Mechanical 

system design
Dr. Arun Kumar Jalan
BITS Pilani Mechanical Engineering Department
Pilani Campus
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

DE ZG525
MECHANICAL SYSTEM DESIGN
LECTURE NO: 10
Ref: Pahl, G.and W.Beitz, Engineering Design–A Systematic Approach – Springer, 3rd Ed.
DE  ZG525 Mechanical System Design

Discuss on last lecture

• Design to allow for expansion

• Design to allow for creep and relaxation

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Design Against Corrosion

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Design Against Corrosion

 A state of deterioration in metals caused by
oxidation or chemical action
 It often happens that corrosion can only be
reduced, not completely avoided.
 Emphasize on the use of components with the
same corrosion resistance in a machine.
 The use of corrosion-proof materials throughout
may not be economic, in which case suitable
embodiments can be used to retain functionality
despite corrosion.

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 This suggests a shift from focusing on corrosion

protection to designing machines and their
components to be corrosion tolerant.
 It follows that designers must tackle corrosion
with appropriate concepts or special
embodiment design features.
 The measures they take will depend on the type
of corrosion anticipated.

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Causes of Corrosion
 While the formation of metal oxide layers:
electrochemical corrosion.

 Corrosion is also fostered by contacting surfaces

with different properties : heat treatment and
welding.

 the design calls for slits or holes, local

differences in electrolyte concentration appear
due to the use of different materials.

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Classification of Corrosion
Uniform Corrosion
Free surface
Indentation Corrosion
corrosion Cavity Corrosion
Crevice Corrosion
Bimetallic Corrosion
Contact corrosion
Deposit Corrosion
Transition Zone Corrosion
Fatigue Corrosion
Stress corrosion
Stress Corrosion
Strain-Induced Corrosion
Erosion and Cavitation Corrosion
Abrasion Corrosion
Inter crystalline corrosion
Selective corrosion
Separation corrosion
within the material
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I. Free Surface Corrosion

• The corrosion of free surfaces can be uniform or locally
concentrated. The latter is particularly dangerous
because, in contrast to uniform corrosion, it leads to high
stress concentrations and is often difficult to predict.
• Necessary to pay particular attention right from the start
to potential danger zones.

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Uniform Corrosion
Indentation Corrosion
Cavity Corrosion
Crevice Corrosion

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Uniform Corrosion
• Characterized by corrosive attack proceeding evenly
over the entire surface area, or a large fraction of the
total area
Cause:
• The presence of moisture (weak electrolytes) combined
with oxygen from the air or the contacting medium,
particularly below the dew point.
Effects:
• Extensive uniform corrosion of the surface—in steel, for
instance, approximately 0.1 mm per annum in a normal
atmosphere.
• Uniform corrosion is fostered by a more aggressive
medium, higher flow velocity, and local heat
transmission.
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Uniform Corrosion contd…

Remedies:
• Provide uniform service life by means of appropriate wall
thicknesses and materials.
• Select a concept that obviates corrosion or makes it
economically acceptable.
• Use small and smooth surfaces involving geometrical shapes
with a maximum volume-to-surface area ratio.
• Avoid moisture traps.
• Avoid temperatures below the dew point by good insulation and
prevent hot or cold bridges.
• Avoid flow rates greater than 2 m/s.
• Avoid areas of high and differing thermal loads on heated
surfaces.
• Apply a protective coating, possibly in conjunction with cathodic
protection.
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Example: Drainage of components susceptible to corrosion:

Wrong Right Wrong Right Wrong Right

Wrong Right

Wrong Right

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Indentation Corrosion
• not uniform over the surface
Cause:
• There are components with anodic and cathodic
areas that cause differences in the rate of
corrosion. These differences are usually caused
by inhomogeneous material, by a medium with
varying concentrations, and by local influences
such as temperature and radiation.
Remedies:
• Remove in homogeneity and varying influences.
• Provide a protective coating. Damage to this
coating, however, will cause strong local
corrosion.
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Cavity Corrosion
• Cavity corrosion is concentrated on small
surfaces with relatively deep indentations, with
the depth being at least as great as the width.
• A clear distinction between indentation and
cavity corrosion is not always possible.
Cause:
• Similar to indentation corrosion, but its
occurrence is more localized.
Remedies:
• Basically the same as for indentation corrosion,
although particular attention should be paid to
reduction and prevention.
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Crevice Corrosion
• Occurring in spaces to which the access of the working
fluid from the environment is limited.
Cause:
• caused by insufficient ventilation.
• Most often, the accumulation of acidic electrolytes
(moisture, aqueous medium) following the hydrolysis of
corrosion products in crevices etc. In rust and acid-proof
steels, there is a breakdown of passivity due to depletion
of oxygen in a crevice.
Effects:
• Increased corrosion in hidden areas.
• Increased stress concentrations in areas that are, in any
case, under greater stress.
• Danger of fracture or separation without prior warning.

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Crevice Corrosion contd…

Remedies:
• Provide smooth, crevice-free surfaces and
connections.
• Provide weld seams without permanent
crevices; use butt seams or through welded fillet
seams.
• Seal crevices, for instance by providing
protruding parts with moisture-proof sleeves or
coatings.
• Enlarge crevices so that through flow prevents
the accumulation of moisture..
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Example: Crevice Corrosion in welded joints

Wrong Right

Wrong Right
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II. Contact corrosion

• Bimetallic Corrosion
• Deposit Corrosion
• Transition Zone Corrosion

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Bimetallic Corrosion
Cause:
• The contact of two metals with different potentials in the
presence of an electrolyte, that is, a conductive fluid or
vapor.
Effects:
• The baser of the two metals will corrode more rapidly
than the nobler round the contact area and this will occur
more quickly for a smaller surface area (galvanic
corrosion).
• Once again, the stress concentration is increased and
corrosion products may be deposited.
• Such deposits have secondary effects of various kinds;
for instance the production of sludge, contamination of
the medium, etc.

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Bimetallic Corrosion
Remedies:
• Use combinations of metals with small potential
differences and hence a small contact current.
• Prevent action of electrolytes on the contact area by
providing local insulation between the two metals.
• Avoid electrolytes altogether.
• If necessary, resort to planned corrosion by introducing
still baser materials in the form of sacrificial anodes

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Deposit Corrosion
Cause:
• Unwanted materials become deposited on the
surface or in crevices and cause potential
differences at particular locations. These
deposits can come from existing corrosion, the
surrounding medium, vaporization residues,
excess sealing material, etc.
Remedies:
• Avoid, filter, or collect the deposits.
• Prevent water traps, aim at smooth flow,
maintain reasonable speed and self drainage.
• Rinse or clean the components.
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Transition Zone Corrosion

Cause:
• Changes in the state of the medium or its
components from the liquid to the gaseous
phase and vice versa tend to increase the
danger of corrosion of metallic surfaces in the
transition zone.
• That danger may be increased further by
encrustations in the transition zone.
Effects:
• This type of corrosion is concentrated in the
transition zone and is more pronounced with
more sudden changes of state and more
aggressive media .
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Transition Zone Corrosion

Remedies:
• Gradually supply and remove heat using a heating or
cooling element.
• Reduce turbulence, and hence heat transfer coefficients
at the inlet of the affected medium, for instance by
means of guide vanes.
• Provide corrosion-resisting jackets at critical points.
• Avoid transition zone problems by appropriate design
features .
• Continuously change fluid level, for example by stirring

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Increased corrosion at the transition from the gaseous to the liquid state, after
due to concentration of the medium in the region of the water line of a vertically
arranged condenser. This can be remedied by raising the water level

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III. Stress corrosion

• Components susceptible to corrosion are often
mechanically loaded, either statically or dynamically.
• The mechanical stresses produced by these loads
can cause several serious corrosion phenomena.
– Fatigue Corrosion
– Normal Stress Corrosion
– Strain-Induced Corrosion
– Erosion and Cavitation Corrosion
– Abrasion Corrosion

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Fatigue Corrosion
Cause:
• Corrosive attacks on a component subjected to
mechanical fatigue loading appreciably reduce
its strength. The greater the loading, the more
intense the corrosion and the shorter the life of
the component.
Effects:
• Fracture without distortion, as in fatigue failure.
Because the corrosion products, especially in
slightly corrosive media, can only be seen under
a microscope, this type of corrosion is often
mistaken for normal fatigue failure.
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Remedies:
• Minimize alternating mechanical or thermal stresses and
especially avoid oscillatory stresses due to resonance
phenomena.
• Avoid stress concentrations.
• Provide compressive stresses on the surface by shot
blasting, roller burnishing, nitriding, etc., to increase the
working life.
• Avoid contact with corrosive media (electrolytes).
• Provide surface coating (for example rubber, baked
enamel, hot dip galvanization, aluminum, etc.).

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Normal Stress Corrosion

Cause:
• Certain sensitive materials tend to develop inter
crystalline cracks if static tensile stresses are combined
with a specific trigger.
Effects:
• Depending on the medium, various very fine and rapidly
developing inter crystalline cracks appear in the
component. Adjacent parts are not affected.

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Remedies:
• Avoid sensitive materials, which may not, however, be
possible because of other requirements. These materials
are: unalloyed carbon steels, austenitic steels, brass,
magnesium, aluminum alloys and titanium alloys.
• Substantially reduce or completely avoid tensile stresses
on the attacked surfaces.
• Introduce compressive stresses on the surface, for
instance by shrink fits, by preloaded multilayer materials,
or by shot blasting.
• Reduce residual tensile stresses by annealing.
• Apply cathodic coatings.
• Avoid corrosive influences by lowering the concentration
and temperature.
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Strain-Induced Corrosion
Cause:
• Under repetitive large extensions or compressions,
any protective outer layer cracks and opens
repeatedly. This removes the protection and local
corrosion will occur.
Remedy:
• Reduce the magnitude of any extensions and
compressions.

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Erosion and Cavitation Corrosion

 Corrosion may accompany erosion and

Cavitation, in which case the breakdown of the
material is accelerated.
 The basic remedy is the avoidance or reduction
of erosion and Cavitation by hydrodynamic
means or special design features.
 Only when this is not possible should such hard
surface treatments such as metal spraying or
hard chrome coating is considered.

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Abrasion Corrosion
Cause:
• caused by relatively small movements between two surfaces
subject to contact stresses
• Abrasion spots can appear as a result of thermal expansion,
or of pipes vibrating against their guides, etc.
• In either case, the oxidic protection layer on the surfaces of
the rubbing parts may become damaged.
• Exposed metallic areas have a more negative electrochemical
potential than those covered with a protective layer.
• If the fluid medium is an electrolyte, these relatively small
exposed areas will be broken down electrochemically unless
the protective layer can be regenerated.
Effects:
• The affected surfaces form hard oxidation products (so-called
abrasion rust) that speed up the process. At the same time,
stress concentrations increase.
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Remedies:
• The most effective remedy is the removal of the abrasive
movement, for example through elastic suspensions or
hydrostatic bearings.
• If the abrasive movement cannot be removed, then:
– Reduce the vibration of the pipes by reducing the flow
velocity inside them and/or change the distances between
the guides.

– Increase the gaps between the pipes and their guides so

that no rubbing contact takes place.

– Increase the wall thicknesses of the pipes, thus increasing

their stiffness and the tolerable corrosion rate.

– Use pipe materials that readily accept protective coatings.

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IV. Selective Corrosion within a Material

 In the case of selective corrosion, only certain

interfaces in the material matrix are affected. Of
importance are:
– Inter crystalline corrosion of stainless steels and
aluminum alloys
– So-called “spongiosis”—graphite corrosion of
cast iron when iron particles separate out
– Dezincification of brass (zinc separation).

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Selective Corrosion within a Material

Cause:
• Many material constituents or inter crystalline
areas are less corrosion-resistant than the bulk
material matrix.
Remedy:
• Suitable selection of materials and their
processing, such as adopting welding
procedures which avoid producing a corrosion-
sensitive material structure.
• Designers need to consult a materials expert
when this type of corrosion is thought to be
likely.
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Example 1
To choose between two methods of storing
compressed gases (a) 30 cylindrical containers,
each with a capacity of 50 litres and a wall
thickness of 6 mm; and (b) one spherical
container with a capacity of 1.5m3 and a wall
thickness of 30mm.

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Example 2

Influence of the point chosen for the expansion of CO2

enriched lye on the choice of material for the pipework

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Example 3
Outlet of a container for
superheated steam and
CO2 under pressure
a original design;
b insulated outlet avoiding
condensation;
c other corrosion-resistant
variants with separate
components

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Example 4

Corrosion in a heated pipe

a: severe corrosion at the inlet due to sudden transition;
b : sudden transition avoided;
c : protective sleeve covers critical zone and mitigates sudden transition
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Design to minimise wear

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Cause and effects

consequences of wear:-
 shorter component lives
 reduced functional performance
 higher losses

Predominant Mechanisms of wear:-

 Adhesive Wear
 Abrasive Wear
 Surface Disruption Wear
 Tribo-Chemical Wear

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Types of Wear
Adhesive Wear
Adhesive wear is caused by high loading between two
moving surfaces, which leads to microwelds (localised
atomic binding) that are continuously broken by the relative
movement between the surfaces. This results in surface
damage and wear
AbrasiveWear
It is caused by hard particles in the surface of one
component that micromachine (grind) the surface of the
other component. This results in grooves and scoring in the
direction of the relative movement. Mild abrasive wear can
lead to a smoother surface and better surface mating;
stronger wear leads to unacceptable surface damage.
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Surface Disruption Wear

Surface disruption wear is caused by alternating
mechanical stresses in the surface layers of the
components. The effects are cracks, pitting, tears and
wear particles.

Tribo-ChemicalWear
Tribo-chemical wear is caused by a chemical reaction
between two components involving elements of the
lubricant and/or the environment activated by friction
(temperature increase). The effects are surface changes,
such as hardened zones or wear particles. The latter in
turn again increase the wear.
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Design Features
• Designing to minimise wear involves the
application of tribological measures (system:
material, working geometry, surface,
lubricant/fluid) or material-related measures to
minimise wear between loaded components
subject to relative surface movements.

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Design Features
There are two measures considered:-
1. primary measures which include avoiding the causes of
the particular wear mechanism
2. secondary measures which involve the materials and
lubrication have to be applied to reduce the rate of wear

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Primary measures
It includes :-
 Application of tribological measures to provide fluid
friction between the moving surfaces and avoid dry or
mixed friction
 The elastohydrodynamic effect can provide fluid friction
for sliding movements
 If the layout or operating constraints do not allow this
approach, a hydrostatic or magnetic solution might be
chosen
 In the case of small relative movements, the use of
elastic joints should be considered.

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Secondary measures
 To reduce the wear rate, the local energy input due to
the friction power per unit area, p ꞏ νR ꞏ μ, should be
minimised
 It includes reducing the surface pressure p, the relative
velocity νR, and the coefficient of friction μ
 The wear coefficient is defined as:-

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Secondary measures contd.

When wear cannot be avoided, the following measures can
prove helpful:-
• Filter wear particles out of the fluid flow to avoid particle
build-up and increased wear.

• Use the principle of the division of tasks for structures

with working surfaces that are in danger of wear; that is,
the wear zones should be easy and economical to
replace or be made out of a wear-resistant material.

• Allow the wear rate to be measured by using wear

indicators and hence ensure operational safety and
timely maintenance.
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Questions?
Contact : arunjalan@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in

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