Fatigue and Healing Characteristics of RAP Binder Blends

Ramya Sri Mullapudi 1; Priyadarshini Saha Chowdhury, S.M.ASCE 2;

and Kusam Sudhakar Reddy, Aff.M.ASCE 3
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Abstract: Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) mixes generally have good moisture and rutting resistance. However, the fatigue performance
of the RAP mixes is a matter of concern because the RAP binder is generally brittle because of age hardening. Asphalt mixes can heal and
recover from the fatigue damage caused by repeated wheel load application. The healing characteristics of the mix depend to some extent on
the flow characteristics as well as the chemical makeup of the binders. Linear amplitude sweep (LAS) testing was performed for evaluating
the fatigue performance of RAP binders. The fatigue and healing characteristics of different virgin-RAP binder blends were measured in an
oscillation fatigue test conducted with varying rest periods using dynamic shear rheometer. The slopes of the fatigue life versus rest period
plots were taken as indicators of the effect of rest period on fatigue life or healing indices (HI). Different rheological and chemical parameters
measured in terms of surface free energy and the indices calculated using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy correlated well with
the healing potential of RAP binders. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003284. © 2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) binder blends; Binder fatigue parameter; Healing; Linear amplitude sweep (LAS);
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy; Surface free energy.

Introduction fatigue models to estimate the field fatigue performance of the

Fatigue cracking is one of the main distresses occurring in asphalt
concrete layers (Xiao et al. 2009). For a given set of loading con-
ditions, stiffer the mix, the smaller will be the tensile strain in the
pavement layer. However, stiffer mixes are generally considered
to be associated with higher brittleness or lower flexibility, which
can have a negative influence on the fatigue resistance. Use of re-
claimed asphalt pavement (RAP) material in asphalt mixes, without
any rejuvenators, generally has a stiffening effect on the mix due
to the stiffer aged RAP binders. The interaction between the RAP
binder and virgin binder in a RAP mix is known to be complex
and theoretically varying from no-blending (black rock) to full-
blending (100%) situations. Thus, the fatigue behavior of RAP
mixes is more complex and difficult to predict compared with that
of conventional mixes without RAP. Shu et al. (2008), Tabaković
et al. (2010), Al-Qadi et al. (2012), and Ma et al. (2017) reported
increases in fatigue life with increases in the RAP content in the
mix. On the other hand, some research studies (McDaniel et al.
2000; Miró et al. 2011; Riccardi et al. 2017; López et al. 2019)
suggested that fatigue life decreases with increase in RAP content.
In general, the laboratory-measured fatigue life will be different
from the fatigue life observed in the field because a number of
parameters vary between the laboratory and the field. Shift factors
are applied to the laboratory fatigue lives or to the laboratory
1 (Bahia et al. 1999; Smith and Hesp 2000; Kim et al. 2002, 2012;
Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, West Bengal, India; Assistant
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Bharat Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Mangalpally 501510, Telangana, India (corresponding
author). Email: ramyamullapudi.nitw@gmail.com
2
Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Tech-
nology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, West Bengal, India.
3
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, West Bengal, India.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on October 13, 2019; approved on
January 27, 2020; published online on May 27, 2020. Discussion period
open until October 27, 2020; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561.
mixtures tested in the laboratory (Guo 2007). Healing is one of
the factors contributing to shift factor. Healing is the ability of the
material to recover from damage due to cracking. The degree of
healing or recovery from damage depends on the conditions
(temperature and crack closing forces) to which the damaged
(microcracked and macrocracked) material is subjected and the rest
period available between the application of successive load pulses
to recover from damage. Healing in bituminous binders and mixes
is governed by different phenomena and occurs predominantly by
the flow of binders (González et al. 2018). Thus, the time available
between load pulses plays a crucial role in the degree of healing that
can be achieved under a given set of conditions. The binder param-
eters, which essentially control the healing potential of the mix,
vary with the original quality and the age of the binder (Bhasin
et al. 2011; Vo et al. 2019). Because healing is a key element in
defining the fatigue performance of mixes, many researchers fo-
cused on the measurement of the healing characteristics of binders.
A dynamic shear rheometer (DSR)-based fatigue testing pro-
cedure was commonly used (Qiu 2012) for the evaluation of the
healing ability of binders. Other test parameters such as complex
modulus and dissipated energy, among others, were also consid-
ered. Time-sweep binder fatigue tests were conducted in the past
over a temperature range of 5°C–25°C, and over frequency and
shear stress ranges of 1–25 Hz and 60–400 kPa, respectively
Lu et al. 2003; Bodin et al. 2004; Santagata et al. 2009; Shen et al.
2010; Van den Bergh and Van de Ven 2012). These conditions of
temperature, frequency, and stress level ensure that the specimen
fails in the DSR test due to the effect of fatigue and not by shear
flow (Shen et al. 2010). The test was done in stress or strain control
mode by applying intermittent or interrupted loading sequence.
Although every load pulse in the field pavement section is followed
by a rest period of certain duration, the laboratory intermittent
fatigue or other DSR-based tests were conducted by giving rest
periods typically after every 10th or 100th load cycle.
In the time-sweep tests, the loading is usually applied until the
complex shear modulus (G
) or the dynamic viscosity, reduced by a

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 selected percentage (20%–70%) of the initial value. Rest periods of
1–48 h duration were commonly selected (Stimilli et al. 2012; Tan
et al. 2012; Shan et al. 2013). The specimens were conditioned for a
specified duration at the test temperature or at an elevated temper-
ature to simulate the greater healing potential expected at higher
temperatures in summer (Shan et al. 2010; Stimilli et al. 2012;
Tan et al. 2012; Ling et al. 2012; Shan et al. 2013). The evaluation
of the healing capability of binders was done in terms of the
increase in the fatigue life or improvement in the stiffness of the
binder due to the availability of rest periods. Increase in the dura-
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tion of the rest period has been reported to have a beneficial influ-
ence on the healing capability (Shan et al. 2010; Tan et al. 2012;
Ling et al. 2012; Shan et al. 2013). Most of the studies discussed
here in the context of healing of binders and mixes were carried out
on conventional binders and mixes.
The dependence of the performance of bituminous mixtures on
the chemical properties of the binders has been an area of research
focus for quite some time. Changes in the chemical composition
of the binder can influence the rheological properties of the binders
which, in turn, affect the pavement performance. The Fourier trans-
form infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) technique is commonly em-
ployed to estimate the presence of different functional groups in
the binder. Similarly, surface free energy of asphalt binders, which
can be used to explain the work of cohesion and adhesion (Cheng
et al. 2002; Huang et al. 2005), can be related to the fatigue crack-
ing and healing characteristics of asphalt binders and mixtures
(Little and Bhasin 2006). Different methods such as Wilhelmy
plate, pendant drop, maximum bubble pressure method, and sessile
drop method (Howson 2011) were used for measuring of the sur-
face free energy of bitumen. The sessile drop method is considered
to be the simplest among these techniques (Ahmad 2011; Kakar
et al. 2016; Yi et al. 2018).
Considering that very limited literature is available on the healing
characteristics of RAP mixes and that there is even less literature on
the healing behavior of RAP binders, it is necessary to investigate
the effect of RAP content on the fatigue and healing characteristics
of binders. Because the chemical characteristics of binder can have
significant influence on the performance of the binders, it is also
important to examine the relationship between the chemical proper-
ties of RAP binders and their fatigue and healing behavior.
It is essential to be able to estimate the fatigue performance of as-
phalt mixes, including RAP mixes, accurately. For this, it is necessary
to identify the factors contributing to the fatigue performance and to
quantify the effect of different parameters including healing. Informa-
tion about the extent of the influence of rest periods on the fatigue
lives of conventional as well as RAP mixes will be useful in explain-
ing the differences in the fatigue behavior of different pavements sub-
jected to different traffic loading conditions (rest periods). It is also
useful to be able to identify and correlate the specific chemical param-
eters of the binders that affect the fatigue and healing characteristics
of binders because this will help to identify suitable combinations of
virgin binders and/or rejuvenators to be used in the RAP mixes.
The present study envisages examining these issues as a step
forward to enhance the understanding about the fatigue and healing
characteristics of RAP binder blends. The study also aims to pro-
vide insight into the dependence of the fatigue and healing behavior
of RAP binder blends on the rheological and chemical properties of
the binders.
Research Objective and Scope of the Study
The general objective of the present study is to evaluate the fatigue
and healing characteristics of RAP binder blends. The specific
© ASCE 04020214-2
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(8): 04020214
objectives are to (1) examine the relationship between the rheologi-
cal properties of the RAP-virgin binder blends and the fatigue and
healing parameters of the binders, and (2) evaluate the relationship
between the chemical properties of the blends and the fatigue and
healing parameters.
The scope of study includes the following aspects:
• RAP material collected from a single source, virgin aggregates,
and one viscosity grade virgin binder (VG30) were used. VG30
binder is expected to have an absolute viscosity value of
36,000 kg/ms (2,400–3,600 P) when tested at 60°C temperature.
• The physical and rheological properties and other performance
indicators of the VG30 bitumen, RAP binder, and RAP-virgin
binder blends prepared corresponding to different RAP propor-
tions used in the mix were evaluated in terms of penetration,
softening point, viscosity, oscillation test, and linear amplitude
sweep (LAS) test parameters.
• The healing characteristics of the binders were evaluated by
conducting time sweep tests with intermittent loading on the
binder samples.
• Surface free energies of the binders were estimated using the
contact angles measured with the help of a goniometer.
• The functional groups present in the binder blends were identi-
fied using FTIR spectroscopy.
Materials Used
The VG30 unmodified binder was sourced from the Haldia refin-
ery, which is located in West Bengal, India. The RAP binder was
extracted from the samples of RAP material collected from the
Kulpi plant of National Highway 117 using the solvent extraction
method [ASTM D2172 (ASTM 2011)]. The binder was recovered
from the solvent by rotary evaporator method [ASTM D5404
(ASTM 2012)]. The properties of the RAP binder are given in
Table 1.
Different RAP-virgin binder blends were prepared using VG30
as the virgin binder. The proportions of the virgin and RAP binders
used for preparing different blends were selected corresponding to
the proportions of RAP considered for the preparation of RAP
mixes, i.e., 15%, 25%, 35%, and 45% (percentage of the weight
of the RAP material by weight of the total mix). The RAP binder
to the total binder (R=T) ratios obtained for 15%, 25%, 35%, and
45% RAP mixes are 0.126, 0.198, 0.266, and 0.324, respectively.
These proportions were considered for the preparation of the blends
of the RAP and virgin binders. For preparation of the virgin-RAP
binder blends, the proportions of the RAP and virgin (VG30) bind-
ers were selected as per the corresponding R=T ratios. The blends
were prepared by mixing the extracted RAP binder and the virgin
binder (VG30) in required proportions at the mixing temperature
determined for virgin (VG30) binder. Blending was done for 2 min
by hand mixing.
The VG30 virgin as well as the four virgin-RAP binder blends
were tested for different basic properties such as softening point
and penetration and for different mechanical and chemical proper-
ties. The tests conducted on the binders include oscillation, visc-
ometry, and LAS tests. These tests were conducted using a DSR.
Table 1. Properties of RAP binder
Average binder Penetration Softening Dynamic viscosity
content (%) value, d (mm) point (°C) at 60°C (P)
3.96 (by weight 15 82 346,000
of mix)
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 Table 2. Results of the preliminary tests conducted on RAP-virgin binder blends
RAP in Virgin Penetration Softening Viscosity Kinematic viscosity
mix (%) R=T ratio binder at 25°C, d (mm) point (°C) (at 60°C), P at 135°C (10-6 m2/s)
0 0 VG30 61 52 3,516 522
15 0.126 VG30 48 57 6,243 717
25 0.198 VG30 41 60 9,643 1,149
35 0.266 VG30 33 62 12,470 1,326
45 0.324 VG30 26 65 18,780 1,498
Source: Adapted from Mullapudi et al. (2019).
Note: Viscosity at 60°C reported in the table was measured using the viscometry module of the DSR.
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The results of the preliminary tests conducted on the binders, re-
ported previously by Mullapudi et al. (2019) are given in Table 2.
As expected, the binder became stiffer (reduction in the penetra-
tion and increase in the softening point and viscosity) with increases
in the RAP binder proportion in the virgin-RAP binder blend.
Experimental Investigations
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
A FTIR NEXUS-870 spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific,
Waltham, Massachusetts) was used in this study for the FTIR spec-
troscopy. In this, the path of a light beam is interrupted by the sample.
The detector of the spectrometer measures the amount of absorbed
light for the wavelengths of infrared light (400–4,000 cm−1 ). The
spectra were analyzed to obtain information on the changes in the
carbonyl groups occurring due to the addition of RAP binder.
Reaction of the carbon atoms in the binder with oxygen produces
carbonyls (ketones) during the process of aging. ICO is the index
that indicates ageing due to the formation of ketones. The Aliphatic
index (ICH), which represents the proportion of aliphatics in the
binder, was found to reduce with increase in RAP content. This is
in agreement with the findings of Jung (2006), Araújo et al. (2011),
Yao et al. (2013), and Gong et al. (2017). ICO and ICH values were
calculated using Eqs. (1) and (2) (Liu et al. 1998; Singh and Sawant
2016). The ICO and ICH indices have been correlated with healing
index measured from linear amplitude sweep fatigue test conducted
on the binders. Fig. 1 shows the FTIR spectrum obtained for the RAP-
virgin binder blend prepared corresponding to 45% RAP content.

Area around 1,700 cm−1

ICO ¼ ð1Þ
Area around 1,460 cm−1 and 1,375 cm−1

Area around 1,460 cm−1 and 1,375−1

ICH ¼ P ð2Þ
Area around 1,460 cm−1 ; 1,375 cm−1 ; and 1,700; 1,030; and 1,600 cm−1

The ICO and ICH values calculated from the FTIR spectra ob-
tained for different binder blends are presented in Table 3.
It is observed that ketones increased with increase in the pro-
portion of RAP binder in the blends, indicating a stiffening effect
(Zofka et al. 2012). Aliphatics, which are the lowest molecular
weight compounds (among the different fractions in the bitumen)
aromatize and thus are converted to polyaromatic carbon ring units
(asphaltenes fraction). Hence, ICH decreased with increase in RAP
content.
The methylene and methyl hydrocarbon (MMHC) ratio, which
is the ratio of hydrogen to carbon atoms in methyl and methylene
attached to aliphatic independent molecules or aliphatic chains
associated with cycloalkanes or aromatic centers, represents
the branching of alkane material (Zeiada 2012). MMHC and
CH2 =CH3 ratios were calculated using the absorbance values ob-
tained from the infrared spectroscopy (Kim et al. 1990). The val-
ues of MMHC ratio for different RAP binder blends are presented
in Table 4.
Branching of the molecules is signified by MMHC ratio, and
chain length is indicated by CH2 =CH3. It is observed that MMHC
increased and CH2 =CH3 decreased with increase in RAP content.

Table 3. FTIR indices estimated for different binders

0% Standard 25% Standard 45% Standard
Index RAP deviation RAP deviation RAP deviation
ICO 0.038 0.005 0.057 0.002 0.071 0.012
ICH 0.666 0.001 0.635 0.003 0.605 0.019
Fig. 1. Typical FTIR results for 45% RAP binder.
Source: Data from Mullapudi and Sudhakar Reddy (2018).

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 Table 4. MMHC ratios and CH2 =CH3 values for different RAP blends
0% 25% 45%
Binder RAP RAP RAP
MMHC 2.082 2.085 2.104
CH2 =CH3 10.375 10.048 7.964
Note: MMHC = methyl and methylene hydrogen to carbon ratio; and
CH2 =CH3 = length of chains.

Fig. 2. G
sin δ versus R=T ratio.

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Table 5. Total SFE values of RAP blends

Surface free
Binder energy (mJ=m2 )
Table 6. Results from LAS test
0% RAP 21.18
25% RAP 18.81 N f at Standard N f at Standard
45% RAP 18.18 Binder A B 1% strain deviation 2.5% strain deviation
Source: Data from Mullapudi and Sudhakar Reddy (2018). 0% RAP 402,112 4.66 402,112 172,416 5,403 1,502
15% RAP 77,995 3.93 77,995 48,615 2,133 1,358
25% RAP 18,774 4.23 18,774 5,204 382 26
35% RAP 5,198 6.35 5,198 781 17 3
Surface Free Energy of Binders
45% RAP 3,002 6.70 3,002 1,533 7 4
Surface free energy (SFE) is the work to be done in order to in-
crease the size of the surface of a phase (Kakar et al. 2019). The
sessile drop method was used in the present study for measuring the
SFE of the binders. For this, the contact angle between the binder and 13,200 kPa, respectively. The variation in the binder fatigue
surface and the probe liquid was measured using different probe parameter G
sin δ with variation in the RAP binder proportion
liquids. The SFEs (polar and dispersive) were calculated using the (R=T ratio) is presented in Fig. 2.
measured contact angles (Mullapudi and Sudhakar Reddy 2018). It is observed from Fig. 2 that the G
sin δ value increased with
The results are given in Table 5. increase in the RAP content in the binder blend. In addition, the
The results in Table 5 indicate that the SFE value reduced with log of G
sin δ varied linearly with R=T ratio. The fact that the log-
increase in the RAP content. This trend is similar to the findings of arithm of G
sin δ varies linearly with R=T ratio corroborates the
Cheng et al. (2002) and Wei and Zhang (2010), who reported that assumption widely made by different agencies including the Asphalt
surface energies reduced with aging. Institute (2014) in the binder blending exercise carried out for RAP
mix design.
Fatigue Characterization of RAP Binder Blends
Linear Amplitude Sweep Test
Oscillation and LAS tests were conducted on the binders to evalu-
ate their fatigue characteristics. A DSR was used for this purpose. LAS testing is conducted to determine the resistance of asphalt
The fatigue characteristics of binders are generally evaluated at binders to fatigue failure. In this test, linearly increasing strain am-
intermediate pavement temperatures on long-term laboratory-aged plitudes are applied in order to accelerate the fatigue damage. The
binders. The oscillation (time sweep) test was conducted at LAS test includes a frequency sweep test followed by a linear am-
10 rad=s angular velocity at a test temperature of 25°C. The LAS plitude strain sweep test, conducted to obtain the inputs required for
test was also conducted at 25°C temperature in accordance with the estimation of the fatigue damage using viscoelastic continuum
AASHTO TP101 (AASHTO 2014). damage (VECD) approach. The test was conducted using the DSR
The binder blends prepared as per the selected R=T ratios were equipment with 8-mm-diameter parallel plate geometry. PAV-aged
short-term aged at 163°C for 85 min using a rolling thin-film oven binder film of 2-mm thickness was tested. As a part of the estima-
according to ASTM D2872 (ASTM 2019) and were then long-term tion of the fatigue life of the asphalt binders, a frequency sweep test
aged in a pressure aging vessel (PAV) to produce accelerated long- was carried out at 25°C for the 12 frequencies specified in
term aging by means of pressurized air and elevated temperature. AASHTO TP101 (AASHTO 2014) at a constant strain level of
The binders were placed in the PAV for a duration of 20 h at a 0.1%. The amplitude sweep test was then carried out at the same
temperature of 100°C, after which the binders were degassed using test temperature in oscillatory shear mode with controlled strain and
a degassing setup according to ASTM D6521 (ASTM 2013). The at a frequency of 10 Hz. The amplitude of the strain was ramped
PAV-aged binders were used to conduct the time-sweep and linear linearly from 0% to 30% over 3,100 cycles (100 cycles per each
amplitude sweep tests. strain level). The slopes of the G
versus frequency plots were de-
termined and used for the calculation of the damage parameter.
Binder Fatigue Parameter (G
sin δ) Eq. (7) was used to estimate the fatigue life of the binders. The
constants A and B in Eq. (7) were calculated by following the steps
The Superpave binder fatigue parameter, G
sin δ, was determined given for damage analysis in AASHTO TP101 (AASHTO 2014)
from the oscillation test conducted at 25°C on a 2-mm-thick binder
film using the 8-mm-diameter parallel plate arrangement of the dy- N f ¼ Aðγ max Þ−B ð7Þ
namic shear rheometer [ASTM D7175 (2015)]. The test was con-
ducted at a frequency of 10 rad=s in controlled strain mode with 1% where N f = binder fatigue life; A and B = fatigue model param-
strain. The G
sin δ values of VG30, 15% RAP, 25% RAP, 35% eters; and γ max = maximum expected binder strain for a given pave-
RAP, and 45% RAP binder blends are 3,600, 5,800, 7,400, 9,900, ment structure, percent.

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 Fig. 3. Loading pattern adopted for binder healing studies.
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Table 7. Fatigue lives of blends from oscillation test conducted with

different rest periods
Fatigue life (cycles)
Rest 0% Standard 25% Standard 45% Standard
period (s) RAP deviation RAP deviation RAP deviation
0 6,525 3,238 5,705 4,235 4,020 2,545
1 8,050 644 6,515 247 5,245 530
3 8,860 919 7,690 806 5,963 537
6 10,665 3,754 9,370 1,343 6,725 2,821

The constants A and B and the binder fatigue lives calculated Fig. 4. Variation of fatigue life from oscillation test with rest period.
from the data obtained from the LAS tests are presented in Table 6.
The LAS test showed that the number of cycles to fatigue failure
decreased with increase in RAP content.

Healing of RAP Binder Blends

Different researchers have quantified healing of bituminous binders
and mixtures using different test methods with varying testing
(loading) and healing conditions (Qiu et al. 2012; Leegwater
et al. 2018; González et al. 2019). One of the common methods
adopted in the past (Tan et al. 2012; Tang et al. 2016) to quantify
the healing of binders was to induce damage in the specimen and
allow it to rest at an elevated temperature for a specified period of
time. The binder specimen, thus rested, was subjected to further
damage under the same set of conditions adopted for producing Fig. 5. HI from oscillation test conducted on different RAP binder
the initial level of damage. In another type of healing study blends.
(Carpenter and Shen 2006; Shen et al. 2010), intermittent loading
was applied in the time sweep test (oscillation test) instead of con-
tinuous loading. initial complex shear modulus. The fatigue lives (N) of different
In the present study, the effect of varying rest periods, given in binders estimated as per the 50% reduction in complex modulus
an intermittent loading pattern in an oscillation test, was studied to criterion are given in Table 7. Fig. 4 shows the variation of fatigue
demonstrate the healing potential of binders prepared with varying life with rest period.
RAP binder proportions. PAV-aged RAP-virgin binder blends pre- The slope of the fatigue life versus rest period decreased with
pared corresponding to 0%, 25%, and 45% RAP contents in the increase in the RAP proportion in blends. The slope of the fatigue
mix were selected. A Malvern Kinexus dynamic shear rheometer life versus rest period line is considered in this study as the healing
with 8-mm plate and a film of 2-mm thickness was used for the index (HI). Fig. 5 shows the variation of the healing capability (HI)
healing studies. The time sweep test was conducted until the binder with increase in RAP proportion.
failed in fatigue. The test temperature was 25°C and the frequency It can be observed that the healing index reduced marginally
of loading was 10 Hz. For the intermittent loading pattern, a rest from 0% to 25% RAP content, after which there is more significant
period was introduced after every 100 cycles. Four different rest reduction for the variation of RAP content from 25% to 45%.
periods, 0, 1, 3, and 6 s, were considered. The intermittent loading
sequence simulates the pattern of loading and rest periods seen in a
pavement when a vehicle passages over it. Small rest periods sim- Relationship between Fatigue Life/Healing Index and
ulate heavy traffic volumes, and longer rest periods correspond to Mechanical/Chemical Properties of Binders
relatively low traffic volumes. Constant stress mode of test with
300 kPa stress was adopted for conducting the test. The fatigue and healing behavior of asphalt mixtures depends to a
Fig. 3 shows the loading pattern considered for the binder heal- great extent on the binder properties (Pereira et al. 2016; Ramya Sri
ing studies. The failure criterion selected was 50% reduction in the 2020). Hence, characterization of the fatigue and healing behavior

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Fig. 6. Relationship between LAS fatigue life and Superpave fatigue Fig. 10. Relationship between fatigue life from oscillation test and
parameter G
sin δ. logðN f Þ from LAS test.

Fig. 11. Healing index versus viscosity.

Fig. 7. Relationship between logðN f Þ from LAS test and viscosity.

of the binder is necessary for the selection of a suitable binder. It is

also seen from literature that the fatigue and healing performance
of binders is influenced by the rheological and chemical proper-
ties of the binders. Hence, the relationship of different binder
parameters with fatigue and healing characteristics of the binders
was examined in this study. Figs. 6 and 7 show the relationships
of the fatigue life of binder blends obtained from LAS testing
with Superpave binder fatigue parameter (G
sin δ) and viscosity,
respectively.
It can be observed that the viscosity of binders and the Super-
pave fatigue parameter have good correlation with the fatigue life of
the binders and that as the binders became stiffer, the fatigue life
decreased. The variation of the fatigue life obtained from the os-
cillation test (with varying rest periods) with Superpave fatigue
Fig. 8. Relationship between fatigue life from oscillation test and
parameter and viscosity is presented in Figs. 8 and 9. The trends
Superpave binder fatigue parameter G
sin δ.
observed here are similar to those found in the case of the fatigue
life estimated from the LAS test.
The correlation between the fatigue lives estimated from LAS
test (for 1% strain) and oscillation test is shown in Fig. 10.
Although there are only three data points (three RAP proportions)
in the plots presented in Figs. 8–10, the trends clearly indicate the
dependence of the binder fatigue life on the Superpave binder
fatigue parameter G
sin δ and viscosity, and similarly, there is a
clear correlation between the two fatigue lives (Fig. 10).
The correlation of the healing index, taken as the slope of the
fatigue life versus rest period in the oscillation test, with the chemi-
cal indices and fatigue lives obtained from the LAS and oscillation
test shown in Figs. 11–17.
The healing capability of binders depends on the flow character-
istics (Kim et al. 1990; Qiu 2012; González et al. 2018). Figs. 11
and 12 show the clear dependency of the healing index on flow
Fig. 9. Relationship between fatigue life from oscillation test and
parameters such as viscosity and softening point of binder. The as-
viscosity.
phalt binder becomes stiffer (increase in viscosity and softening

© ASCE 04020214-6 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(8): 04020214

 Fig. 12. Healing index versus softening point.
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Fig. 13. Healing index versus ICO.
Fig. 14. Healing index versus ICH.
Fig. 15. Healing index versus MMHC.
point) with addition of RAP content. This is reflected in the rela-
tionship between the healing index and viscosity and softening
point as shown in Figs. 11 and 12.
The aromatics, aliphatic, and carbonyl contents of asphalt bind-
ers and their interactions affect the flow and aging characteristics
of the binders (Little et al. 1998; Lu 2013). Hence, the fatigue and
healing characteristics of the binders with or without RAP are also
affected by these components. An increase in the ICO index and
decrease in the ICH index indicated reduced healing capability of
the binders, as shown in Figs. 13 and 14, respectively.
A decrease in the CH2 =CH3 ratio and increase in the MMHC
ratio resulted in a decrease in the healing potential of the binders, as
© ASCE
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(8): 04020214
Fig. 16. Healing index versus CH2 =CH3 .
Fig. 17. Healing index versus total surface free energy.
shown in Figs. 15 and 16, respectively. Kim et al. (1990), Little
et al. (1993), Lv et al. (2017), and Sun et al. (2017) also observed
that high levels of MMHC and low levels of the CH2 =CH3 ratio
decreased the healing capability of asphalt binders.
It is observed from Fig. 17 that as the surface free energy
increased, the healing potential also increased. Past research (Little
et al. 2001) supports this observation.
Conclusions
The fatigue and healing characteristics of RAP binders were mea-
sured, and their dependency on the chemical and mechanical prop-
erties of the binders was evaluated. The main conclusions from this
study are as follows:
• The present study demonstrated that the fatigue lives of the RAP
binders measured from oscillation test and linear amplitude
sweep test correlated well with the Superpave binder fatigue
parameter (G
sin δ). Fatigue lives also showed good correlation
with viscosity of the binder, with fatigue lives deceasing with
increases in the stiffness of the binder with increases in the pro-
portion of RAP binder in the blend. In the present work,
although the fatigue lives appear to decrease with increase in
RAP content, the actual interpretation of the results will have
to be done in the context of the pavement structure in which
the material will be used. The stiffer RAP mixes can be expected
to have longer fatigue lives when used in a thicker pavement.
• The fatigue lives determined using intermittent loading method
increased with increases in rest periods.
• The fatigue lives of RAP binders estimated from the LAS test
and intermittent loading test correlate well with each other.
• The healing potential of the RAP binders, estimated from the
slopes of the fatigue life versus rest period plots, decreased sig-
nificantly at higher RAP contents, whereas the reduction was
less significant from 0% to 25% RAP.
• The healing potential of the RAP binders was found to be
dependent on flow parameters such as softening point and visc-
osity of the binders.
04020214-7 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 • The healing potential of the RAP binders could also be ex-
plained in terms of different chemical parameters of the binders
such as ICO, ICH, MMHC, CH2 =CH3 , and total surface free
energy. Among different binders parameters considered in this
paper, MMHC and CH2 =CH3 appear to be the candidate para-
meters to investigate further for their suitability to explain the
healing behavior of asphalt binders and mixes in view of their
ability to serve as indicators of molecular mobility.
Considering that the present investigation is limited to one
source of RAP and limited number of R=T ratios (RAP to total
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binder proportions), it will be very useful to perform further inves-
tigations in future with more R=T ratios and more sources of RAP
material.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study ap-
pear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful for the financial support by the Department
of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development
(MHRD), Government of India through research project “Future of
Cities” (Grant No. F. No. 4-22/2014-TS.I, dated January 23, 2014).
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