
contain large amounts of distinctive type of
protein polysaccharide complex called a
proteoglycan
 Consist of a core protein to which
glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains are
covalently attached
Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) are composed of
a repeating disaccharide having a structure (-
A-B-A-B-); they are very acidic due to both
carboxyl and sulfate groups on their
component sugar rings
 Due to sulfated GAG negative charges,
proteoglycans bind large number of cations,
which in turn, attract lots of H2O.
 Both sulfated and nonsulfated GAGs are taken widely as health supplement with the aim
of improving the condition of skin and joints.
 Together, collagens and proteoglycans give cartilage and other extracellular matrices
strength and resistance to deformation.

c. Fibronectin
 Consists of a linear array of distinct “building blocks,” or domains, that gives each
polypeptide a modular construction
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

 each fibronectin polypeptide is constructed from a sequence of 30 independently folding

Fn modules of 3 distinct types (FnI, FnII, & FnIII)
 Each of the two polypeptide chains that make up a fibronectin molecule contains;
 Binding sites for numerous components of the ECM, such as collagens,
proteoglycans, and other fibronectin molecules. These binding sites facilitate
interactions that link these diverse molecules into a stable, interconnected
network.
 Binding sites for receptors on the cell surface. These binding sites hold the ECM
in a stable attachment to the cell
 The importance of fibronectin and other extracellular proteins is particularly evident
during embryonic development
For example, the cells of the neural crest, which migrate out of the developing nervous
system into virtually all parts of the embryo, traverse pathways rich in fibrils composed
of interconnected fibronectin molecules.
d. Laminin
 Are a family of extracellular glycoproteins that consist of three different polypeptide
chains linked by disulfide bonds and organized into a molecule resembling a cross with
three short arms and one long arm
 Like fibronectin, extracellular laminins can greatly influence a cell’s potential for
migration, growth, and differentiation.
 For example, laminins play a critical role in the migration of primordial germ cells
(Figure 7.11 a). These cells arise in the yolk sac, which is located outside the embryo
itself, and then migrate by way of the bloodstream and embryonic tissues to the
developing gonad, where they eventually give rise to sperm or eggs.
During their migration, the primordial germ cells traverse surfaces that are particularly
rich in laminin (Figure 7.11 b). Primordial germ cells (green) possess a cell surface
protein that adheres strongly to one of the subunits of the laminin molecule.

Interaction of Cells with Extracellular Materials

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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Integrins
 Integrins are a family of membrane
proteins found only in animals that play
a key role in integrating the
extracellular and intracellular
environments.
 Integrins are composed of two
membrane-spanning polypeptide chains,
an α chain and a β chain, that are
noncovalently linked.
 Many integrins can exist on the surface
of a cell in an inactive conformation.
These integrins can be activated rapidly
by events within the cell that alter the
conformation of the cytoplasmic domains of the integrin’s subunits.
 Integrins have been implicated in two major
types of activities: adhesion of cells to their
substratum (or to other cells) and
transmission of signals between the external
environment and the cell interior.
 Linkage between integrins and their ligands
mediates adhesion between cells and their
environment.
 Binding of proteins to integrins is facilitated
by tripeptide RGD.

Focal Adhesions
 Focal adhesions – scattered, discrete sites for cell adhesion to their substratum in vitro.
 They may act as a
type of sensory
structure.
 Focal adhesions are
dynamic structures
that can be rapidly
disassembled if the
adherent cell is
stimulated to move or
enter mitosis.
 The plasma membrane of a focal adhesion contains large clusters of integrins.
 Focal adhesions are found at the cell membrane where the cytoskeleton interacts with
proteins of the extracellular matrix.
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

 Focal adhesions are capable of creating mechanical forces or responding to such forces.
These properties might be expected from a structure that contains actin and myosin, two
of the cell’s major contractile proteins.
 Focal adhesions are most commonly seen in cells grown in vitro, although similar types
of adhesive contacts are found in certain tissues, such as muscle and tendon.
 Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is a protein tyrosine kinase which is recruited at an early
stage to focal adhesions and which mediates many of the downstream responses.
Hemidesmosomes
 Hemidesmosomes are cell-substratum adhesion
sites that connect the extracellular matrix to the
keratin cytoskeleton.
 Basal attachments of epithelial cells to the
basement membrane in vivo.
 Contain a dense plaque with filaments consisting
of keratin.
 Unlike the filaments of focal adhesions, which
consist of actin, the filaments of the
hemidesmosome are thicker and consist of the
protein keratin.
 Hemidesmosomes are differentiated sites at the
basal surfaces of epithelial cells where the cells
are attached to the underlying basement
membrane.

Interaction of Cells with Other Cell

Direct connections between cells, as well as between cells and the extracellular matrix, are
essential for multicellular organisms’ development and function. Interactions between immune
system cells and interactions that direct white blood cells to sites of tissue inflammation are
examples of transient cell-cell interactions. Stable cell-cell junctions also play a function in the
arrangement of cells in tissues in other circumstance.

Cell Adhesion Proteins

 Cell-cell adhesion is a selective process in which cells adhere
only to cells of the same type. This selectively was first
demonstrated in classical embryo development studies, which
demonstrated that cells from one tissue (e.g., liver) specifically
adhere to cells from the same tissue rather than cells from a
different tissue (e.g., brain).
 Four distinct families of integral membrane proteins plays a major
role in mediating cell-cell adhesion.
1. Selectins
2. Certain members of immunoglobin superfamily (IgSF)
3. Certain members of the integrin family
4. Cadherins
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Selectins
 Comprise an integral
membrane
glycoprotein family
 Binds to specific sugar
arrangement in
oligosaccharides that
project from other
cells’ surfaces.
 The name of this class of cell- surface receptors comes from lectin, a term for a
compound that binds to specific carbohydrate groups.
 During 1960s ─ remove lymphocytes from peripheral lymph nodes, label them
radioactively & reinject
 Selectins possesses a small cytoplasmic domain, a single membrane-spanning domain,
and a large extracellular portion.
 There are three known selectins:
1. E-selectin – on endothelial cells
2. P-selectin – on platelets and endothelial cells
3. L-selectin – leukocytes (white blood cells)
The Immunoglobulin Family & Integrins
Are blood-borne antibodies (immunoglobulin) structure was elucidated in the 1960s; this was a
milestone in the understanding of the
immune response.
 Immunoglobulins are a family of
proteins; they consist of
polypeptide chains composed of
a number of similar domains;
most are present on lymphocyte
surfaces as integral proteins
 Most IgSF members are involved
in various aspects of immune
function, but some of them
mediate calcium-independent
cell-cell adhesion
 Most IgSFs mediate specific interactions of lymphocytes with cells needed for immune
response (other lymphocytes, macrophages, target cells) but some mediate adhesion
between nonimmune cells
 Like fibronectin & many other cell-adhesion proteins, IgSF cell-adhesion molecules
exhibit modular construction; composed of individual domains similar in structure to
domains in other proteins
 L1 importance in neural development has been revealed in several ways ─ human L1
gene mutations can have devastating consequences.
 Various types of proteins serve as ligands for IgSF cell-surface molecules ─ may bind to
same or different IgSFs on other cells or a few integrins
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Cadherins
Is a large family of glycoproteins mediating Ca2+−¿ dependent cell-cell adhesion; also transmit
signals from ECMto cytoplasm; found in many different cell types with specific body
distribution
 Typically join cells of similar type to one another
mostly by binding to the same cadherin present on
neighboring cell surface; this was demonstrated by
the following experiment
 Like selectins & IgSF molecules, cadherins have a
modular construction
 These “classical” cadherins have a relatively large
extracellular segment consisting of 5 tandem
domains of similar size & structure, 1
transmembrane segment & a small cytoplasmic
domain
 X-ray crystallography has been carried out on the
extracellular portions of cadherins
 Cell-cell adhesion results from interaction between
extracellular domains of cadherins from opposing
cells to form a “cell adhesion zipper”, which, if
extensive, would hold cells together with great strength
 Cadherin-mediated adhesion may be responsible for ability of like cells to sort out of
mixed aggregates
 Mesodermal cell movement in gastrulation exemplify mesenchymal-epithelial transition
 Cadherins & other cell-adhesion molecules play a key role in such activities by changing
cell adhesive properties
Tight Junctions: Sealing the Extracellular Space
Tight Junctions (Zonula Occludens or ZO)
 Are the apical cell-cell adhesion that regulate
paracellular permeability and are critical for
epithelial cell polarity?
 Characteristics of epithelial and endothelial
cells.
 Located at the apical end of the junctional
complex between adjacent epithelial cells.
 Sites where integral proteins of two adjacent
membranes meet.
 Block the diffusion of solutes and water.
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Claudins
 Identified by Mikio Furuse in the tight junction
laboratory of the late Shoichiro Tsukita.Are a
family of tight junction membrane proteins that
regulate paracellular permeability of epithelia,
likely by forming the lining of the paracellular
pore?
 Derived from the Latin word “claudere,” which
means to close because it was anticipated that
these proteins might constitute the tight
junctional barrier.

Gap Junctions And Plasmodesmata:Mediating Intercellular Communication

 Cells have protein receptors on their plasma membranes’ extracellular surfaces. When a
molecule within the matrix binds to the receptor, it changes the receptor’s molecular
structure. The receptor, in turn, changes the microfilaments’ conformation positioned just
inside the plasma membrane. These conformational changes induce chemical signals
inside the cell that reach the nucleus and turn “on” or “off” the transcription of specific
DNA sections, which affects the associated protein production, thus changing the
activities within the cell.
Intercellular Junctions
 Cells can also communicate with each other via direct contact, or intercellular junctions.
There are differences in the ways that plant and animal and fungal cells communicate.
Plasmodesmata are junctions between plant cells; whereas, animal cell contacts include
tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes.
Plasmodesmata
 In general, long stretches of the plasma
membranes of neighboring plant cells cannot
touch one another because the cell wall that
surrounds each cell separates them.
 A plasmodesma is a channel between two
adjacent plant cells’ cell walls.
Plasmodesmata allow materials to pass from
one plant cell’s cytoplasm to an adjacent cell’s
cytoplasm.
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Tight Junctions
 A tight junction is a watertight seal between
two adjacent animal cells. Proteins
(predominantly two proteins called claudins
and occludins) tightly hold the cells against
each other.
 Tight junctions form watertight connections
between adjacent animal cells. Proteins create
tight junction adherence.
This tight adherence prevents materials from leaking
between the cells; tight junctions are typically found
in epithelial tissues that line internal organs and cavities, and comprise most of the skin. For
example, the tight junctions of the epithelial cells lining your urinary bladder prevent urine from
leaking out into the extracellular space.
Desmosomes
 Also only in animal cells
are desmosomes, which act like spot
welds between adjacent epithelial cells.
Cadherins, short proteins in the plasma
membrane connect to intermediate
filaments to create desmosomes. The
cadherins connect two adjacent cells and
maintain the cells in a sheet-like
formation in organs and tissues that
stretch, like the skin, heart, and muscles.
 A desmosome forms a very strong spot weld between cells. Linking cadherins and
intermediate filaments create it.
Gap Junctions
 Gap junctions in animal cells are like
plasmodesmata in plant cells in that they are
channels between adjacent cells that allow for
transporting ions, nutrients, and other substances
that enable cells to communicate. Structurally,
however, gap junctions and plasmodesmata
differ.
 A gap junction is a protein-lined pore that allows
water and small molecules to pass between
adjacent animal cells. 
 Gap junctions develop when a set of six proteins
(connexins) in the plasma membrane arrange themselves in an elongated donut-like
configuration – a connexon. When the connexon’s pores (“doughnut holes”) in adjacent
animal cells align, a channel between the two cells forms. Gap junctions are particularly
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important in cardiac muscle. The electrical signal for the muscle to contract passes
efficiently through gap junctions, allowing the heart muscle cells to contract in tandem.
Section Summary
 Animal cells communicate via their extracellular matrices and are connected to each
other via tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. Plant cells are connected and
communicate with each other via plasmodesmata.

 When protein receptors on the plasma membrane’s surface of an animal cell bind to a
substance in the extracellular matrix, a chain of reactions begins that changes activities
taking place within the cell. Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent plant cells,
while gap junctions are channels between adjacent animal cells. However, their structures
are quite different. A tight junction is a watertight seal between two adjacent cells, while
a desmosome acts like a spot weld.
Cell wall
 A cell wall is a non-living, tough, flexible and sometimes fairly-rigid layer that surrounds
the cell.
 It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support
and protection and also acts as a filtering mechanism.
 Plant cells develop turgor pressure that pushes against their surrounding wall, as a result
the wall gives the enclosed cell its characteristic polyhedral shape.
 The presence of cell wall distinguishes plant cells from animal cells.
 Cell walls arise as a thin cell plate that forms between the plasma membrane of newly
formed daughter cells following cell
division.
 The cell walls matures by the incorporation
of other materials that are assembled inside
the cell and secreted into the cellular space.
 The cell wall of a young, undifferentiated
plant cell must be able to grow in
conjunction with the enormous growth of
cell it provides.
 The walls of growing cells are called
primary walls, and they possess an
extensibility that is lacking in the thicker
secondary walls present around many
mature plant cell.
 The transformation from primary to
secondary cell wall occurs as the wall increases in cellulose content and in most cases
incorporates in a phenol-containing polymer called lignin.
 Lignin provides structural support and is major component of wood. The lignin in the
walls of water conducting cells of the xylem provides the support required to move water
through the plant.
Functions of Cell wall
 It provides support for individual cells.
 Cell walls serve collectively as a type of skeleton for the entire plant.
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 Cell walls also protect the cell against damage from mechanical abrasion and pathogens
and they mediate cell-cell interaction.
 Plant cell wall is a source of signals that alter the activities of the cells that it contacts.

Structure of the Cell wall

 Plant cell walls contain fibrous element (cellulose) embedded in a non-fibrous, gel-like
matrix.
 Cellulose, provides the fibrous component of the cell wall, and proteins and pectin
provides the matrix.
 Cellulose molecules are organized in a rod-like microfibrils, that confers rigidity on the
cell wall and provide resistance to tensile (pulling) forces.
 Each microfibril is about 5 nm in
diameter and is typically composed of
bundles of 36 cellulose molecules
oriented parallel to one another and held
together by hydrogen bonds.

  The walls of many plant cells

are composed of layers in which the
microfibrils of one layer are oriented
at approximately 90° to those adjacent
layers.
 Cellulose molecules are polymerized at the cell surface.
 Glucose subunits are added to the end
of a growing cellulose molecule by a
multi-subunit enzyme called cellulose
synthase.
 The subunits of the enzyme are
organized into a six-membered ring or
rosette which is embedded within the
plasma membrane whereas materials in
the matrix are synthesized within the
cytoplasm and carried to cell surface in
secretory vesicles.
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Matrix of the Cell wall

 Hemicellulose are branched polysaccharides whose backbone consist of one sugar such
as glucose and side chains of other sugar such as xylose. Hemicellulose molecules bind to
the surfaces of cellulose microfibrils, cross-linking them into a resilient structural
network.
 Pectins are heterogeneous class of negatively charged polysaccharides containing
galacturonic acid. Pectins hold water and thus form an extensive hydrated gel that fills
in the spaces between the fibrous elements.
 Proteins, the expansins facilitate cell growth. It causes localized relaxation of the cell
wall, which allows the cell to elongate in that site in response to the turgor pressure
generated within the cell. Cell wall-associated protein kinases span the plasma membrane
and are thought to transmit signals from the cell wall to the cytoplasm.

GROUP 4:
Lumbo, Jesril
Jacinto, Dame Yomira
Manalo, Cherry Ann
Mandeoya, Lovely
Maravilla, Andre
Mosquera, Aliah
BSED-3D