REPÚBLICA DE MOÇAMBIQUE

REPUBLIC OF MOZAMBIQUE

MINISTÉRIO DOS RECURSOS MINERAIS

MINISTRY OF MINERAL RESOURCES

DIRECÇÃO NACIONAL DE GEOLOGIA

NATIONAL DIRECTORATE OF GEOLOGY

NOTÍCIA EXPLICATIVA / MAP EXPLANATION

VOLUME 3

FOLHAS / SHEETS
MUTARARA-QUELIMANE-NAMACURRA/MAGANJA-PEBANE-
MARROMEU/INHAMINGA-CHINDE-SAVANE
(1735-1736-1737/1738/1739-1835-1836-1935)

ESCALA / SCALE 1:250 000

GTK CONSORTIUM 2006

Volume 3

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 Volume 3

REPÚBLICA DE MOÇAMBIQUE
REPUBLIC OF MOZAMBIQUE

MINISTÉRIO DOS RECURSOS MINERAIS

MINISTRY OF MINERAL RESOURCES

DIRECÇÃO NACIONAL DE GEOLOGIA

NATIONAL DIRECTORATE OF GEOLOGY

NOTÍCIA EXPLICATIVA / MAP EXPLANATION

VOLUME 3

FOLHAS / SHEETS
MUTARARA (1735), QUELIMANE (1736), NAMACURRA/MAGANJA (1737),
PEBANE (1738), MARROMEU/INHAMINGA (1835), CHINDE (1836)
E / AND SAVANE (1935)

ESCALA / SCALE 1:250 000

GTK CONSORTIUM 2006

MINERAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT CAPACITY BUILDING PROJECT

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 Volume 3

© National Directorate of Geology, Republic of Mozambique

Date: 30.12.2006

Electronically available on CD-ROM from:

In Mozambique: In South Africa
The Director The Director
National Directorate of Geology (DNG) Council for Geoscience (CGS)
Praça 25 de Junho, 380, 4th floor 280 Pretoria Str.
Silverton, Pretoria
PO BOX 217 Private Bag X112
Maputo, Mozambique Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
Tel: +258 (21) 312082/3 +27 (012) 8411018
+258 823128670
Fax: +258 (21) 429216 +27 (012) 8411221
e-mail: e-mail:
edaudi@teledata.mz, edaudi@tvcabo.co.mz rprice@geoscience.org.za

Price available on request

The National Directorate of Geology (DNG), Ministry of Mineral Resources, Republic

of Mozambique, in collaboration with a consortium headed by the Geological Survey of
Finland (GTK), and with funding from the Nordic Development Fund (NDF Credit 335),
produced this Map Explanation, within the terms of the Mineral Resource Management
Capacity Building Project (MRMP), contract 02/QCBS/B22./ MIREME-UCPM/2002.

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 Volume 3

GTK Consortium’s field team for LOT 2 and LOT 3 Extension (Volume 3) comprised following
geologists:
• Yrjö Pekkala (GTK – Project Director, Mineral Expert)
• Tapio Lehto (GTK – Deputy Project Director, Mineral Resources)
• A.B. Phil Westerhof (ITC – Project Advisor)
• Matti Lehtonen (GTK – Mapping Expert LOT 2)
• Tapio Kuivasaari (GTK – Industrial Mineral Expert)
• Hannu Mäkitie (GTK – Field Team Leader)
• Tuomo Manninen (GTK – Mapping Expert)
• Saku Vuori (GTK – Mapping Expert)
• Toni Eerola (GTK – Mapping Expert)
• João M. Marques (Gondwana, Lda – Mapping Expert)
• Amad Mamad (Gondwana, Lda – Sedimentary geologist, hydrocarbons expert)
• Reinaldo Gonçalves Jr. (Gondwana, Lda – Mineral Resources)
• Maurizio Ferrara (Gondwana, Lda – Mapping Expert)
• Mário Deus (Gondwana, Lda – Mineral Resources, Logistics)

DNG trainee geologists and technicians that participated in mapping of Volume 3 area:
• Rogério Matola, geologist, DNG Maputo
• Hilário Mavíe, geologist, DNG Maputo
• Victorino Joaquim, technician, DNG Maputo
• Olavo Deniasse, technician, DNG Manica

Data base construction and updating:

• Olli Rantala (GTK, design planning)
• Antti Kahra (GTK, planning, coordination)
• Markku Tiainen (GTK, data management)
• Esko Korkiakoski (GTK, mineral data)
• Tapio Lehto (GTK, mineral data)
• Jari Väätäinen (GTK, photo data base)
• Petri Rosenberg (GTK, observation data base)

Processing of data and maps by:

• Olli Rantala (GTK, Manager, databases and aerial photographs, photo data base)
• Antti Kahra (GKT, data management)
• Hilkka Saastamoinen (GTK, map digitations and data management)
• Eira Kuosmanen (GTK, GIS geologist, map production, satellite images)
• Anneli Lindh (GTK, map production, data management)
• Hanna Virkki (GTK, GIS geologist, map production)
• Merja Janhila (GTK, GIS geologist, map production)
• Riikka Koskinen (GTK, GIS geologist, map production)
• Mirjam Ajlani (GTK, map production)
• Marita Ranta-Pantti (GTK, input of data)

The Remote Sensing/GIS team:

• Willy Lehman Weng (GEUS – GIS Expert)
• Bjørn Hermansen (GEUS – GIS Expert)

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 Volume 3

• Olli Rantala (GTK – Head GIS Department)

• Antti Kahra (GTK – GIS Expert)
• Markku Tiainen (GTK – GIS Expert)
• Hilkka Arkimaa (GTK – Geophysicist)
• Ernst Schetselaar (ITC – GIS/RS Expert)
• Tsehaie Woldai (ITC – RS Expert)

The Airborne Geophysics team:

• Hilkka Arkimaa (GTK – Processing Expert)
• Tapio Ruotoistenmäki (GTK – Interpretation Expert)

Written contributions to the present Map Explanation by:

• A.B. Phil Westerhof (ITC/Westcourt GeoConsult – Principal Author)
• Robbert Rutten (ITC – hydrocarbons)
• João M. Marques (Gondwana, Lda)
• Maurizio Ferrara (Gondwana, Lda)
• Matti Lehtonen (GTK)
• Hannu Mäkitie (GTK)
• Tuomo Manninen (GTK)
• Saku Vuori (GTK)
• Toni Eerola (GTK)
• Tapio Lehto (GTK – mineral expert)
• Yrjö Pekkala (GTK – industrial minerals)

Cover Photo: Granitic gneiss Inselberg of Mount Tuteche on the Mutarara Map Sheet (SDS 1735).

For future reference:

GTK Consortium (2006c). Map Explanation; Volume 3: Sheets 1735-1739, 1835-1836 and 1935. Geology of
Degree Sheets Mutarara, Quelimane, Namacurra/Maganja, Pebane, Marromeu/Inhaminga, Chinde and Savane,
Mozambique. Ministério dos Recursos Minerais, Direcção Nacional de Geologia, Maputo.

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 Volume 3

FOREWORD
The present Map Explanation (Volume 3) and related Geological Maps and Database have
been produced by a consortium composed of the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK, leading
partner), the International Institute for Geo-Information and Earth Observation (the
Netherlands), the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS) and Gondwana Lda
(Mozambique) as part of the Geo Infrastructure Development Project (GIDP), a sub-
project of the larger Mineral Resources Management Capacity Building Project
(MRMP). This consortium will be further referred to as ‘GTK Consortium’.
The above project and sub-project have been implemented under the supervision of the
National Directorate of Geology (DNG), Ministry of Mineral Resources, Republic of
Mozambique. The major task of the GIDP component has been to re-map, upgrade and
improve existing geological maps in order to create a comprehensive and uniform coverage of
geological maps at scale 1:250 000 and a partial coverage of detailed maps (scale 1:50 000) of
selected areas of high mineral potential. The GTK Consortium undertook this task in LOT 2
(and Extension) and LOT 3 (and Extension) as shown in Fig 1. The scope of LOT 3 Extension
included 1) the compilation of existing map data into a series of 1:250 000 map sheets (total
20 map sheets), 2) reinterpretation and compilation of the map legends in terms of the new
lithostratigraphic framework created for Mozambique, 3) a review of the geology, based
mainly on remote sensing data, but including limited fieldwork to resolve critical problems in
key areas and undertake reconnaissance mapping in other areas and 4) provisional mineral
maps in scale 1:250 000 accompanied by inventory of mineral deposits and occurrences.

Fig. 1. Configuration of areas re-

mapped by the DNG in collaboration
with various international consortia.

A consortium comprising Norconsult and the Norwegian and British Geological

Surveys (NGU and BGS) has co-implemented a contract for LOT 1 (and Extensions; Fig. 1).
These projects were financed from a special grant from the Nordic Development Fund (NDF).
The remainder of the territory of Mozambique has been re-mapped by the South African
Council for Geo-science (CGS) under a separate bilateral contract.

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 Volume 3

The present Map Explanation Volume 3 (GTK Consortium, 2006c) is part of a series
of Map Explanations (GTK Consortium, 2006a, b and d) covering various parts of the
territory of Mozambique (Fig. 2). It comprises a large part of the Zambézia and Sofala
Provinces south of 17° South and east of 35° East. It contains the following Square Degree
Sheets (SDS): 1735, 1736, 1737/1738/1739, 1835, 1836 and 19351. Each Map Explanation
emphasises certain aspects of the geology of Mozambique. This Map Explanation stresses the
geodynamic development and mineral potential of the southern extension of the Nampula
Province or Supergroup as part of both Irumide and Pan-African Orogenic Cycles.
All locations (e.g., in captions) are in UTM coordinates. Please note that in the area
covered by this Map Explanation reference is made to the 36 K zone.

Fig. 2. Map Explanation

Volume numbers in LOT 2 (+
Extension) and LOT 3 (+
Extension). Volume 3 describes
the geology in area 3, i.e. SDS
1735 to 1739, 1835, 1836 and
1935).

1
A Square Degree Sheet or SDS (1° x 1° or about 100 x 100 km = about 10,000 km²) is numbered after the
coordinates of the upper left corner. For example, SDS 1534 is located south of 15° south and east of 34° east.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD ....................................................................................................... 6
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... 14
RESUMO EXPANDIDO (VOLUME 3) ......................................................... 16
ANTECEDENTES DO PROJECTO .............................................................. 16
METODOLOGIA ............................................................................................. 16
INFRAESTRUCTURA E GEOMORFOLOGIA .......................................... 17
LITOESTRATIGAFIA E GEOLOGIA REGIONAL .................................. 17
FAIXAS DE DOBRAMENTO PROTEROZÓICOS; GONDWANA LESTE
OU SUL? .................................................................................................... 19
A Sub-Província Nampula..................................................................................................... 19
Suíte Mocuba........................................................................................................................... 20
Grupo Molócuè........................................................................................................................ 21
Suíte Culicui ............................................................................................................................ 22
Terrenos Granulíticos Pan-Africanos .................................................................................. 22
Suíte Murrapula Pan-Africana ............................................................................................. 23
A COBERTURA FANEROZÓICA ................................................................ 24
Supergrupo Karoo.................................................................................................................. 24
As Seqüências de Rifte do Leste Africano............................................................................ 24
Jurássico Superior – Cretáceo Inferior – Seqüência 1.......................................................... 25
Cretáceo Médio a Superior – Seqüência 2 ............................................................................. 25
Cretáceo Superior a Paleoceno – Seqüência 3....................................................................... 25
Suíte Serra Morrumbala ......................................................................................................... 26
Deposição Eocênica-Oligocênica – Seqüência 4 ................................................................... 26
Mioceno-Plioceno – Seqüência 5............................................................................................ 27
Quaternário – Seqüência 6 ..................................................................................................... 27
ESTRUCTURA E METAMORFISMO.......................................................... 28
EVOLUÇÃO GEODINÂMICA ...................................................................... 29
RECURSOS MINERAIS.................................................................................. 32
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................ 34
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... 34
CHAPTER 1 ...................................................................................................... 40
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 40
1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT..................................................... 40
1.2. HISTORY AND SYNTHESIS OF PREVIOUS WORK........................ 40

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CHAPTER 2 ...................................................................................................... 43
METHODOLOGIES AND PROCEDURES.................................................. 43
2.1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 43
2.2. EXISTING DATA ...................................................................................... 43
2.3. COMPILATION AND SYNTHESIS ....................................................... 44
2.3.1. Digitising and Compilation of Existing Geological Maps......................................... 45
2.3.2. Satellite Imagery........................................................................................................... 45
Landsat 7 ETM Data............................................................................................................... 45
ASTER Data ............................................................................................................................ 46
2.3.3. Airborne Geophysics.................................................................................................... 47
2.4. DATA PROCESSING................................................................................ 48
2.4.1. Geometric Registration of Satellite Imagery ............................................................. 49
2.4.2. Topographic Base Maps .............................................................................................. 52
Datum Transformation ........................................................................................................... 53
Manual Digitising.................................................................................................................... 54
SRTM Digital Elevation Data................................................................................................. 55
2.4.3. Digital Enhancement of SRTM Data.......................................................................... 56
2.4.4. Digital Enhancement of LANDSAT-7 TM Scenes .................................................... 56
2.4.5. Digital Enhancement of ASTER VNIR Scenes.......................................................... 58
2.4.6. Digital Enhancement of Airborne Geophysical Grids .............................................. 58
2.4.7. Integrated Enhancement of Radiometric and Landsat TM Scenes ........................ 60
2.4.8. Digital Interactive Interpretation of Compiled and Processed Data Sets............... 61
2.4.9. Interpretation of Lithological Units............................................................................ 62
2.4.10. Geological Image Interpretation of Structural Features........................................ 65
2.5. FIELD VERIFICATION AND MAPPING............................................. 67
2.6. MAP PRODUCTS...................................................................................... 68
2.6.1. Geological Maps ........................................................................................................... 68
2.6.2. Map Explanations ........................................................................................................ 69
2.6.3. Petrophysical Database................................................................................................ 71
2.7. INVENTORY OF MINERAL RESOURCES......................................... 71
CHAPTER 3 ...................................................................................................... 74
INFRASTRUCTURE........................................................................................ 74
CHAPTER 4 ...................................................................................................... 76
PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY .......................................... 76
4.1. GEOMORPHOLOGY............................................................................... 76
4.2. BASEMENT TECTONICS....................................................................... 78
4.3. CLIMATE................................................................................................... 79
CHAPTER 5 ...................................................................................................... 80
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY................................................................................ 80
5.1. PRINCIPLES.............................................................................................. 80

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5.2. HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT ................................................................. 80

5.3. REGIONAL GEOLOGY .......................................................................... 81
5.3.1. Archaean Cratons and Mobile Belts........................................................................... 81
Granulite-Gneiss Belts ............................................................................................................ 83
Granite-Greenstone Terrains.................................................................................................. 83
‘Younger Granites’.................................................................................................................. 84
Late-Archaean Basins, Dykes and Layered Intrusions ......................................................... 84
5.3.2. Palaeoproterozoic Fold Belts....................................................................................... 84
5.3.3. Mesoproterozoic Fold Belts ......................................................................................... 85
5.3.4. Neoproterozoic Pan-African Fold Belts ..................................................................... 86
5.3.5. Neoproterozoic-Cambrian Platform Sediments........................................................ 88
5.3.6. Post-Pan-African Cambrian-Carboniferous Platform Sediments .......................... 89
5.3.7. Late Carboniferous-Early Jurassic Sediments and Volcanics of the Karoo .......... 90
5.3.8. Cretaceous – Recent Sediments and Volcanics of the East Africa Rift Sequences 92
5.4. GEODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES: WILSON OR SUPERCONTINENT
CYCLES AND SUPERPLUMES ............................................................ 93
5.4.1. Wilson or Supercontinent Cycles................................................................................ 93
5.4.2. Superplumes ................................................................................................................. 95
5.4. GEOCHRONOLOGY, WITH EMPHASIS ON NEW DATA.............. 96
5.5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 96
5.5.2. Crystalline Basement ................................................................................................... 97
5.5.3. Phanerozoic Cover ....................................................................................................... 98
5.6. TERRANES ................................................................................................ 98
South Gondwana ..................................................................................................................... 99
West Gondwana..................................................................................................................... 100
East Gondwana...................................................................................................................... 100
CHAPTER 6 .................................................................................................... 101
CRYSTALLINE BASEMENT – PROTEROZOIC FOLD BELTS .......... 101
6.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 101
6.1.2. Geological Units in Northern Mozambique ............................................................. 101
6.2. NAMPULA COMPLEX .......................................................................... 103
6.2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 103
6.2.2. Mocuba Suite .............................................................................................................. 105
Banded Biotite Gneiss and Migmatite (P2NMgm) and Garnet-Sillimanite Gneiss/Migmatite
(P2NMgs) ............................................................................................................................... 107
Leucogneiss and granitic leptynite (P2NMlg, P2NMlcl) ...................................................... 110
Geochemistry ......................................................................................................................... 110
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 111
Setting .................................................................................................................................... 112
6.2.3. Molócuè Group........................................................................................................... 112
Quartzite/Meta-Arkose/ Ferruginous Quartzite (P2NMsg) ................................................. 113
Marble (P2NMma)................................................................................................................. 114
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 115
6.2.4. Culicuí Suite................................................................................................................ 115

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Charnockite (P2NMch).......................................................................................................... 115

Augen Gneiss with local enclaves of Charnockite and Migmatite (P2NMga) .................... 116
Strongly foliated pink K-feldspar granite gneiss (P2NMfgr) ............................................... 117
Gabbro and diorite (P2NMgab)............................................................................................. 117
Geochemistry ......................................................................................................................... 118
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 118
6.3. PAN-AFRICAN GRANULITE TERRANES........................................ 119
6.3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 119
Lúrio Thrust Belt and Ocua Complex .................................................................................. 119
Mugeba and Plantação Santos Terranes ............................................................................. 120
Allochthonous mylonites (P2MBog) .................................................................................... 120
6.4. PAN-AFRICAN MURRUPULA SUITE ............................................... 121
6.4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 121
6.4.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 121
Granite (CaRgr)..................................................................................................................... 121
Geochemistry ......................................................................................................................... 122
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 123
Pan-African Pegmatites ........................................................................................................ 123
CHAPTER 7 .................................................................................................... 125
PHANEROZOIC COVER ............................................................................. 125
7.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 125
7.2. KAROO SUPERGROUP ........................................................................ 125
7.2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 125
7.2.2. Upper Karoo Group................................................................................................... 126
Chueza (Basalt) Formation* (JrC)....................................................................................... 126
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 126
7.3. EAST AFRICA RIFT SEQUENCES ..................................................... 127
7.3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 127
7.3.2. Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous – Sequence 1: Lupata Group ........................... 127
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 127
Monte Mazambulo Formation* (JrLM)............................................................................... 128
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 129
7.3.3. Middle to Late Cretaceous – Sequence 2 ................................................................. 129
Sena Formation* (CrSb)....................................................................................................... 129
7.3.4. Late Cretaceous to Palaeocene – Sequence 3........................................................... 130
Grudja Formation* (CrG)..................................................................................................... 131
7.3.5. Serra Morrumbala Suite ........................................................................................... 132
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 132
Quartz veins (CrMRq) ........................................................................................................... 132
Alkaline intrusion and diabase dykes (CrMRa)................................................................... 132
Syenite (CrMRs) .................................................................................................................... 133
Tuffite and volcanic breccia (CrMRv).................................................................................. 134
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 135
7.3.6. Eocene-Oligocene Deposition – Sequence 4 ............................................................. 135

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Inhaminga Formation* (TeI) ............................................................................................... 135

Cheringoma Formation* (TeC)............................................................................................ 136
7.3.7. Miocene-Pliocene – Sequence 5................................................................................. 137
Mazamba Formation* (TeZ)................................................................................................ 137
7.3.8. Quaternary – Sequence 6........................................................................................... 138
Fluvial terrace gravel and sand (Qt) .................................................................................... 139
Eluvial floodplain mud (Qpi) ................................................................................................ 139
Colluvial deposits (Qc) .......................................................................................................... 140
Raised beach sediment/Costal sand(stone) (Qcs)................................................................. 140
Eluvial floodplain clayey sand (Qps).................................................................................... 141
Internal Dunes (Qdi) ............................................................................................................. 141
Pebble-bearing debris (Qp) ................................................................................................... 143
Alluvial mud of fluvial-marine origin (Qst) ......................................................................... 143
Alluvium, sand, silt and gravel (Qa)..................................................................................... 143
Coastal dune and beach sand deposits (Qd)......................................................................... 144
Thermal spring deposits ........................................................................................................ 145
CHAPTER 8 .................................................................................................... 146
STRUCTURE AND METAMORPHISM .................................................... 146
8.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 146
8.2. METAMORPHIC AND STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PRECAMBRIAN BASEMENT............................................................. 146
8.2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 146
8.2.2. Kibaran/Grenville Deformation and Metamorphism............................................. 146
8.2.3. Pan-African Deformation and Metamorphism ....................................................... 147
8.3. PHANEROZOIC RIFTING ................................................................... 148
8.3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 148
8.3.2. Karoo Rifting .............................................................................................................. 149
8.3.3. Post-Karoo Major Tectonic Events ............................................................................. 149
Chire–Urema Graben............................................................................................................ 151
Mozambique Basin ................................................................................................................ 151
CHAPTER 9 .................................................................................................... 152
GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION..................................................................... 152
9.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 152
9.2. TERRANE BOUNDARIES..................................................................... 152
9.3. GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION.............................................................. 158
9.3.1. Mesoproterozoic Pre-Kibaran Extension................................................................. 158
9.3.2. Mesoproterozoic Grenville Orogenic Cycle – Rodinia Supercontinent ................ 159
9.3.3. Post-Rodinia Break-Up (Neoproterozoic)................................................................ 160
9.3.4. Pan-African Orogenic System (Neoproterozoic – Ordovician).............................. 161
9.3.5. Karoo Rift Phase ........................................................................................................ 165
9.3.6. Neo-Tethys Drift and Dispersal/ East Africa Rift System ...................................... 166

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CHAPTER 10 .................................................................................................. 167

MINERAL RESOURCES .............................................................................. 167
10.1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 167
10.1.1. General ...................................................................................................................... 167
Mineral Occurrences in the Area covered by this Map Explanation.................................. 168
10.2. INDUSTRIAL MINERALS .................................................................. 169
10.2.1. Ilmenite, Rutile and Zircon in ‘Black Sand Deposits’ .......................................... 169
Moebase ................................................................................................................................. 169
Other black sand deposits...................................................................................................... 170
10.2.2. Semi-precious stones ................................................................................................ 170
10.2.3. Thermal springs........................................................................................................ 171
10.3. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS........................................................ 172
10.3.1. Aggregates................................................................................................................. 173
10.3.2. Sand and Gravel ....................................................................................................... 174
10.3.3. Brick Clay ................................................................................................................. 175
10.3.4. Limestone/Marble .................................................................................................... 175
10.4. HYDROCARBONS ............................................................................... 176
10.4.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 176
10.4.2. Natural Gas............................................................................................................... 176
10.4.3. Oil............................................................................................................................... 176
10.4.4. Current Developments............................................................................................. 177
10.5. MINERAL POTENTIAL ...................................................................... 180
10.6. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EXPLORATION .............................. 182
REFERENCES ................................................................................................ 184

APPENDIX 1. Definitions of litho-stratigraphic units

APPENDIX 2. Volume 3 mineral occurrences

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ABSTRACT
The area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3) comprises a variety of lithologies,
which represent a wide span of geological eras from the Proterozoic until the present. The
vast majority of mapped rocks are products of sedimentary processes that are associated with
the geodynamic evolution of southeastern Africa and the South Gondwana Terrane in
particular.
The Precambrian basement in the area comprises metamorphosed and deformed
sedimentary and igneous rocks: gneisses with minor marbles, pegmatites and quartzites,
migmatites, granulites, schists and granitoids. The general trend has as main orientation E-W
to SW-NE.
The Phanerozoic cover consists of six main units, from Karoo to Quaternary. The
Karoo is represented by basalts and dolerites. The Cretaceous supracrustals include the
sedimentary Sena and Grudja Formations*, the Lupata rhyolites and sandstones (Lupata
Group) and the Morrumbala Suite with its alkaline intrusions and volcanic rocks. The
Cenozoic includes volcanic rocks, the Inhaminga purple sandstones and Mazamba sandstones.
Ultimately, the Quaternary sediments comprise colluvial and alluvial deposits, internal and
coastal dunes, coastal sands, eluvial food plain muds and eluvial food plain clayey sands
deposits.
Unconformably on the top of the eroded Karoo volcanics, the above-mentioned
sedimentary rocks are deposited within continental and marine basins extending from the
Zambezi River towards south of the Save River. A major erosional period occurred during the
Upper Cretaceous within the Zambezi Valley, which caused the deposition of the thick
sedimentary Sena Formation* in the lower Zambezi section. As a whole, the unit consists of
sandstones with conglomeratic horizons. During the Cenozoic, only rifting and associated
minor volcanic activity occurred. On the other hand, the Quaternary deposits are represented
by a quiescence stage of erosional and tectonic activities. The most recent rocks consist of
alluvial deposits and coastal dunes.
Regionally, during the Phanerozoic, large segments of the Precambrian basement in
southern Africa were overlain by sediments and volcanics of Karoo Supergroup. The
remnants of sedimentary rocks of this group are in the map area more widespread than the
volcanics, which are typically bounded to the margins of Proterozoic terrains due to
extensional and continental rifting processes. The overall sedimentary column of the
Mozambique Basin can be divided into a shallow platform sequence and sequences deposited
in deeper sea that are restricted to a few narrow rift structures.
Five major Cretaceous-Tertiary basin-wide depositional sequences are recognised that
are delineated by angular unconformities. Facies changes generally record eastward transition
from terrestrial deposits via paralic and shallow marine to deeper marine deposits, which may
reach a thickness of >10 000 m in the Zambezi delta area. Cretaceous-Tertiary sedimentary
rocks were exposed to erosion during the late Cenozoic resulting in that the Pliocene,
Pleistocene and Holocene deposits consist essentially of reworked and winnowed weathering
products. The Pleistocene consists of reddish and consolidated, mostly slightly eroded dune
sands, while most of the Holocene comprises of recent alluvium and inland palaeo-dunes and
active coastal dunes. Although these Quaternary deposits occupy about two thirds of the land

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area of this Map Explanation, they typically form only a thin overburden that covers the
prevailing Phanerozoic rocks.
In view of the limited amount of historical exploration that has been carried out in the
area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3), comprising rocks from Proterozoic to
present, there is large potential to discover various new mineral resources. In the map area
composed of crystalline basement, however, the number of known mineral occurrences is
low. The crystalline rocks are quarried for aggregate in Nacaia and in Longose in Zambézia
Province. The coastal zone of this Map Explanation (Volume 3) is covered by rocks of Karoo
and mainly Quaternary sediments. Sand, gravel and sandy, lacustrine limestones are quarried
along the extensive coastal basins between the continent and the ocean. Economically the
most important commodity is ilmenite, concentrated in world-class heavy mineral deposits
along the coast, of which Moebase, just south of Moma Heavy Mineral Project, is at present
most promising within this map area.
In addition, marble is available for lime production, quartz for refractory and
insulation industry, thermal springs for medical purposes, clay for ceramic industry, granitic
rocks for aggregates and sands for construction. The pegmatites of the Alto Ligonha
Pegmatite Province contain, apart from metallic minerals such as columbite-tantalite
(‘coltan’) and microlite, non-metallic minerals such as beryl, spodumene, lepidolite,
amblygonite, petalite, kaolin and pollucite and also semi-precious stones such as gem quality
beryl, spodumene and tourmaline. Most pegmatite bodies are, however, located to the north of
this Map Explanation area.
Hydrocarbon exploration in central and northern Mozambique is focused on the
Rovuma sedimentary basin, Cabo Delgado Province, together with the offshore Zambezi
deltaic complex and the entire off-shore of the Mozambique Basin. Multi-petroleum systems
combined with mega-anticlinal structures endow this vast area with exploration potential.
These exploration targets have come within reach due to strongly increased oil and gas prices,
together with novel deep-water technologies, which have improved very quickly during the
past few years. Indications of hydrocarbons are encountered in the Rovuma Basin in the north
and in the Mozambique Basin in the south where potential for oil has been reported from the
off-shore part of the basin.

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 Volume 3

RESUMO EXPANDIDO (VOLUME 3)

ANTECEDENTES DO PROJECTO
Como parte da política mineral do Governo de Moçambique, o Ministério de Recursos
Minerais (MIREM), através da Direcção Nacional de Geologia (DNG), fomenta o
desenvolvimento da infraestructura geocientífica da nação, apoiando a promoção de
investimentos mineiros e o desenvolvimento social e econômico sustentável do país.
O mapeamento geológico tem sido practicado em Moçambique desde os tempos
coloniais e extensos levantamentos geofísicos, geoquímicos e geológicos tem sido efectuados
desde a independência. Os arquivos da DNG contém um abundante acervo de informações
geocientíficas. Porém, uma grande parte desta informação é desactualizada em relação à
tecnologia empregada e as concepções geológicas que apoiam a moderna exploração mineral.
Portanto, é de extrema importância completar e modernizar a infraestructura geocientífica
nacional. Para se alcançar isto, o Governo de Moçambique implementou o Projecto de
Capacitação de Manejo de Recursos Minerais (PCMRM), como parte de um programa
internacional maior.
O objectivo principal do programa de mapeamento do PCMRM é o de revisar os
mapeamentos prévios em determinadas áreas e de melhorar a qualidade de mapas geológicos
em outras, para que se consiga a ter uma cobertura consistente de todo o território
Moçambicano em termos de qualidade. O mapeamento geológico é baseado nos princípios
estratigráficos modernos e assim, o objectivo deste programa é também de resolver problemas
estratigráficos e estructurais, assim como fornecer um bom controle geocronológico, quando
preciso.

METODOLOGIA
A metodologia de implementação do projecto incluiu a execução de uma série de tarefas
relevantes ao mapeamento, assim como um programa de treinamento dos funcionários da
DNG. A preparação desta nova geração de mapas geológicos tem sido convenientemente
subdividida em quatro fases: (1) Fase de preparação, (2) Compilação e síntese da informação
geológica existente, (3) Fase de mapeamento e (4) Preparação dos productos finais.
Os productos cartográficos digitais são baseados na interpretação interactiva de uma
variedade de dados digitais (imagens de satélite, dados aeromagnéticos e radiométricos,
versões escaneadas de mapas existentes), trabalho de laboratório (petrologia, litogeoquímica e
geocronologia, compreendendo SHRIMP, resultados de datação U-Pb e Sm-Nd
convencionais) e verificação de campo. A interpretação interactiva das imagens compiladas e
processadas (e.g. Landsat-7, banda 5 em combinação com três séries de dados radiométricos,
i.e. K, eTh e eU, co-registradas em um pixel/grade de tamanho célula comum, após o qual
estas foram ‘fundidas’ em imagens compostas a cores pela aplicação de um algoritmo
algébrico aos pixels/grades), se monstrou muito eficaz.
Todos os dados, existentes e novos, foram incorporados ao Sistema de Informação
Mineral (SIM) no formato ArcGIS, que pode ser consultado na DNG.

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 Volume 3

INFRAESTRUCTURA E GEOMORFOLOGIA
A infraestructura e geomorfologia da área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do Mapa
(Volume 3), referida como a ‘área de mapeamento’, serão discutidas nos Capítulos 3 e 4. O
último inclui uma breve revisão das zonas fisiográficas ou ciclos, de acordo com King (1961)
e se relaciona com o conceito de ‘tectônica do embasamento’.

LITOESTRATIGAFIA E GEOLOGIA REGIONAL

Princípios lito- e tectonoestratigráficos modernos tem sido aplicados na prepação dos
productos de mapas digitais e legendas. Para facilitar a correlação das unidades lito- e
tectonoestratigráficos de Moçambique com os de países vizinhos, a geologia regional da
África é brevemente revisada (Capítulo 5).
O continente Africano é composto por um mosaico de crátons e faixas móveis
Arcaicos, amalgamados por cinturões dobrados Proterozóico-Cambrianos e cobertos por uma
associação de sedimentos indeformados e rochas extrusivas de idades Neoproterozóica,
Carbonífera Superior-Jurássica Inferior e Cretácea Inferior-Quaternária (Tabela R.1;
modificado principalmente de Gabert, 1984, Dirks & Ashwal, 2002). Os cinturões dobrados
mais jovens, deformados durante as Orogenias Herciniana e Alpina, possuem uma extensão
apenas local.

Tabela R.1. Os domínios tectono-magmático-estructurais da África.

Evento/Sistema Era Idade (Ma)

Sistema de Rift do Leste Fase Principal Neoceno - Presente 23 - 0
Africano (SRLA) Fase Inicial Cretáceo - Paleoceno 140 - 23
Terrenos Gondwânicos Evento Karoo Carbonífero Superior- 318 - 180
Jurássico Inferior
Plataformas Pós-Pan- < 542
Africanas
Pan-Africano Orogenia Pan-Africana Neoproterozóico- Cambriano 750 - 490
Bacias do Pan-Africano Neoproterozóico 900 - 700
Inicial
Kibariano/Irumidiano/Grenvilleano Mesoproterozóico 1450 - 900
Ubendiano/ Usagarano Fase Tardio Palaeoproterozóico about 1860
Fase Inicial 2100 - 2025
Crátons (terrenos granito-greenstone) e Faixas Arcaico 3800 - 2500
Móveis

As unidades litoestratigráficas que jazem sob o território de Moçambique, podem ser

convenientemente subdivididos entre o embasamento cristalino de idade Arcaica-Cambriana e
a cobertura Fanerozóica. O embasamento cristalino é composta por uma assembléia
heterogênea de paragneisses, granulitos e migmatitos, ortogneisses e rochas ígneas. Do ponto
de vista geodinâmico, aceita-se geralmente que o embasamento cristalino de Moçambique
compõe-se de três terrenos2 distintos, que se colidiram e amalgamaram durante o Ciclo

2
O termo ’terreno’ é utilizado para indicar unidades tectônicas de dimensões diferentes, i.e. uma placa
litosférica, fragmento de placa ou lasca ou uma massa tectônica, como ‘nappe’. Por outro lado, o ‘terreno’ é
um termo genérico, a grosso modo similar à ‘área’.

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 Volume 3

Orogênico Pan-Africano (COPA). Antes da amalgamação Pan-Africana, cada terreno foi

caracterizado por uma evolução geodinâmica específica. Estes terrenos são provisoriamente
denominados como os Terrenos Gondwana Leste, Gondwana Oeste e Gondwana Sul (Tabela
5.4). A evolução geodinâmica e as margens - as suturas destes Terrenos maiores - serão
discutidos no Capítulo 9.
Estando localizada próxima à juncção tripla entre a faixa Irumide (about 1.02 Ga), a
faixa Zambezi (about 850 – 450 Ma) e a faixa Moçambique (750 – 550 Ma), a geologia do
embasamento da área de mapeamento é extraordinariamente complexa:
• Terreno Gondwana Sul – Compreende o Cráton Zimbabwe e várias unidades
tectono- ou litoestratigráficas em cinturões dobrados Proterozóicos, que foram
empurrados ou depositados sobre a margem norte e leste do Cráton. A sua borda
norte se corresponde com uma sutura coberta pelo Graben Karoo do Meio-
Zambezi, desenvolvido entre a Faixa Pan-Africana Damara-Lufiliano-Zambezi
(DLZ) e parcialmente com a Zona de Cisalhamento de Sanângoè (ZCS),
superposta.
• Terreno Gondwana Oeste – Compreende o Cráton Congo/Tanzania ou África
Central e várias unidades tectono- ou litoestratigráficas em cinturões dobrados
Proterozóicos, que foram empurrados ou depositados sobre a margem sul e leste do
Cráton. Na Tanzania, a frente do empurrão da Faixa Moçambique, vergente a oeste,
marca o limite entre os Terrenos Gondwana Oeste e Gondwana Leste. Mais ao sul,
esta sutura é pobremente definida, mas no Bloco Tetê-Chibata – um fragmento
tectônico menor delimitado pela Zona de Cisalhamento Sanângoè e o
Deslocamento Mwembeshi e amalagamado com o Cráton da África Central desde
o Ciclo Orogênico Grenville – esta sutura corresponde supostamente ao contacto
entre o domínio maior do Bloco Tete-Chipata de direcção WSW-ENE e o Grupo
Angónia, de direção NW-SE. O Granito Desaranhama (Suíte Furancungo),
igualmente de direcção NW-SE, representa supostamente a soleira da massa de
empurrão Angónia, pertencendo, porém, ao Terreno Gondwana Oeste (Capítulo
11).
• Terreno Gondwana Leste – Na Tanzania, este compreende o embasamento
cristalino – os Granulitos Orientais – a leste da sutura Pan-Africana. Mais ao sul,
este compreende a maioria das rochas em Malawi e Moçambique setentrional. O
seu núcelo Arcaico é supostamente localizado em Madagascar e Índia.

O embasamento cristalino da área de mapeamento é conhecida como a sub-província

Nampula. Esta é tradicionalmente considerada como sendo parte do Gondwana Leste.
Alternativamente, esta pode pertencer à Gondwana Sul, o ponto de vista favorecido nesta
Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 3).
Cada Terreno mencionado acima é producto de um desenvolvimento geodinâmico
específico e individual. Os princípios da geodinâmica e formação da crosta continental – o
Ciclo de Wilson, de Supercontinentes e Superplumas – säo brevemente revistos na Secção
5.4.

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 Volume 3

FAIXAS DE DOBRAMENTO PROTEROZÓICOS; GONDWANA LESTE

OU SUL?
A geologia do norte de Moçambique pode ser convenientemente sub-dividido em (1) o
domínio estructural da Faixa de Empurrão Lúrio (FEL), (2) A própria FEL e (3) o domínio
estructural sul da FEL, i.e., a sub-província Nampula (Capítulo 6). A geologia destes
domínios foi recentemente detalhado e re-mapeado dentro do presente Projecto GIDP (vide
‘Prefácio’). O mapeamento geológico efectuado pelo consórcio liderado pelo Serviço
Geológico da Noruega (NGU), compreendendo a maior parte da área da Faixa Lúrio e mais
ao norte, foi apoiado por novos dados geofísicos e de geocronologia. Dados isotópicos U-Pb,
LA-ICPMS e SIMS foram colectados de zircões e monazitas de 30 amostras (Bingen et al.
2006). O Council of Geosciences implementou um projecto similar nas rochas cristalinas a sul
da Faixa de Lúrio, que são atribuídas á sub-província de Nampula pelo consórcio GTK e
serão discutidas nesta Nota Explicativa do mapa (Volume 3).
De acordo com Bingen et al. (2006) e Vila et al. (2006), seguintes unidades tectono-
estratigráficas podem ser identificadas na província norte:
• O Complexo Ponta Messuli, um fragmento de embasamento Paleoproterozóico
(idade monazita de 1954±15 Ma), constitui a parte norte-noroeste do embasamento
critalino do norte de Moçambique. Esta experimentou a migmatizaçäo de fácies
amfibolito e pode ser considerado a extensão da Faixa Ubendiana-Usagarana,
Paleoproterozóica.
• O Grupo Txitonga, de baixo-grau e de idade desconhecida, sobrejacente no
complexo acima.
• O embasamento cristalino a sul do Graben Karoo de Maniamba e ao norte da FEL
é predominantemente composto por gneisses félsicos Mesoproterozóicos (1110 a
990 Ma), contidos (de leste a oeste) nos Complexos Unango e Marrupa e em um
número de nappes Pan-Africanos, compreendendo (de leste a oeste) os Complexos
M’sawize, Muaquia, Xixano, Nairoto, Montepuez, Lalamo e Meluco.

A FEL, de direcção WSW-ENE, separa o domínio estructural norte do bloco de

embasamento sul da sub-Província Nampula. Litologicamente, a FEL pode ser considerado
como uma mélange tectônica, incluindo granulitos e gneisses cizalhados, incorporados no
Complexo Ocua, recentemente estabelecido e metasedimentos do Complexo Montepuez. O
metamorfismo e deformação do Complexo Ocua fornece idades de 578±10 ma e 545±6 Ma.
A idade monazítica de 531±6 Ma é relacionada às estructuras extensionais.

A Sub-Província Nampula

O embasamento cristalino da parte sul da sub-Província Nampula, a sul de FEL, compreende

o Complexo Nampula e a assim chamada ‘Klippen’ de Monapo e Mugeba, supostamente
relacionado à FEL (Capítulo 6). As rochas do complexo Nampula (Macey et al. 2006a,b)
compreendem orto e para-gneises Mesoproterozóicos (about 1125 – 1075 Ma) de fácies
amfibolito, com histórias tectônicas em grande parte uniformes, intrudidas por granitóides
Cambrianos e Ordovicianos Pan-Africanos (530 – 450 Ma) e pegmatitos (about 480 – 430
Ma). Baseado nos dados recentes, o Complexo Nampula é sub-dividido em cinco maiores
unidades (Macey et al., 2006a,b); Tabelas 6.1. e 6.2):

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 Volume 3

• Suíte Mocuba (about 1125 Ma) – Gneisse migmatítico bandado a

biotita±amfibólio e orto-gneisse TTG migmatítico.
o Gneisse Rapale (about 1095 Ma) – Ortogneisse TTG tonalítico a
granodiorítico.
o Gneisse Mamala (about 1090) – Gneisse quartzo-feldspático.
• Grupo Molócuè (<1125 Ma) – Paragneisses meta-pelíticas e meta-psamíticas e
mica-xistos com mármores intercalados, gneisses calco-silicatados e rochas
vulcânicas félsicas e máficas e rochas ultramáficas.
• Suíte Culicui (about 1075 Ma) – Augen ortogneisse granítico listrado e
leucogranítico; localmente charnoquítico.

Rochas de cobertura sedimentar, igualmente metamorfisadas, mais jovens que as

rochas do Grupo Molòqué, repousando inconfomavelmente sobre o embasamento mais
antigo, incluindo:
• Grupo Alto Benfica – Meta-conglomerado e quartzito.

As unidades acima formam juntos a sub-Província tectono-estratigráfica de Nampula,

tectonicamente cavalgada por nappes da FEL, cujos restos erosivos estão contidos no Klippen
de Monapo e Mugeba. As suas litologias são atribuídas ao
• Complexo Ocua – Clinopiroxênio + ortopiroxênio + granada granulito;
leucogranulito quartzo-feldspático; rochas charnoquíticas e (blasto-) milonitos.

Finalmente granitos Pan-Africanos invadiram as rochas do Complexo Nampula.

• Suíte Murrupula – Granito equigranular e porfirítico.

Suíte Mocuba
Gneisses e migmatitos meta-vulcânicas e meta-plutônicas, heterogêneas, polideformadas e
polimetamorfisadas da Suíte Mocuba são caracterizadas composições tonalítico-
granodiorítico-graniticas (TTG), manifestando emplaçamento em um ambiente de arco
magmático. De acordo com Macey et al. (2006), isto é confirmado por afinidades do tipo I,
com composições sub-alcalinas, definindo tendências calco-alcalinas na plotagem SiO2-K2O
no diagrama AFM de Le Maître et al. (1989).
A datação SHRIMP de zircão forneceu idades magmáticas de 1128±9 Ma (Macey et
al. 2006b) e 1117±21 Ma (Thomas et al. 2005). Subsequentemente, os gneisses Mocuba
experimentaram várias fases de deformação e metamorfismo. O evento dinamo-termal D1/M1,
com a idade Concórdia de 1091 Ma, representa a idade do pico do D1/M1 do evento dinamo-
termal e migmatização Grenvilliano. Alternativemente, o sobre-crescimento pode ter sido
formado durante o metamorfismo de contacto, resultado da intrusão próxima (about 500 m)
do plutão Namachuca, de 5 km de largura que pertence ao Suíte Culicui, visto que granitóides
equivalentes forneceram idades muito similares de about 1075 – 1090 Ma. Ambos os eventos
– o metamorfismo dinamo-termal e emplaçamento do granito – podem também ter sido
aproximadamente contemporâneas.
Apesar do facto de os gneisses Mocuba devem ter experimentado os eventos
dinamotermais Pan-Africanos D2-3, os zircões da amostra datada não desenvolveram a
zonação de crescimento metamórfico típico de alto U do Pan-Africano (Macey et al. 2006b).

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O material de veios migmatíticos do gneisse tonalítico a hornblenda circundante, colectado a

about 25 km a WNW do povoado de Mulevala, define, porém, uma discórdia com uma
interceptação superior de about 1119 Ma e a inferior de about 487 Ma. Apesar de os dados de
zircão serem ambíguos, existe evidência suficiente para se sugerir que as rochas foram
sujeitos a dois maiores episódios de metamorfismo de alto-grau; um durante o período
Grenvilleano de about 1000 – 1100 Ma e outra, durante o Pan-Africano de about 500 Ma.
Devida à limitada exposição na pequena porção da sub-Província Nampula na área da
Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 3), cobrindo a maior parte da área do embasamento
cristalino na SDS 1736, 1737 e 1738, a correlação uma-à-uma com as unidades lito-
estratigráficas identificadas por Macey et al. (2006b) não foi possível. As seguintes unidades
foram identificadas (da base ao topo): o Gneisse Bandado a Biotita e Migmatito,
predominantemente meta-vulcânica, (P2NMgm), o Gneisse/Migmatito a Granada-Silimanita
(P2NMgs), o Leucogneisse Meta-Plutônico e Leptinito Granítico (P2NMlg, P2NMlcl) e
Leucogneisse Metavulcânico (P2NMlg).

Grupo Molócuè
Baseado nas idéias recentes sobre a tectono-estratigrafia do norte de Moçambique (Bingen et
al. 2006; Viola et al. 2006; Thomas et al. 2005, 2006, Macey et al. 2006a,b), as rochas
supracrustais da sub-Província Nampula não podem ser correlacionadas com outros domínios
tectônicos da FEL. Três grupos de gneisses supracrustais são agora identificadas na sub-
Província Nampula: os grupos Molócuè, Mécuburi e Alto Benfica (Thomas et al. 2005, 2006;
Macey et al. 2006a,b). O Grupo Alto Benfica é significativamente mais jovem (<610 Ma) e é
relacionado ao evento extensional pós-Rodinia, pré-Pan-Africano. Os Grupos Molócuè e
Mécuburi são agora considerados como partes intrínsecas do Complexo Nampula.
Somente as litologias do Grupo Molócuè ocorrem na área coberta por esta Nota
Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 3). O Grupo Molócuè compreende uma grande variedade de
tipos de rochas inter-acamadadas e tectonicamente entredobradas e entrefoliadas, incluindo
metavulcânicas félsicas e máficas, metamorfitos ultramáficos, gneisses meta-pelíticos e
metapsamíticos, rochas quartzíticas e mármores e gneisses calco-silicatadas de menor
importância. Os metabasitos do Grupo Molócuè são dominados por amfibolitos, mas incluem
também meta-gabro, amfibólio-epidoto-piroxênio-granada gneisse, assim como talco xisto,
clorita xisto, antofilita xisto, epidotito, piroxenito, dunito (Aquater, 1983, Cadoppi et al.
1987) e também gneisses a talco-tremolita, fracamente magnéticas (Macey et al. 2006a,b).
Amfibolito bem acamadado, preto-esverdeado é entreacamadado com gneisse quartzo-
feldspático (meta-riolito), com espessura de 15 – 150 cm. Isto ilustra a deposição
parcialmente contemporânea de seqüências extensas de metavulcânicas félsicas e máficas,
com a deposição de uma successão sedimentar há aproximadamente 1090 Ma.
Os supracrustais Molócuè identificadas na área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do
Mapa incluem Quartzito/Meta-Arcóseo/Quartzito Ferruginoso (P2NMsg) e Mármore
(P2NMma). A primeira inclui bandas ferruginosos de quartzito, geralmente além da escala do
mapa. O quartzito negro contém quantidades variáveis de magnetita e granada. Localmente a
granada pode fazer até 25% da matriz (Macey et al. 2006b). O metachert de direcção N-S,
cinza-esverdeada, dura, resistente e bem foliada/acamadada, hospedada por gneisses
charnoquíticas e granulíticas (Fig. 6.7.) é supostamente associada com mármores e rochas
calco-silicatadas.

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O gneisse calco-silicatado do Grupo Molócuè contém zircões detríticos com idades de

about 1850 Ma (idade de interceptação, SHRIMP), e 1127±11 Ma (207Pb/206Pb,
SHRIMP)(Macey & Armstrong, 2005). A idade mais jovem é a mesma da Suíte Mocuba,
indicando que as rochas meta-sedimentares foram ao menos parcialmente provenientes do
embasamento Mocuba. As camadas quartzo-feldspáticas intercaladas com o o Grupo Molócuè
forneceram uma idade de interceptação de 1090±22 Ma (Macey & Armstrong 2005). Estas
rochas são consideradas como representantes de rochas vulcânicas félsicas metamorfisadas e
näo só provém a idade aproximada para o Grupo Molócuè, mas pelo facto de as rochas
supracrustais não possuírem fábrica D1/M1 ou veios migmatíticos (Sacchi et al. 1984,
Cadoppi et al. 1987), eles apontam ao evento tectono-termal D1/M1 entre 1117 e 1090 Ma. Os
dados SHRIMP do outro gneisse quartzo-feldspático Molócuè, colectado a about 12 km a
NNE do povoado de Mulavala, define uma linha discordante com o interceptação superior de
1091±37 Ma e a inferior de about 518 Ma. Os dados confirmam idades de cristalização
Grenvilleanas do componente ortognéissico dos gneisses supracrustais e indicam um distúrbio
parcial da sistemática U-Pb, com o crescimento de alguns zircões metamórficos durante o
Pan-Africano (Macey et al. 2006b).

Suíte Culicui
Camadas e lentes concordante de ortogneisses granitóides da Suíte Culicui representam uma
das unidades litológicas mais volumosas e comuns na sub-Província Nampula (Fig. 8.1). No
campo, as rochas da Suíte Culicui são distinguidas dos ortogneisses Mocuba na base da cor,
composições graníticas a leucograníticas, um aparente episódio maior de deformação e uma
natureza apenas fracamente migmatítica (Macey et al. 2006b).
A verificação de campo do Consórcio GTK identificou três unidades mapeáveis
pertencentes ao Suíte Culicui: Charnockite (P2NMch), Augen gneisse e migmatito (P2Nmga) e
o Gneisse Granítico a feldspato potássico, fortemente foliado (P2NMfgr).
O gneisse granítico megacrístico da área-tipo da Suíte Culicui forneceu a idade
207 206
Pb/ Pb de 1077±26 Ma, com 505±10 Ma, a do episódio migmatítico Pan-Africano
(Macey et al. 2006b). Os granitos da Suíte Culicui parecem ter se desenvolvido como granitos
anatécticos tardi a pós-orogênicos do tipo A, possivelmente relacionados ao colapso da
orogenia D1 há 1075 Ma (Macey et al. 2006b).

Terrenos Granulíticos Pan-Africanos

A sub-Província Nampula hospeda três ‘Klippens’ granulíticos alóctones, com idades

variando de 735 a 550 Ma (com pico há 640 e 590 Ma). Estes incluem as estructuras Mugeba,
Plantação Santos e Monapo (Fig. 9.3). Estes consistem uma variedade de gneisses de alto
grau e granulitos Neoproterozóicos intrudidos por rochas plutônicas alcalinas ultramáficas,
máficas e félsicas e são separadas dos orto e paragneisses (about 1125 – 1075 Ma)
subjacentes Mesoproterozóicos de fácies amfibolito da sub-Província Nampula por uma zona
de milonitos. Estas rochas de alto grau podem se correlacionar com outros restos granulíticos
de idade similar na Tanzania, Sri Lanka, Madagaskar e Antártica e formam parte de uma
nappe Pan-Africana de escala subcontinental. O ‘Klippe’ de Mugeba (Fig. 9.3) extende-se por
uma área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 3) e é agora incorporado no
Complexo Ocua, estabelecido aqui.

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Os milonitos alóctones (P2MBog) são encontrados no canto NE da SDS 1736. Estes

são cobertos por gneisses granulíticos quartzo-feldspáticos do Complexo Mugeba e
sobrepostos aos gneisses miloníticos, leucogneisses e leptinitos graníticos do Grupo Molócuè.
Os dados novos de U-Pb SHRIMP de zircão provém a idade das condições de pico
metamórfico há 556±11 Ma, enquanto a interceptação superior da idade discordante sugere a
formação de protólito há 1163 Ma (apesar de um grande erro)(Grantham et al. dados
inéditos). Existem grandes indícios de que o metamorfismo de fácies granulito do ‘Klippe’
Mugeba e o seu emplaçamento sejam relacionados à actividade tectônica de idade Pan-
Africana, a qual claramente afecta restos da crosta Mesoproterozóica, mais antiga.

Suíte Murrapula Pan-Africana

Os gneisses Mesoproterozóicos foram intrudidos por dois suítes principais de granitos Tardi-
Pan-Africanos, Cambrianos a Ordovicianos, fracamente deformados ou indeformados: as
Suítes Murrupula e Malema. Na área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 3),
os granitos Pan-Africanos são restrictos à Suíte Murrupula (CaRgr).
As rochas são classificadas como granitos, álcali-granitos e monzogranitos e se
localizam no limite entre os granitos do tipo A e tipo S/I no diagrama FeOtotal/MgO vs. SiO2
(Eby 1990) e ao longo do limite entre VAG e Granito Sin-Colisional (Syn-COLG) e na
juncção tripla entre VAG, Syn-COLG e WPG no diagrama de discriminação geodinâmica de
Pierce et al. (1984).
A idade Pan-Africana mais antiga é derivada do quartzo-monzonito Mopui,
fracamente deformado, fornecendo a idade de cristalização precisa de U-Pb Concórdia de
532±5 Ma (Macey & Armstrong, 2005). Seis plútons de granito indeformado e equigranular
fornecem idades de cristalização variando de 514 a 504 Ma (U-Pb SHRIMP), todas idades
concórdia (Macey & Armstrong, 2005, Roberts et al. dados inéditos). Estas idades
correspondem ao sobre-crescimento do zircão nas rochas Grenville/Kibara Mesoproterozóicos
(538±8 Ma, 525±20, 505±10, 514±37, 555±12 e 502±80 Ma). A fase Pan-Africana do
magmatismo é relacionada á fase D3 de cisalhamento regional, durante a qual bandas de
cisalhamento discretamente espaçadas se desenvolveram. As leucosomas S3 foram datadas
(método 207Pb/206Pb) e forneceram a idade principal de 490±8 Ma. Uma amostra de granito
forneceeu uma idade concórdia U-Pb SHRIMP significativamente mais jovem de 453±7
Ma(Grantham et al. dados inéditos).
Pelo menos duas gerações de diques pegmatíticos, supostamente pertencentes à Suíte
Murrupala, invadiram todas as rochas mais antigas da sub-Província Nampula. Isto inclui o
bem conhecido campo de pegmatitos de Alto Lihanga, minerada para tantalita e gemas semi-
preciosas, que forma parte de uma faixa de 170 km de comprimento, orietado a NE-SW,
extendendo de Mocubela a sul, até ao Alto Ligonha (SDS 1537, 1538, 1637 e 1638). As
idades CHIME dos pegmatitos indicam uma idade de about 470 a 430 Ma (Ordoviciano-
Siluriano).

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A COBERTURA FANEROZÓICA
A cobertura Fanerozóica cmpreende todas as litologias depositadas posteriormente ao Ciclo
Orogênico Pan-Africano (COPA) (Capítulo 7). Estas são geralmente sedimentos terrestres a
marinhos, sub-horizontais a monoclinais, que não foram afectados por deformação
penetrativa, mas podem ter sofrido uma deformação tectônica frágil extensiva. A cobertura
Fanerozóica é convenientemente sub-dividida em (da base ao topo) o Supergrupo Karoo e
assembléias inconsolidados das seqüências do Rifte do Leste Africano.

Supergrupo Karoo

O supergrupo Karoo (Carbonífero Superior a Jurássico Inferior) pode ser subdividido em

grupos Karoo Inferior e Superior, depositados durante o Evento Karoo, i.e., o rifte abortado
ou a fase de separação do Gondwana. Este é caracterizado pelo desenvolvimento de Grabens
intracratônicos e bacias afundadas e terminação pelo emplaçamento da Província Ígnea Karoo
(PIK) no Jurássico Inferior (about 190 Ma).
Na área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 3) ocorrem somente
litologias do Grupo Karoo Superior, restrictos à Formação (Basalto) Chueza*. Os basaltos e
riolitos PIK do Karoo Superior, pertencentes à faixa vulcânica costeiro Angoche-Nacala,
estão fora da área discutida nesta Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 3).

As Seqüências de Rifte do Leste Africano

As Seqüências de Rifte do Leste Africano compreendem uma assembléia incosolidada de

unidades litoestratigráficas, compostas por estratos sedimentares terrestres a marinhos e
rochas (sub)vulcânicas associadas, depositadas após o Evento Karoo, marcando o
rifte/migração/dispersão do Gondwana.
A sua deposição ou emplaçamento começou há about 140 Ma e é aproximadamente
contemporânea com o desenvolvimento do Sistema de Rifte do Leste da África (SRLA), o
que, porém, não sugere uma relacção genética directa com a SRLA. Os processos acima
deram origem ao desenvolvimento da Bacia Moçambique, que é embasada pelas rochas
vulcânicas do Karoo Superior do Jurássico Inferior e coberta pela successões sedimentares do
Cretáceo Inferior a Médio e mais jovens, assim como por rochas (sub)vulcânicas
subordinadas, que constituem o grosso das rochas discutidas nesta Nota Explicativa do Mapa.
Cinco seqüências deposicionais maiores pós-Karoo, separadas uns dos outros por
inconformidades angulares e períodos de não-deposição ou erosão, tem sido reconhecidas e
incorporadas na estructura estratigráfica de toda Bacia Moçambique (Coster et al. 1989; vide
também a Nota Explicativa do Mapa, Volume 1; GTK Consortium, 2006a). Esta estructura
estratigráfica é a síntese baseada na geologia superficial e poços profundos de exploração de
hidrocarbonetos.

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Jurássico Superior – Cretáceo Inferior – Seqüência 1

Inclui o Grupo Lupata, vulcano-sedimentar. Este contém carbonatitos e rochas ígneas
associadas do sul de Malawi e partes adjacentes de Moçambique, pertencentes à Província
Alcalina Chilwa3 (Bloomfield, 1961), um grupo de intrusões ígneas dominantemente alcalinas
do Jurássico Superior(?) a Cretáceo Inferior. Na área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do
Mapa, o Grupo Lupata é representada pela Formação (Grés Conglomerático) Monte
Mazambulo*. Esta unidade é localmente conhecida como a Formação Rio M’Fidze* e é
exposta ao longo de um polígono de direcção NNW-SSE, cerca de 20 km de comprimento, a
partir da Cidade de Dona Ana ao Rio Nhacurule, ao norte do povoado de Mutarara, ao longo
da margem oeste da SDS 1735.
Esta consiste de grés cor-de-rosa a esbranquiçado e grés tufácea, com granularidade
variável, mostrando similaridades com os grés Sena. Porém, os primeiros não possuem clastos
de lava alcalina, comuns nos grés da Formação Sena*. Conglomerados ocorrem também na
Formação Mazambulo*.

Cretáceo Médio a Superior – Seqüência 2

Na área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do Mapa, a Seqüência 2 é restricta à Formação
Sena*, que sobrejaz litologias do Supergrupo Karoo e Grupo Lupata, ou localmente,
directamente sobre o embasamento cristalino. A unidade ocupa faixas estreitas de terra ao
longo da margem oeste de SDS 1735 e 1835 na base do Platô de Cheringoma, a 25 km da
Cidade de Caia e a sul do rio Zambezi. Estas formam a extensão à leste de vastos
afloramentos que cobrem o Graben Chire-Urema e a parte Sul da Garganta de Lupata. A
unidade alcança a espessura máxima conhecida de 2.800 m no poço de hidrocarbonetos
(perfuração Inhaminga 5) no Graben de Urema. A espessura de about 2000 m dos estratos
Albianos e Turonianos tem sido demonstrada (perfuração Nhamura 1) na delta do Zambezi.
Os estratos progradam a SE, indicando um ambiente fluvio-deltaico.
A unidade representa o ‘Cretáceo Continental’ e é predominantemente composta por
um grés de granulação média a grosseira, conglomerática ou arcósea (Fig. 7.1). Grãos de
quartzo e feldspato inalterados indicam uma fonte próxima e/ou rápida deposição. A rocha é
pobremente cimentada ou contém cimento carbonático. Horizontes conglomeráticos
intraformacionais ou camadas de clastos ocorrem em alguns lugres. Os clastos são derivados
de granito, gneisse, quartzito do embasamento e às vezes, de riolito e lavas alcalinas do Grupo
Lupata (Lächelt, 2004). A concentração eluvial de clastos pode dar origem a cobertura de
debris ricos em seixos no topo da unidade.
Os grés Sena foram datados como sendo Albiano-Turonianos (Cretáceo Médio; 100 –
125 Ma) por métodos palinológicos.

Cretáceo Superior a Paleoceno – Seqüência 3

A seqüência corresponde ao tempo da deposição da Grudja Inferior e Superior, separados por
uma inconformidade e hiatus do Paleoceno Inferior, o que na parte oeste da Bacia
Moçambique é contemporânea com a deposição de pelitos marinhos e na sua parte leste e off-
shore, com carbonatos de águas profundas. A base da seqüência é formada pela

3
Denominado segundo o complexo carbonatítico no Lago Chilwa (Lago Chiuta) na fronteira entre Malawi e
Moçambique.

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inconformidade e hiato intra-Senoniano. O contacto superior é com a inconformidade e hiato

do Eoceno Inferior.
A maioria dos afloramentos atribuídos à Formação (Grés) Grudja* ocorre em uma
faixa estreita, de direcção NE-SW na SDS 1835 e SDS 1934 (Nota Explicativa do Mapa,
Volumes 3 e 2; GTK Consortium, 2006c,b). A Formação Grudja* consiste em estratos
progressivamente marinhos, compreendendo grés calcáreos fossilíferos e glauconíticos, de cor
amarelo-esverdeado, com raras intercalações de calcáreo.

Suíte Serra Morrumbala

Carbonatitos e rochas alcalinas associadas ocorrem por toda área, particulamente nas
adjacências de Malawi e formam também parte da Província Alcalina Chilwa, definido por
Bloomfield (1961). A sua distribuição parece ser relacionada com as margens da Garganta de
Lupata, os Grabens de Chire e Urema, manifestando actividade ígnea associada com o
desenvolvimento da SRLA e reactivação de falhas mais antigas do embasamento.
A localidade-tipo da Serra Morrumbala (no meio de SDS 1735) é composta por um
plug alcalino arredondado, composto, na sua maior parte, por um granito alcalino, cercado
por sienito. O GTK Consortium identificou as seguintes unidades mapeáveis: (1) Veios de
quartzo (CrMRq), (2) Intrusões alcalinas (plug) e Diabásios (CrMRa), (3) Sienito (CrMRs) e
Tufitos e Brechas Vulcânicas (CrMRv).
Na parte mais à leste da SDS 1634, no pátio da ferrovia em Zemira, um conduto único
de lavas basálticas intrudiu grés da Formação Sena* do Cretáceo Médio a Superior.
Consequentemente, estas rochas foram emplaçadas posteriormente à Formação Sena* do
Cretáceo Médio a Superior (<100 – 125 Ma).

Deposição Eocênica-Oligocênica – Seqüência 4

Na parte leste e offshore da Bacia Moçambique, a sedimentação continuou sem interrupções.
Na parte oeste, esta fase de desenvolvimento da bacia iniciou-se com o hiato e
inconformidade Paleocênico a Eocênico Inferior e terminou com a inconformidade e hiato. As
Formações Inhaminga e Cheringoma* são supostamente de idade Oligocênica Superior.
Dentro da área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 3), as rochas da
Formação Inhaminga* (Tel) são encontradas no canto noroeste da SDS 1835 e canto
sudoeste da SDS 1735. A unidade repousa discordantemente sobre a Formação Mapai* e é
coberta por lamas Quaternárias de planície de inundação.
A unidade compreende uma parte basal, composta por um grés micáceo, argilítico, de
cor vermelho intenseo a creme e de granularidade fina a média, com pequenos fósseis de
gastrópodes e lamelibrânquias. A parte superior da unidade possui granularidade grossa,
incluindo alguns seixoa angulares de quartzo de veio (Fig. 7.7). O teor de mica é mais baixo
que na parte de basal da seqüência. Em certos lugares, a successão começa com um
conglomerado grosseiro, com seixos e matacões de granito, gneisse, quartzito do
embasamento e basalto Karoo, cimentado por uma matriz arenosa ou localmente, por uma
matriz mista de areia-carbonato. O conteúdo fossilífero e fácies sedimentares indicam
deposição em um ambiente litorâneo, de mar aberto, com possíveis intercalações deltaicas. A
Formação Inhaminga* é supostamente de idade Oligocênica Superior.
Entre 18° S e 20°30’ S, as rochas da Formação Cheringoma* (TeC) são expostas ao
longo de uma faixa de direcção NE-SW, interrompida pelo Graben Miocênico de Urema, ao

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longo do flanco oeste do Horst Inhaminga e oeste do Graben de Urema no flanco leste do Rio
Búzi e ao longo dos flancos do platô de Cheringoma, onde alcançam 70 m de espessura. Os
afloramentos meridionais repousam directamente sobre os grés conglomeráticos Sena.
A Formação Cheringoma* compreende calcáreos oolíticos e brancos, enriquecidos em
Nummulites, com uma parte basal, glauconítico e pobre em fósseis. Ambas as fácies medem
50 m de espessura e representam um ambiente aberto infra a circa-litorâneo, com águas
claras, livres de finas partículas clásticas e de clima quente.
Na parte leste da Bacia Moçambique, a Formação Cheringoma* do Eoceno/Oligoceno
foi depositado sem interrupção sobre o Paleoceno. Na delta do Rio Zambezi, o Eoceno
Inferior é ausente (Flores, 1973), e mais a oeste, o hiato do Maastrichtiano Superior a
Ypresiano interrompe a coluna estratigráfica.

Mioceno-Plioceno – Seqüência 5
Na área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 3), esta seqüência compreende
somente litologias da Formação (Grés) Mazamba* (TeZ), que é encontrada no canto
sudoeste da SDS 1735 e em uma área extensa na parte oeste de SDS 1835.
A Formação Mazamba* compreende uma seqüência areno-grés-conglomerático
continental, composta por depósitos detríticos de material não-seleccionado, areno-argiloso
ou conglomerático. Localmente os matacões de grés podem alcançar 10 – 15 cm de diâmetro.
Os seixos são compostos predominantemente por quartzo, com proporções menores de grés
sacaróide e carbonato. O cimento dos conglomerados matriz-suportados é argiloso. Na parte
norte da Baixa Zambezi e em outros lugares, as fácies deposicionais começam tipicamente
litorâneas e são constituídas por grés arcóseos e conglomeráticos de Chicolane (anteriormente
Formação Chicolane; Barrocoso, 1968).

Quaternário – Seqüência 6
Depósitos quaternários podem ser subdividos em depósitos Pleistocênicos, como Dunas
Internas, Grés Costeiros (ou a ‘Rocha Praial’), Terraços Fluviais e Calcáreos Lacustres e
depósitos Holocênicos, como depósitos de planície de inundação de composição areno-
argilosa ou lamosa, dunas costeiros e areias praiais e depósitos aluviais. Processos
exogênicos, notavelmente as significativas fluctuações do nível do mar devido à alternância
de episódios glaciais e inter-glaciais, foram os principais controladores das suas composições.
Os depósitos Pleistocênicos incluem (1) Cascalho e areia de terraços fluviais (Qt), (2)
Lama eluvial de planície de inundação (Qpi), (3) Colúvio (Qc), (4) Sedimento de praias
soerguidas/Areias(Grés) costeiros (Qcs), (5) Depósitos de areia argilosa de planície de
inundação eluvial (Qps) e (6) Debris com seixos (Qp). O último forma formações extensas,
que são comuns nas vizinhanças da Cidade de Pebane (SDS 1738). Elas ocorrem ao sul de
terrenos gnéissicos e formam colinas levemente elevadas, quando comparadas com outros
depósitos Quaternários nas proximidades.
Os depósitos Holocênicos incluem (7) Lama argilosa de origem fluvio-marinho
(Qsf), (8) Areia aluvial, silte e cascalho (Qa) e (9) Dunas costeiros e depósitos de areia da
praia (Qd).
Duas fontes termais, associadas com depósitos de sínter, incluem Águas quentes,
localizadas há 20 km a leste da cidade de Morrumbala no sopé leste da Serra de Morrumbala
(SDS 1735) e Nhafuba, localizada há about 35 km da cidade de Nicoadala (SDS 1736) (vide o

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capítulo 10, Figs. 10.2 e 10.3). Estas fontes termais são supostamente relacionadas com
actividade de pluma mantélica do Cretáceo Inferior ou mais jovem, contemporâneo com e
accionador do rifteamento/migração/dispersão do Gondwana. A sua localização nas margens
do vale do Rio Zambezi sugere, porém, relação com rifteamento Cenozóico-Quaternário ao
longo do Sistema de Rift do Leste Africano (SRLA).

ESTRUCTURA E METAMORFISMO
A área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 3) compreende o embasamento
cristalino da sub-Província Nampula e a cobertura Fanerozóica. A maior parte do
embasamento cristalino do norte de Moçambique é composta por rochas Mesoproterozóicas,
que foram emplaçadas ou depositadas antes ou durante o Ciclo Orogênico
Kibarano/Grenvilleano e retrabalhado durante o Ciclo Orogênico Pan-Africano. Uma
proporção menor do embasamento cristalino possui mesmo uma idade Pan-Africana (Capítulo
8).
As rochas da sub-Província Nampula exibem fábricas estructurais formadas como
resultado de três ou quatro eventos de deformação semi-dúcteis (D1, D2a, D2b, D3) durante
dois ou talvez três episódios orogênicos maiores no Mesoproterozóico (D1,
Kibarano/Grenvilleano), Neoproterozóico (D2, Pan-Africano) e nas Eras do Paleozóico
Inferior (D3, Tardi-Pan-Africano) (Macey et al. 2006b).
A Suíte Mocuba possui a idade magmática de about 1125 Ma e foi deformada e
metamorfisada logo após (1117 – 1090 Ma), possivelmente durante a amalgamação e/ou
acresção e formação do Supercontinente Rodinia. Esta deformação Kibarana/Grenvilleana D1,
restricta aos gneisses migmatíticos Mesoproterozóicos, é contemporânea com o
metamorfismo e deformação M1 de fácies amfibolito. A D1 produziu o bandamento
metamórfico ou migmatítico (S1). A presença de feições de deformação D1 permite distinguir
as rochas Mocuba dos gneisses (Mamala Gneisses, Complexo Molócuè, Gneisses Rapale e
Suíte Culiculi) mais jovens (1095 – 1975 Ma), constituindo a sub-Província Nampula (Macey
et al. 2006b).
O Ciclo Orogênico Pan-Africano (about 750 – 550 Ma) representa o principal evento
de deformação (D2) na sub-Província Nampula, contemporânea com o metamorfismo e
migmatização M2 de fácies amfibolito a granulito. A D2 levou ao desenvolvimento de uma
foliação dúctil regional predominante e penetrativa S2 (bandamento gnéissico e xistosidade
local) e mais localmente, a lineação de estiramento L2, que é observada em todos os tipos de
rochas, excepto os granitos mais jovens e pegmatitos (480 – 430 Ma).
As dobras isoclinais F2 são evidentes à nível de afloramento e à escala quilométrica,
como demonstrado pelas imagens de satélite e mapas aeromagnéticos (Fig. 8.1). A S2 ocorre
na forma de uma fábrica planar de direcção NE-SW, mostrando mergulhos moderados a NW
(média de 30°). Juntamente com os planos axiais de dobras F2, que também tem a direcção
geral NE-SW ao longo de toda a área da sub-Província Nampula, estes foram reorientados
pelo dobramento F2 megascópio, especialmente nas regiões adjacentes à Zona de
Cisalhamento Namama.
De acordo com Macey et al. (2006b), a deformação D2 Pan-Africana foi um evento
prolongado e pode ser dividido em três sub-fases co-axiais, chamadas de D2a, D2b, e D2c,
respectivamente e que se desenvolveu durante um evento de deformação de dobramento e
empurrão único. Todas as três sub-fases foram precedidas por, ou associadas à fusão parcial e

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formação de neosomas. A distincção entre estas é baseada principalmente no dobramento e

relações de corte entre as neosomas.
Próximo ao mega-cisalhamento Namama, a fábrica S2 pervasiva da sub-Província
Nampula foi deformada durante o evento dúctil D3 (about 490 Ma, Macey & Armstrong,
2005; Macey et al. 2006b). Esta faixa de cisalhamento sinistral de direcção NNE de discretas
zonas de milonitos de aproximadamente 20 km de largura, produziram uma foliação S3, que
pode ser descrito como não-penetrativo, com estructuras planares sub-verticais discretas, com
um espaçamento de 10 a 100 cm. Os planos de foliação S3 são frequentemente preenchidos
por leucosomas de quartzo-feldspato±biotita±magnetita equigranulares indeformados de 2 – 3
cm de espessura (Macey et al. 2006b). As lineações de estiramento mineral L3 mergulham em
um ângulo relativamente baixo (média 20°) a SSE, sugerindo um sentido de cisalhamento
transtensional com somente um pequeno componente vertical.
Após o Ciclo Orogênico Pan-Africano, forças extensionais predominaram,
principalmente durante o Karoo e novamente a partir do Cretáceo.

EVOLUÇÃO GEODINÂMICA
O capítulo 9 começa estabelecendo tentativamente os limites – suturas e pseudo-suturas –
entre os Terrenos Gondwana Leste, Oeste e Sul. No norte de Moçambique, o limite entre o
Paleoproterozóico Complexo Ponta Messuli (1954±15 Ma) e o resto Mesoproterozóico do
embasamento cristalino pode ser visto como o limite entre os Gondwana Oeste e Leste. O
embasamento cristalino Mesoproterozóico do norte de Moçambique continua ao norte até aos
‘Granulitos Orientais’ de Tanzania (Fig. 9.2).
Os eventos geodinâmicos maiores que afectaram a área coberta por esta Nota
Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 3) são a subducção/colisão/amalgamação
Kibarana/Grenvilleano Mesoproterozóica e a formação do supercontinente Rodinia (about 1.1
– 1.0 Ga), separação e dispersão desta (0.90 – 0.75 Ga), seguido pela re-união
Neoproterozóica das placas crustais no Supercontinente Gondwana durante o Ciclo Orogênico
Pan-Africano. A extensão pós-Pan-Africana é expressada pela fase de rifteamento abortada,
seguida pela fase de rift/migração/dispersão pós-Cretáceo Superior do Gondwana, a formação
da Bacia Moçambique e o desenvolvimento contemporâneo do ainda activo Sistema do Rift
do Leste Africano. O desenvolvimento geodinâmico pode ser resumida como segue:
• Diferentemente do Bloco Tete-Chipata a oeste, a extensão Mesoproterozóica pré-
Kibarana, que produziu rochas juvenis com idades entre about 1380 e 1250 Ma,
não está presente na sub-província Nampula.
• A S1 na Suíte TTG Mocuba manifesta supostamente o evento dinamo-termal
M1/D1 Grenvilleano na sub-Província Nampula. Esta deformação afecta
aparentemente a Suíte Mocuba logo após o seu emplaçamento magmático há about
1125 Ma. A ausência de feições de deformação D1 nos gneisses e granitóides
Mamala, Rapale e Culicui (1095 – 1975 Ma) coloca o evento dinamo-termal M1/D1
Grenvilleano à 1117 – 1095 Ma.

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• A extensão pós-Rodinia, que produziu rochas juvenis com idades em torno de 850
– 750 Ma, abundantes nas porções próximas do Gondwana Oeste e Sul, não tem
sido encontrada no norte de Moçambique, nem na sub-Província Nampula. A faixa
magmática, extendendo-se de Tanzania a Madagaskar por uma distância de 450 km
e datada entre 804 e 776 Ma (Maboko, 2001; Handke et al. 1999), pode representar
o equivalente mais próximo. Rochas metamórficas de fácies granulítica de
composições diversas, incluindo as supracrustais consideravelmente mais jovens do
Grupo Alto Benfica (<610 Ma), ocorrem como vários discretos Klippens com
idades de 735 – 550 Ma (picos entre 640 e 590 Ma), cobrindo rochas
Mesoproterozóicas de fácies amfibolito inferior no norte de Moçambique (Aquater,
1983, Cadoppi et al. 1987, Pinna et al. 1993, Kröner et al. 1997, Sacchi et al. 1984,
2001, Roberts et al. 2005, Bingen et al. 2006, Viola et al. 2006, Macey et al.
2006a,b). Estas representam supostamente rochas de arco magmático relacionado à
subducção do Oceano Moçambique. Restos daquelas rochas granulíticas estão
preservadas na Faixa de Empurrão Lúrio e nos terrenos Mugeba, Plantação Santos
e Monapona na sub-Província Nampula.
• O consumo do Oceano Moçambique ocorreu há 841 e 632 Ma (Cutten & Johnson,
2006), seguido por um período prolongado de colisão Pan-Africana e amalgamação
do Gondwana Oeste e Leste (Fig. 9.4) e formação do Gondwana Norte.
• Este foi seguido pelo fechamento da bacia oceânica Zambezi-Adamastor (Johnson
et al. 2005), seguida pela colisão e amalgamação do Gondwana Norte (formada
pela amalgamação do Gondwana Oeste e Leste) e Gondwana Sul (Cráton Kalahari,
Dronning Maud Land, Antárctica Leste). Isto formou a Orogenia Kuunga em about
580 – 480 Ma (Grantham et al. 2003), da qual a Faixa Zambezi-Lufiliana-Damara
(ZLD) representa o seu segmento occidental.
• De acordo com Macey et al. (2006b), as idades mais jovens de about 550 Ma
representam a idade máxima da terminação do principal evento tectono-magmático
colisional D2/M2 Pan-Africano, seguido pela actividade tectônica prolongada,
como demonstrado pelo leque de idades de sobre-crescimento metamórfico de
grãos de zircão das rochas pré-D2, reflectindo o pico do metamorfismo na sub-
Província Nampula. Cinco amostras de granitóides ortognéissicos proveram idades
de zonação de borda metamórfica de 513±10 Ma, 525±20 Ma, 538±8 Ma e 505±10
Ma (Macey & Armstrong, 1995; Grantham, dados inéditos). As rochas
supracrustais do Complexo Molócuè e Gneisses Mamala forneceream idades de
borda metamórfica de 555±12, 502±80 e 527±18 Ma. O quartzo-monzonito
Murrupula, porfirítico, fracamente deformado, com fenocristais de feldspato
potássico maclados forneceu a idade de cristalização de 532±5 Ma (Macey &
Armstrong, 2005), que produz um outro limite ao campo de tensão D2. O pegmatito
moderadamente deformado, que foi redobrado juntamente com o S2 durante a
última fase de deformação co-axial D2, foi datado à 501±5 Ma (Roberts et al. dados
inéditos).

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• A juncção final do Gondwana Norte e Sul resultou no desenvolvimento de zonas

de cisalhamento sinistrais, como as faixas Namama, de direcção NNE e a
‘Zimbabwe Oriental’, de direcção N-S e o rejuvenescimento de antigas zonas de
fraqueza, como o Deslocamento Mbembeshi. Uma amostra de leucosoma tomada
de uma banda de cisalhamento S3 no mega-cisalhamento Namama forneceu a idade
principal de 490±8 Ma, que pode ser considerada a melhor estimativa para
tectônica transtensional D3 (Macey & Armstrong 2005). A faixa de cisalhamento
Pan-Africana de direcção N-S, que ocorre ao longo da borda oriental das rochas
Arcaicas do Cráton Zimbabwe, manifesta a reactivação termal e sobre-crescimento
metamórfico seguido de resfriamento à about 350° C há about 553 Ma (oeste) e
about 468 Ma (leste) (Manhiça et al. 2001; GTK Consortium, 2006b). O
Deslocamento Mbembeshi foi activado entre about 566 e 538 Ma.
• O colapso tardi- a pós-Pan-Africana foi reflectido por uma amostra granítica
datada de 492±2 Ma (Grantham et al. dados inéditos, in Macey et al. 2006b) e
pegmatitos de 430 – 480 Ma (Cronwright & Roberts, dados CHIME inéditos),
indicando que o episódio termal Pan-Africano continuou pelo Fanerozóico. As
últimas idades correspondem com as idades 0.47 – 0.50 Ma dos granitos Macanga
e Sinda da área de Tête (Mäkitie et al. 2006; GTK Consortium, 2006d).

Macey et al. (2006b) refere à Faixa de Empurrão Lúrio (FEL) como uma mélange
tectônica linear, consistindo de gneisses granulíticos fortemente comprimidos com uma
variedade grande de protólitos e idades, que provavelmente representam um limite tectônico
maior entre vários blocos estructurais do norte de Moçambique (Pinna et al. 1993; Sacchi et
al. 1997; Kröner et al. 2001; Macey et al. 2005, 2006; Grantham et al. 2003, 2006), mas não
como uma sutura. De modo similar, Bingen et al. (2006) considera a FEL como uma zona de
partição de tensão preferencial. Nós postulamos que a FEL seja parte de um orógeno strike-
slip de escala continental e que a colisão e a amalgamação do Gondwana Norte e Sul seja
altamente oblíqua e associada somente à uma limitada subducção.
O cenário acima assume assim a subducção, colisão e amalgamação dos Gondwanas
Oeste e Leste durante o Pan-Africano e que a formação do Orógeno da África Oriental (OAO)
continuou tão ao sul quanto a Faixa de Empurrão Lúrio (FEL) e que a última é parte do limite
– sutura ou pseudo-sutura – entre o Gondwana Norte e Sul. Os últimos tem estado juntos após
a separação pós-Rodinia, como é manifestado pela ausência de ofiolitos Pan-Africanos e em
particular, suítes TTG calco-alcalinos – separadas daquelas rochas nos Klippens alóctones –
que podem ser relacionadas com um arco magmático sobre a zona de subducção com a idade
de about 841 e 632 Ma (Cutten & Johnson, 2006) a sul de FEL e a Zona de Cisalhamento
Sanangoè. A conseqüência do cenário acima é que o bloco Nampula seja parte do Gondwana
Sul.
A análise estructural da sub-Província Nampula suporta o cenário acima. No caso de
este elemento estructural ser parte do Gondwana Leste, a tensão compressiva máxima Pan-
Africana teria resultado em dobras F2 de direcçäo N-S e uma fábrica planar S2. A fábrica
planar S2 mostra, porém, sentidos gerais SW-NE, com um mergulho moderado a NW (30° em
média), aproximadamente paralelo à FEL ao longo da maior parte da sub-Província Nampula.
Os planos axiais de dobras F2 mostram direcções similares. A reorientação pelo dobramento
F3 megascópico é restricto às regiões adjacentes à Zona de Cisalhamento Namama Pan-
Africana.

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De acordo com Henderson et al. (2006), zonas de cisalhamento sinistrais e dextrais

cortam e deformam freqüentemente a fábrica blastomilonitica na FEL e contribuem à nova
transposição da foliação blastomilonítica. Como resposta à compressão maior contínua, esta
foliação blastomilonítica foi extendida e achatada, levando á uma segunda geração de bandas
de cisalhamento extensionais e dobras do tipo drag assimétricas, indicando uma falha de
estiramento, característica destas zonas de cisalhamento. Os autores apontam que estas
estructuras, resultantes da compressão tardi-Pan-Africana de direcção SE-NW, são as que
definem a actual geometria atenuada da FEL. A monazita das bandas de cisalhamento
extensional foi datada de 531±6 Ma (Bingen et al. 2006).
A tectônica extensional Fanerozóica compreendeu um rifteamento abortado durante o
Karoo (Carbonífero Superior – Jurássico Inferior), culminando com o emplaçamento da
Província Ígnea Karoo (PIK) há 190 Ma. Após um período de estabilidade de 40 Ma, as
forças extensionais levaram ao rifteamento/migração/dispersão do Gondwana há 140 Ma. O
Sistema de Rift da Leste da África (SRLA) foi iniciado na mesma época, mas accelerada
durante o Terciário.

RECURSOS MINERAIS
Moçambique possui recursos minerais abundantes, diversos e inexploráveis. Apesar da sua
riqueza mineral, a mineração comercial tem desempenhado apenas um pequeno papel no
desenvolvimento econômico do país. Para promover a exploração sustentável da riqueza
mineral do país, a Direcção Nacional de Geología (DNG), com suporte de empresas privadas
e missões bi- e multilaterais, tem efectuado trabalho considerável de exploração ao longo das
décadas passadas. O desenvolvimento dos recursos minerais foi alçado à categoria de
prioridade nacional, de modo a ser mutuamente atractiva e benéfica ao investidor estrangeiro,
ao governo e ao povo de Moçambique.
Como conseqüência, o país é agora um productor de gás e vários depósitos são
atualmente em estágio de desenvolvimento, incluindo depósitos de carvão e de ‘areias negras’
de nível mundial. A producção de ouro, minerais de terras raras e industriais aumentarão
futuramente a contribuição da indústria extractiva á economia nacional.
Os depósitos minerais mais importantes da área desta Nota Explicativa do Mapa
(Volume 3), com um potencial econômico significativo, são as areias de minerais pesados ao
longo da costa de Zalala (norte de Quelimane) até à Pebane-Moebase. A zona de Moebase é a
mais importante e bem estudada pelas companhias internacionais de mineração. Outras
ocorrências de minerais pesados identificadas entre a delta do Zambezi e Quelimane são a
Micaúne e Deia. As ocorrências entre a Quelimane e Moebase incluem a Zalala, Macuse,
Raraga, Gorai, Idugo, Pebane e Melai (Lächelt, 2004).
O embasamento cristalino da Província de Nampula possui um certo potencial para
depósitos de ouro estructuralmente controlados e outros, gemas (berilo, turmalina e
amazonita) e minerais como columbo-tantalita (‘coltar’), tório, urânio e minerais de lítio nos
pegmatitos Tardi-Pan-Africanos. Um inventário destes minerais nestes pegmatitos pode ser
encontrado no Dias & Wilson (2000). Outras rochas cristalinas possuem consideráveis
recursos de minerais industriais.
O modelamento metalogenêtico e a selecção de objetos de exploração é geralmente
baseada na relação íntima entre a geodinâmica e a metalogenia no contexto de uma database
de ocorrências minerais conhecidas (App. 2). Baseada na evolução geodinâmica (Capítulo 9)

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e na visão geral de ocorrências minerais (App. 2) da área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do
Mapa, as seguintes recomendações para uma futura exploraçäo são dadas:
• Depósitos de ouro em vários ambientes (principalmente estructuralmente
controlados).
• Depósitos de areias negras.
• Hidrocarbonetos, tanto a onshore (e.g. complexo deltaico do Zambezi) e quanto a
offshore.
• Metano de camadas de carvão (do Karoo Inferior no complexo deltaico do
Zambezi).
• Pedras semi-preciosas e metais raros da Província Pegmatítica do Alto Ligonha.

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LIST OF TABLES
Tabela R.1. Os domínios tectono-magmático-estructurais da África. .................................... 17
Table 2.1. Bursa-Wolf transformation parameters from Tete datum (20 – 24°S) to
MOZNET datum (assuming MOZNET is equivalent to WGS84) valid for
provinces of Gaza, Inhambane and southern parts of Sofala and Manica, i.e.,
between approximately 24° and 20° S Tete, EPSG 2003)............................................ 49
Table 2.2. Geological map sheets in the LOT 2 and LOT 3(+ Extension) area, showing
Square Degree Sheet number, Sheet Codes and Names. Square Degree Sheet
(SDS) numbers in bold are discussed in this Map Explanation (Volume 3). ............... 70
Table 5.1. Africa’s tectono-structural-magmatic domains. ..................................................... 81
Table 5.2. Litho-stratigraphy of the Main Karoo Basin, South Africa (Johnson et al.
1996). ............................................................................................................................ 91
Table 5.3. Basement Terranes in Mozambique. ...................................................................... 99
Table. 6.1. Lithostratigraphic units of the crystalline basement (Courtesy Paul Macey,
2006b). ........................................................................................................................ 104
Table 6.2. Tectono- and litho-stratigraphic subdivision of rock units in this Map
Explanation (Volume 3).............................................................................................. 106
Table 7.1. Litho-stratigraphic units in the Lupata Group (GTK Consortium, 2006d). ......... 128
Table 7.2. Age determinations volcanic rocks of Lupata Group.......................................... 129

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1. Configuration of areas re-mapped by the DNG in collaboration with various
international consortia. .................................................................................................... 6
Fig. 2. Map Explanation Volume numbers in LOT 2 (+ Extension) and LOT 3 (+
Extension). Volume 3 describes the geology in area 3, i.e. SDS 1735 to 1739,
1835, 1836 and 1935). .................................................................................................... 7
Fig. 2.1. Outline of flow sheet of different phases of the Project. ........................................... 44
Fig. 2.2. Layout of LANDSAT-7 TM scenes and mosaics, corresponding with 1:250 000
topographic and geological Square Degree Sheets over the LOT 3 and LOT 2/3
Extension Areas (Map Explanations, Volumes 1 and 3, respectively)......................... 46
Fig. 2.3. Layout of ASTER VNIR scenes and mosaics, corresponding with 1:250 000
topographic and geological Square Degree Sheets over the LOT 3 and LOT 2/3
Extension Areas (Map Explanations, Volumes 1 and 3, respectively)......................... 47
Fig. 2.4. Index map of southern and central Mozambique showing survey blocks covered
by air-borne and marine geophysics. ............................................................................ 48
Fig. 2.5. Merged blocks of LANDSAT 7 ETM scenes. Initial blocks of LANDSAT
scenes (bands 7, 3 and 1) with similar radiometric responses. ..................................... 50
Fig. 2.6. LANDSAT 7 ETM mosaic (LOT 3 and parts of Extension areas). Final mosaic
generated by merging the LANDSAT scene blocks shown in Fig. 2.6. Differences
in radiometric responses were levelled using histogram matching and feathering
functions. Red = band 7, Green = band 3 and Blue = band 1. ...................................... 51
Fig. 2.7. Example showing overlays of digitised lithological contacts on LANDSAT ETM
colour composite images to illustrate registration problems of the digitised 1: 250
000 scale geological maps with respect the LANDSAT ETM colour composite
images. Note the variation in direction and magnitude of the shifts. The
superimposed grid is north oriented and has a spacing of 1 km. .................................. 52

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Fig. 2.8. GPS track logs collected by the GTK Consortium superimposed on LANDSAT
TM mosaic to verify accuracy of geometric registration.............................................. 53
Fig. 2.9. Parameters for Datum transformation. ...................................................................... 54
Fig. 2.10. Unedited contours on the digital elevation model (map sheet 2032). ................... 55
Fig. 2.11. Subset colour composite images for different band combinations (Images
processed by E. Schetselaar)......................................................................................... 57
Fig. 2.12. Landsat ETM sub-scene colour composite, bands 7, 3 and 1 (left) and ASTER
VNIR colour composite bands 3, 2 and 1 (right) to illustrate the advantages of the
higher spatial resolution of the ASTER scenes in areas of complex unit geometry
(Quaternary units Qpi and Qps, 5 km grid). ................................................................. 58
Fig. 2.13. Comparison of the spatial resolution of short-wavelength magnetic anomalies
from the 1983 (right) and 2003 (left) airborne surveys. The white line marks the
boundary between the two surveys. .............................................................................. 60
Fig. 2.14. Image clips to illustrate the effects of merging relief-shaded SRTM data with
gamma-ray spectrometry channels. Left original ternary radioelement map, right
ternary radioelement map ‘sharpened’ with relief-shaded SRTM data, (50 km
grid). Note that the integrated terrain rendition in the ternary radioelement map
facilitates the perception of 3-D relationships between geological units (Images by
E. Schetselaar)............................................................................................................... 61
Fig. 2.15. Potassium-rich signature (red-pink hues) consistent with exposure of Sena
Formation* to the west on a fused image of relief-shaded SRTM and gamma-ray
spectrometry channels suggest that a small domain of the Sena Formation* (red
arrow), not previously mapped, is exposed as an erosion window in the upper
valleys of one of the tributaries of the Save River. Also note the distinct contrasts
between potassium and thorium signatures within the Sena Formation*, suggesting
internal variations in lithological composition. Grid is north oriented and has a
spacing of 10 km........................................................................................................... 63
Fig. 2.16. Tone and textural image characteristics on a Landsat ETM colour composite
image (red= band 7, green = band 3 and blue = band 1) suggest exposures of Sena
Formation* (indicated by red arrows) in drainage system. Grid is north oriented
with a spacing of 5 km. ................................................................................................. 64
Fig. 2.17. Image interpretation of ASTER VNIR scene at about 23°25 S and 31°50 E.
The interpretation shows isolated outcrops of Umbeluzi rhyolite (Karoo) east of its
main contact with the Cretaceous Grudja Formation*. Note the consistency
between hue and joint patterns between the large western polygon and the isolated
outcrops. Note also the isolated pockets of Quaternary cover (Qpi) covering the
Grudja Formation* (CrG). Grid lines are north oriented and spaced 2 km apart. ....... 65
Fig. 2.18. Relief-shaded SRTM data (90-m pixels) manifesting the intersecting NNW-
SSE and N-S trending rift structures. Dextral shearing along WNW-ESE and ENE-
WSW faults offset the small-scale rift structures. These strike-slip faults are also
reflected in the drainage pattern. Inset shows detail with overlay of published 1:
250 000 scale geological maps (orange lines) and the image interpretation (yellow
lines) of Quaternary units (Qps and Qpi). Note the shifts between the overlays and
the differences in interpretation styles. The image interpretation positions the
boundary between the Qps and Qpi units at the lower break of slope, effectively
outlining the floor of the depressions whereas the map compilation puts the
boundaries closer to the upper break of slope. The round to oval- to irregular-
shaped depressions are believed to represent solution-collapse features in sub-
outcropping rock units. ................................................................................................. 66

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Fig. 2.19. Structural interpretation of the south-eastern corner of the LOT 3 area. Orange
lines represent palaeo-beach ridges and light brown dotted lines are dunes axes
that overprint the former. Red lines indicate tectonic faults that correspond to
offsets of the beach ridges with an apparent displacement of 1 – 5 km. The grid is
north oriented with a spacing of 50 km. ....................................................................... 67
Fig. 2.20. Structural inter-pretation of the area directly north of Maputo on relief-shaded
SRTM data. Magenta lines indicate the traces of igneous layering in Karoo
volcanic complexes, red lines indicate inferred faults. Green lines indicate
lineaments. Also note the NNE-SSW directed rift feature in the eastern part of the
image. Light brown lines indicate depositional (dunes) and possibly denudation
features of aeolian transport. The grid is north oriented and has a spacing of 50 km. . 67
Fig. 2.21. Map sheet division and locations of field observations (●) in the area of this
Map Explanation (Volume 3). Background map with road network tracked by
GTK Consortium on simplified geology. ..................................................................... 68
Fig. 2.22. Division of Map Explanations and numbering of map sheets in scale 1: 250
000. Degree sheets 1735, 1736, 1737/1738/1739, 1835, 1836 and 1935 are
discussed in Map Explanation - Volume 3. .................................................................. 69
Fig. 2.23. Petrophysical characteristics of rock samples from northern Volume 1 and
Volume 3 area. .............................................................................................................. 71
Fig. 2.24. Structure of the database used in LOT 2, LOT 3 and Extension area mineral
occurrence inventory..................................................................................................... 72
Fig. 2.25. An example of the data capture for the mineral database, attributes for
identification. ................................................................................................................ 73
Fig. 2.26. An example on data capture for the mineral database, attributes for deposit
information.................................................................................................................... 73
Fig. 4.1. Meseta-like Carumacáfuè Mountain, located southeast of Mágoè village, south
of the Cahora Bassa lake............................................................................................... 76
Fig. 4.2. Serra da Morrumbala, seen from the west. Map sheet 1735. ................................... 77
Fig. 4. 3. Macuse beach with flattened coastal dunes and sands (SDS 1737). ........................ 78
Fig. 5.1. Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic (Ubendian) terrains (3800 – 1750 Ma) (Dirks &
Ashwal, 2002). .............................................................................................................. 82
Fig. 5.2. Mesoproterozoic (Kibaran) terrains (1750 – 900 Ma) (Dirks & Ashwal, 2002)....... 86
Fig. 5.3. Neoproterozoic-Early Palaeozoic (Pan-African) terrains (900 – 450 Ma) (Dirks
& Ashwal, 2002)........................................................................................................... 87
Fig. 5.4. Gondwanide post-Pan-African terrains (about 570 – 180 Ma) (Dirks & Ashwal,
2002). ............................................................................................................................ 89
Fig. 5.5. Distribution of Karoo rocks (outcrop and subsurface) in southern Africa (adapted
from Verniers et al 1989).............................................................................................. 90
Fig. 5.6. Break-up of Gondwana (180 – 40 Ma) (Dirks & Ashwal, 2002).............................. 92
Fig. 6.1. (A) Biotitic gneiss exposed southeast of Monte Mutitima (0279332/8103692),
(B) Rock sample from the same outcrop. Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................... 107
Fig. 6.2. (A) Outcrop of mesocratic migmatites northwest of Monte Mututuma
(0269908/8113085), (B) Sample of the mesocratic migmatite shown in previous
figure. Scale bar is 10 cm............................................................................................ 107
Fig. 6.3. Typical landscape underlain by high-grade gneisses occurring in the north-
western part of SDS 1735 (Mutarara)......................................................................... 108

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Fig. 6.4. Different aspects of granulitic rocks with xenoliths/remnants of biotite schists
and amphibolites. (A) Northwest of Morrumbala village (0773122/8085179), (B)
and (C) southwest of Monte Nhacamba (0770987/8091030), (D) Granulitic gneiss
with lots of oriented garnet, that form Augen structures. Southeast of Monte
Nhacamba (0780892/8091703). Scale bar is 15 cm. .................................................. 109
Fig. 6.5. (A) Leucogneisses in SDS 1736, about 60 km north of Nicoadala village
(0276694/8110476), (B) Sample from the outcrop shown in the previous figure.
Scale bar is 10 cm. ...................................................................................................... 110
Fig. 6.6. Medium-grained meta-sandstone of the Molócuè Group (0761055/8113589).
Scale bar is 15 cm. ...................................................................................................... 114
Fig. 6.7. Metachert northwest of Monte Tchiciro (0757242/ 8100278). Scale bar is 15 cm. 114
Fig. 6.8. (A) Charnockitic granitoid along the main tarred road from Zero to Chimuara
northeast of Mt. Chirolo. (0764113/8035977), (B) Sample of the charnockitic
granitoid from the outcrop of the previous figure. Scale bar is 10 cm. ...................... 116
Fig. 6.9. Augen gneiss north of Nicoadala village (0248884/ 8075075). Scale bar is 15
cm................................................................................................................................ 116
Fig. 6.10. (A) Migmatitic granitoid outcrop a few kilometres south of Monte Mutitima
(0277061/8104622), (B) Sample from the outcrop shown at previous figure. Scale
bar is 10 cm................................................................................................................. 117
Fig. 6.11. (A) Outcrop of gabbroic rock southeast of Monte Jerunca (0784847/8050358),
(B) Sample from the outcrop shown on previous figure. Scale bar is 10 cm. ............ 118
Fig. 6.12. Well-banded mylonites east of Monte Mutitima (0287137/ 8110923). Scale bar
is 15 cm. ...................................................................................................................... 121
Fig. 6.13. (A) Oriented, euhedral K-feldspar phenocrysts in granite, northwest of
Morrumbala village (0772019/8088283), (B) Ovoid K-feldspar phenocrysts in a
pink, coarse-grained and porphyric granite. A mafic enclave with feldspar
porphyroblasts in the left. North of Namacurra village (0292901/8084533), (C)
Coarse-grained, porphyric granite at 17347-04. (0197760/8073237), (D) Sample of
Pan-African granite about 27 km west of Maganja da Costa town
(0312975/8090355). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................... 122
Fig. 6.14. (A) Abandonned quarry of Pan-African pegmatite, occurring northeast of Mt.
Domoe (0720838/8110140), (B) Samples of graphic potassium feldspar, biotite
and blue beryl, collected from the pegmatite dumps from the quarry. Scale bar is
10 cm........................................................................................................................... 124
Fig. 7.1. Arkosic sandstone of the Sena (Conglomeratic Sandstone) Formation*, 30 km
south of Mutarara village (0715890/ 8043880). Number plate is about 10 cm.......... 130
Fig. 7.2. Close-up photo of white, coarse-grained calcarenite of the Grudja Formation*.
Near Zambezi River, northwest of Marromeu village (0774049/ 8004584). Scale
bar is 8 cm................................................................................................................... 131
Fig. 7.3. (A) Alkaline granite mountain of Serra da Morrumbala, seen from the west, (B)
Detail of alkaline granite. Eastern part of Serra da Morrumbala (0755412/
8068254). Number plate is about 8 cm....................................................................... 132
Fig. 7.4. A boulder of plagioclase porphyry dyke, west of Serra da Morrumbala
(0750170/8067956). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................... 133
Fig. 7.5. Intrusive rocks of the Serra da Morrumbala Suite. Boulders of syenite
outcropping at the western slope of Serra da Morrumbala (0748834/8068807).
Scale bar is 10 cm. ...................................................................................................... 133

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Fig. 7.6. (A) Fragments of layered, fine-grained felsic rocks at the top of Serra da
Morrumbala (0751240/ 8067925), (B) Geomorphological expression
of the Serra da Morrumbala tuffites, viewed from the edge of its western slope, (C)
General view of several volcanic vents occurring in the southern bank of the
Zambezi River, opposite Dona Ana town, (D) Internal part of an alkaline basalt
vent, which has been quarried in the past for road material and aggregate stone
(0720334/ 8071180). Scale bar is 10 cm. ................................................................... 134
Fig. 7.7. Sandstones of the Inhaminga Formation*. (A) A typical flat outcrop of coarse-
grained sandstone. B) Close-up photograph of conglomeratic sandstone, which
comprises quartz clasts up to 3 cm in size. Road between Inhaminga and
Marromeu villages. (767381/ 8001839). Scale bar is 10 cm. ..................................... 136
Fig. 7.8. Sandstones of the Mazamba Formation*. (A) Small outcrop at the road, (B)
Coarse-grained, slightly pinkish sandstone, (C) Close-up photograph of sandstone,
which comprises quartz clasts, several millimetres in size. All photos have been
taken 2 km northwest of Inhaminga town (0712524/ 7964741). Scale bar is 10 cm. 138
Fig. 7.9. Conglomerate layer in cemented fluvial terrace sand deposit. Northwest of
Mutarara village (0717726/8077613). Scale bar is 8 cm............................................ 139
Fig. 7.10. General overview of eluvial floodplain mud deposits in SDS 1935. .................... 140
Fig. 7.11. Sandy eluvial deposits, 35 km west of Maganja da Costa town in map sheet
SDS 1737 (0310216/8092057). Scale bar is 10 cm. ................................................... 141
Fig. 7.12. Lithified Internal Dune north of the Macuze village (0308600/ 8053382). Scale
bar is 10 cm................................................................................................................. 142
Fig. 7.13. Coastal sand dunes (or internal dunes?) in the Zambazi River delta area,
southwest of Chinde village (0222890/ 7932127). ..................................................... 142
Fig. 7.14. Alluvial clayey deposit located close to the coastline, 10 km south of Maganja
da Costa town. (0346725/ 8073881).......................................................................... 144
Fig. 7.15. Gravel and pebbly sand deposits in pit northwest of Quelimane town.
(0258517/8062294). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................... 144
Fig. 7.16. (A) Coastal flattened dunes and coastal sand at Cabúri beach, 40 km SSE of
Maganja da Costa town (0353805/8061692), (B) Rare coastal dunes distributed
close to the light house along the Savane seashore (0716574/7817342), (C) Detail
of a coastal sand deposit (0315357/8039360). Scale bar is 10 cm. ............................ 145
Fig. 8.1. Simplified geology of the Nampula sub-Province (Courtesy Paul Macey, 2006).
Key: Dark blue: Mocuba Complex, Light blue: Mamala Gneiss; Purple: Rapala
Gneiss; Dark brown: Molòcuè and Mecuburi Complex; Light brown: Culicuí
Suite: Black: Alto-Benfica Complex; Grey Ocua Complex (of LTB, including
Monapo and Mugeba Klippen). Light green: Unango sub-Province; Dark green:
Marrupa sub-Province. Red. Murrupula and Malema Suites. .................................... 148
Fig. 8.2. Rift structures within the floor of the Mozambique Basin. Rocks of the Karoo
Supergroup have been divided in the Late Karoo (about 180 Ma; Early Jurassic)
volcanics of the Lebombo and Nuanetsi-Sabi Monoclines (purple) and older
sediments and volcanics (brown). Early Jurassic rift structures (green) include the
Palmeira and Xai-Xai Grabens. After ENH data. ....................................................... 150
Fig. 9.1. Reconstruction of Gondwana after Jacobs et al. (2006). Key: ANS = Arabian-
Nubian Shield; EAAO = East Africa-Antarctica Orogen; M = Madagascar; Da =
Damara; Z = Zambezi Belt. ........................................................................................ 153

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Fig. 9.2. P-T-t path for Western Mobile Belt (Jöns & Schenk, 2004) and Eastern
Granulites in Tanzania (Sommer et al. 2003; Appel et al. 1998). Cartoon cross-
sections illustrate the evolution of the East Africa Orogen (EAO). A similar
scenario has supposedly developed in the area north of the LTB, north of the area
covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3). The Eastern Granulites form a thin,
E-dipping thrust sheet that is tectonically imbricated with infolded lithologies of
the Western Mobile Belt gneisses at the base of the thrust sheet. Klippe, such as
Mautia Hill result from subsequent uplift and erosion (compare Monapo and
Mugeba Klippen in Nampula sub-Province). Key: an = Anorthosite thrust sheet;
teg = Typical Eastern Granulite thrust sheet; aw = Accretionary wedge thrust sheet
(Cutten & Johnson, 2006). .......................................................................................... 155
Fig. 9.3. Gondwana reconstruction after Lawver et al. (1998). The Mesoproterozoic
crystalline basement of northern Mozambique (with extension into southern
Tanzania) can be divided into a northern block composed of the Unango and
Marrupa Complexes and a number of Pan-African thrust sheets or nappes. The
Lúrio Thrust Belt separates the northern block from the southern Nampula sub-
Province with the Monapo and Mugeba Klippen. The latter, together with a
number of other Middle to Late Proterozoic granulite bodies supposedly are relicts
of a large Pan-African nappe. The Ponte Messuli Complex is attributed to the
Palaeoproterozoic Ubendian-Usagaran Fold Belt (Courtesy Paul Macey, 2006)...... 157
Fig. 9.4. Reconstruction of Rodinia after Li et al. (1995), Dalziel (1997) and Hoffman
(1999) showing mountain belts formed during the Grenville Orogenic Cycle and
the formation of juvenile crust (1.35 – 0.9 Ga). Key: M = Madagascar, S = Sri
Lanka, KAL = Kalahari Craton, N = Natal, A = Areachap and associated terrains,
Fk = Falkland Islands, H = Haag Nunatacks. L = Lúrio Thrust Belt, K = Kibaran
Belt and NET = northeast Tanzania............................................................................ 159
Fig. 9.5. Gondwana reconstruction after Lawver et al. (1998). Ages and locations of
various major structural/tectonic features (e.g., major thrust belts, shear zones)
showing direction of tectonic transport and shear sense. Key: PC = Palgat-Cauvery
Shear Zone; RC = Rayner Complex; A = Achankovil Shear zone; GC =
Grunehogna cratonic fragment; H = Heimefrontflella; RF = Ranotsara Shear Zone;
U = Urfjell; N = Namama Shear Belt; O = Orvinfjella Shear Zone; M = Manica
Shear Zone (adapted from Grantham et al. 2003). ..................................................... 164
Fig. 10.1. Old pit of a Pan-African mineralised pegmatite occurring in the northwest part
of SDS 1735 (720838/ 8110140). ............................................................................... 171
Fig. 10.2. Águas Quentes thermal spring (SDS 1735, 750266/8073339).............................. 171
Fig. 10.3. Sinter deposits at Nhafuba thermal spring (SDS 1736, 242548 /8079459)........... 172
Fig. 10.4. Aggregate quarry in granite between Nicoadala and Morrumbala towns (SDS
1736, 196806/ 8073896). ............................................................................................ 174
Fig. 10.5. Sand quarry between Nicoadala and Morrumbala (SDS 1736, 258517/
8062294). .................................................................................................................... 175
Fig. 10.6. Hydrocarbon development in Mozambique. Principal licence areas for
exploration and production in southern and central Mozambique (screendump
from EAPC 2005, Jebco). ........................................................................................... 177
Fig. 10.7. Hydrocarbon development in Mozambique. Map shows (in yellow) the
Mozambique Channel, a frontier area for hydrocarbon exploration (Rusk, Bertagne
& Associates and TGS-NOPEC, 2005). ..................................................................... 179
Fig. 10.8. Overview of onshore and offshore seismic surveys in the Mozambique Basin
(source: Mamad, 2005). .............................................................................................. 180

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT

The mining policy of the Government of Mozambique focuses on the promotion of private
investments to develop the mining sector, based on a favourable geological environment and
mineral potential of the country. As part of this policy, the Ministry of Mineral Resources and
Energy (Ministério dos Recursos Minerais, MIREM), through the National Directorate of
Geology (Direcção Nacional de Geologia, DNG), fosters the development of the national geo-
scientific infrastructure in support of mining investment promotion and the sustainable social
and economic development of the country. The availability of basic geological information is
an important parameter to promote investments as well as an essential tool for planning of
construction of infrastructure and for natural disasters mitigation.
Mozambique has made great efforts in developing the basic geo-scientific
infrastructure of the country. Geological mapping has been carried out since colonial times
and extensive geophysical, geochemical, and geological surveys have been carried out since
independence. The archives of the DNG contain an impressive wealth of geo-scientific
information. However, most of this information is now outdated in reference to the
technology used and the geological concepts supporting mineral exploration. Moreover, the
geological mapping carried out in the decade before independence (1975) and during the
period of civil strife was limited by the difficulties to carry out fieldwork. Therefore, it is of
utmost importance to complete and update the national geo-scientific infrastructure. The
Government of Mozambique has therefore implemented the Mineral Resources
Management Capacity Building Project (MRMP), as part of a major international
programme to achieve this end.
The main objective of the mapping programme is to revise previous mapping in
certain areas and to upgrade the quality of geological maps in others, to providing a consistent
coverage in terms of quality throughout the Mozambican territory. The geological mapping
must be based on modern litho-stratigraphic principles and therefore the objective of this
programme should also be to resolve stratigraphic problems, provide good geochronological
control data and resolve structural problems.

1.2. HISTORY AND SYNTHESIS OF PREVIOUS WORK

Holmes (1918) published the first contribution on the general geology of Mozambique. Other
pioneer studies include Anthoine & Dubois (1925) and Andrade & de Freire (1929).
Geological investigations continued during Portuguese colonial rule (Longyear Company,
1955a,b; Freitas, 1957, 1959), culminating with a monograph on the geology of Mozambique
by Afonso (1976). After independence in 1975 the DNG has launched various geo-scientific
programmes in collaboration with foreign and international organisations, including the
BRGM (France), Bulgargeomin (Bulgaria), Aquater S.p.A. (Italy), Hunting Geology &
Geophysics Ltd (UK) and UNDP. These programmes were mainly in the fields of regional
geochemistry and airborne geophysics.

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Between 1981 and 1984 Hunting Geology and Geophysics Ltd initiated a new phase
of geological investigations (Hunting, 1984). They carried out a comprehensive mineral
exploration and reconnaissance geological mapping project, covering the Tete province and
parts of Manica, Sofala and Zambézia provinces, under the aegis of the Mozambican
Government. The project was successful in its main objectives of setting the geological
context for known mineral deposits in a large areas of basement rocks, establishing an
inventory of mineral occurrences and in defining priorities for future follow-up work.
The French BRGM surveyed approximately at the same time (1980 – 1984) the
northern part of Mozambique resulting in novel ideas comprising the existence of
allochthonous nappes and Klippen in the Mozambican Belt. It further resulted in the
publication of a new geological map of Mozambique – scale 1:1 000 000 – that also showed
new insights into the geology of the Tete area (Pinna et al. 1986, 1987; Pinna & Marteau,
1987). An essential difference with former studies was the general acceptance of geologic-
tectonic rejuvenation of almost all rock sequences. The main part of the crystalline basement,
including the (ultra-)mafic intrusions, i.e., the Atchiza, Nhantreze and Tete Suites shifted
from the Neoarchaean/ Palaeoproterozoic to the Mesoproterozoic/ Neoproterozoic.
The crystalline basement was subdivided, in accordance with the BRGM map, into
three periods:
• Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic units along the Zimbabwean border, composed of
greenstone belts and a granite-gneiss terrains.
• Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic (Irumide and Mozambican Tectonic Cycles)
units that are subdivided into two litho-units:
o Orogenic units that were formed at the end of the Precambrian B and the
beginning of the Precambrian A (sensu BRGM map, 1987), which were
believed to correspond with a projected elongation of the Irumide Belt of
Zambia and Congo (1300 Ma) and subjected to Mozambican tectogenesis
(1100 – 850 Ma). The Mozambique Belt was assigned to these units and
indicated on account of ages of the magmatic sequences (charnockites,
enderbites, anorthosites at 1070 – 900 Ma, and migmatites and granitoids at
1100 – 900 Ma).
o Supracrustal sequences – granulites and (blasto-)mylonites at 1000±150 Ma –
that include allochthonous as well as autochthonous complexes.
• Late Neoproterozoic units (Pan-African Tectonic Cycle, 850 – 450 Ma, as well as
the Katangan Tectonic Cycle, 850 – 600 Ma), marked by intensive tectonism,
followed by Pan-African intrusions (500±100 – 410 Ma).

The BRGM map also presented the most important source for the stratigraphic sub-
division of the rock units that underlie the territory of Mozambique. The ‘Provisional
Stratigraphic Scheme of Mozambique’ (Lächelt et al. 1997) and the ‘Stratigraphic Correlation
Scheme’ compiled on behalf of the SADC countries (Härtzer, 1998) mainly follow the
exposition of the 1987 BRGM map. A review of the mineral resources of Mozambique is
contained in Afonso & Marques (1993) and Afonso et al. (1998). All existing information on
the geology of Mozambique has been recently compiled and reviewed in an impressive
monograph by Lächelt (2004).

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Critical in understanding poly-metamorphic units and geodynamic development of the

Mozambique basement are correct radiometric age determinations. Prior to the Hunting
(1984) and BRGM studies these were overwhelmingly K-Ar and Rb-Sr whole rock ages.
These gave mixed or, at best, cooling ages. Newer geochronological methods (SHRIMP, U-
Pb zircon, Sm-Nd and Ar-Ar) have been developed since and produce far more reliable
results.
The present Project (2002 – 2006) builds on the older results, in particular the Hunting
(1984) surveys (see also Barr et al. 1986; Barr & Brown, 1988) in parts of the area covered by
the present Map Explanation. For the remaining portions information has been drawn from
the archives of DNG, from DSGM map data in 1974, from PNUD/DNG maps from 1981 and
from ING photo-geological compilations from 1985. More so than in previous studies, the
present Project endeavours to apply correct litho-stratigraphic nomenclature with formation
names as the primordial litho-stratigraphic unit. Strictly speaking, this requires the selection
of a ‘type-locality’ with an official topographic name for each formation. This task falls
outside the mandate of the Project. Consequently, most formation names have to be
considered as informal and provisional4.
The upgraded geological maps produced by the GTK Consortium during
implementation of the Project have benefited optimally from new GIS-based image
processing technology, new airborne data and 36 new geochronological age determinations.

4
In agreement with the Client ‘Formation*’ will be used to indicate an informal use.

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CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGIES AND PROCEDURES

2.1. INTRODUCTION
The scope of the work did not allow for comprehensive traditional field mapping on, for
example, 1:50 000 scale and subsequent compilation of the results on 1:250 000 scale.
Modern digital mapping methods have been used, based on the interactive interpretation of
merged satellite imagery and airborne geophysical data (magnetic and radiometric surveys),
aerial photographs, existing maps and limited field verification. The revised and upgraded
maps produced by the GTK Consortium are not static, printed maps that have to last for 15 to
20 years, but dynamic products that can be up-dated any time new data become available and
adapted to requirements of the end-user (thematic maps).
Project implementation methodology included execution of a group of tasks relevant
to the mapping, as well as a programme of training for DNG staff. Preparation of this new
generation of upgraded geological maps has been conveniently subdivided into four phases of
which the flow sheet is outlined in Fig. 2.1:
• Preparation phase: This included collection and quality assessment of all available
relevant data and documentation; acquisition of equipment and material;
organisation of logistics (transport, setting up field camps, mobilisation of field
teams, etc.).
• Compilation and synthesis of the existing geological information: Based on
existing geological maps (if available), satellite imagery, air-borne geophysical
data and aerial photographs, a first draft of up-dated geological maps and legends
has been prepared. Based on these, field verification, mapping and sampling
programmes have been planned and executed.
• Mapping phase: Field traverses were selected in function of accessibility and
focusing on problem areas, i.e., areas where the geology based on interpretation of
satellite imagery and airborne data deviates from the interpretation as presented in
the existing geological maps. Field verification also comprised sampling of rock
specimen for future reference. Part of the samples has been selected for
petrographic, litho-geochemical or geochronological studies.
• Preparation of the final products: Preparation of digital map products and
databases including final map legends and map explanations.

2.2. EXISTING DATA

This mainly included geological maps on different scales, aerial photographs, satellite
imagery (Landsat-7 ETM) and airborne geophysical data available in the archives of the
DNG. Part of the geophysical data (Fugro, 2003) was gathered during the Project period
under a parallel project. The GTK Consortium has merged the existing and newly acquired
airborne geophysical data. Occasionally, use was made of digital elevation data from the
shuttle radar topographic mission (SRTM) and ASTER VNIR scenes.

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Flow sheet of geological mapping

Data Gathering and

Satellite images and
Geolocical data
aerial photographs

Preparation
Phase I:
Base data Processing of the
Geophysical data satellite images and
DEM
aerial photographs
DML 1st version

Interpretation of satellite images

and aerial photographs
Geological data
Geological Review and Compilation of Map Data

interpretation
Compiled
Compilation of geological
geological maps
field maps
Geophysical data
processing

Field survey
Phase II:

(geological mapping)

Databases
- Field geological db for
observations
- Result of analyses Laboratory studies
- Description of lithology (Petrographic, geochemical and
- Mineral Occurrence db geochronological studies)
- Lithostratical classification
db Preliminary
Products and
Geological and mineral Reports
occurrences data - draft geological
processing maps
Technical reports
(Notes to geological maps)
Verification and Final Digital Products

Preparation of the geological and Digital geological

photograph databases and ArcInfo
maps and
coverages
Production of the databases on
Phase III:

Geological maps and CDROM

observation database
Preparation of the Final Legend

Final geological
DML - Final version map printouts

Fig. 2.1. Outline of flow sheet of different phases of the Project.

GPS track logs collected by the GTK Consortium during Project implementation
demonstrated that the topographic base of the existing geological maps was generally below
modern requirements. They showed non-systematic offsets in the order of 200 to 300 metres.

2.3. COMPILATION AND SYNTHESIS

Within the scope of the Project the following activities have been carried out:
• Compilation and scanning of existing analogue map products (topographic and
geological) into a seamless digital database. The quality of the existing geological
maps was variable. Maps were available as printed copies or only as blue prints.
Other parts of the territory of Mozambique were only covered by a photo-
geological interpretation or had remained unmapped.

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• Re-interpretation and compilation of the map legends in terms of the new

lithostratigraphic framework of Mozambique.
• Preparation of a new set of up-graded geological maps, based mainly on an
interactive interpretation of composite imagery based on merged remote sensing
and airborne geophysical datasets and comparing with existing maps.

2.3.1. Digitising and Compilation of Existing Geological Maps

The 1:1 000 000 scale geological map of Mozambique compiled by BRGM (1987) and the 1:
250 000 scale Hunting (1984) map sheets have been digitised and the polygons were coded
correlatively as far as possible. The BRGM map was the more recent of the two and
represented more developed concepts vis-à-vis regional correlation of litho-stratigraphic units
and therefore contributed more to the preliminary legend of the map upgrades (first draft).
The Hunting (1984) and BRGM (1987) almost similar versions of the geology of the LOT 3
(+Extension) area have been given common colours for comparison and to use them
separately at different occasions.
Digital provisional geological maps (first draft), based on the existing Hunting (1984)
map sheets and the geological interpretation of enhanced satellite imagery and airborne
geophysics have been prepared of the whole LOT 3 area including the Extension map sheets.
Line codes used in the provisional geological maps followed the line coding of the published
geological maps, including observed, inferred and probable lithological contacts, reverse,
normal and strike-slip faults, foliation trends and unconformities. Dykes were digitised as
polylines and were therefore not included in the Arc-node topology. Polygons were initially
coded according to the legend of the Hunting (1984) geological maps. Additional coding was
applied to geological features inferred from the interpretation of airborne geophysical and
remote sensing data sets.
Most linear geological features (about 95%) in the Hunting (1984) maps were encoded
as inferred features, suggesting that the fieldwork conducted by the Hunting project provided
only a few possibilities to trace lithological contacts along strike during geological field
mapping. Structural elements, like foliation and bedding elements were also extracted from
the Hunting (1984) geological maps. The line elements were digitised to recompile the
structural information in tabular format (strike and dip at every point). The line segments
were digitised using the right hand rule so that the dip orientation was taken into account.

2.3.2. Satellite Imagery

Satellite imagery comprises Landsat TM 7 and ASTER images. Landsat images cover the
Volume 3 area by 8 images (Fig. 2.3). The ASTER image coverage is here much less
extensive, not covering the whole Volume 3 area (Fig. 2.4).

Landsat 7 ETM Data

Satellite images (Landsat-7 ETM) had been collected and registered by CENACARTA,
Maputo, in UTM Zone 36S projection, Clarke 1866, Tete Datum, using existing topographic
maps as reference data. The images have been selected from different years and seasons in
order to obtain scenes with no or minimal cloud coverage. Consequently, colour differences
between different scenes could not be avoided. The scenes covering LOT 3 (+ Extension)

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(this Map Explanation) were geo-referenced and reformatted into mosaics corresponding with
the 1:250 000 scale topographic map sheets. The layout of the Landsat TM scenes and the
mosaics, corresponding with the 1:250 000 topographic map sheets, is shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2. Layout of LANDSAT-7 TM scenes and mosaics, corresponding with 1:250 000 topographic and
geological Square Degree Sheets over the LOT 3 and LOT 2/3 Extension Areas (Map Explanations, Volumes
1 and 3, respectively).

ASTER Data
A major criterion in the selection of ASTER images was that the cloudiness of the image had
to be less than 10 % of the image area. Collected Aster scenes were processed and used to
support mapping and navigation in the field. Colour composites of the 15-meter resolution
VNIR bands were prepared and registered on UTM Zone 36S projection, MOZNET datum.
All 60 x 60 km-scenes were prepared in GeoTIFF format in order to be used for field
navigation and traverse planning for field verification. The layout of the ASTER VNIR scenes
and the mosaics, corresponding with the 1:250 000 topographic map sheets, is shown in Fig.
2.3.

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Fig. 2.3. Layout of ASTER VNIR scenes and mosaics, corresponding with 1:250 000 topographic and
geological Square Degree Sheets over the LOT 3 and LOT 2/3 Extension Areas (Map Explanations, Volumes
1 and 3, respectively).

2.3.3. Airborne Geophysics

Geophysical data covering the area of this Map Explanation comprise four data sets (Fig. 2.4):
aeromagnetic data of southern Mozambique, digitised by Getech, airborne geophysical grids
of Hunting (1983) and airborne geophysical grids of Fugro (2003). Gravity data, compiled by
Getech, is available, but not further used in this mapping project.

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Fig. 2.4. Index map of southern and central Mozambique showing survey blocks covered by air-borne and
marine geophysics.

2.4. DATA PROCESSING

In order to prepare the first draft of upgraded geological maps, prior to field verification, the
following tasks were carried out:
• Geometric registration of satellite imagery.
• Comparative analysis between image data and published geological maps.
• Digital enhancement of LANDSAT 7 ETM scenes.
• Digital enhancement of ASTER VNIR scenes.
• Digital enhancement of airborne geophysical grids.
• Digital enhancement of SRTM data.
• Integrated enhancement (image fusion) of gamma-ray spectrometry data and relief
shaded SRTM digital elevation data.

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• Digital image interpretation of compiled and processed data sets.

o Interpretation of lithological units.
o Interpretation of geological structures.
• Preparation of a field traverse map with suggestion of fieldwork follow-ups.

Brief explanatory descriptions of each of the above activities are presented in the
following paragraphs.

2.4.1. Geometric Registration of Satellite Imagery

The LANDSAT 7 ETM scenes covering the LOT 3 and the Extension area were
geometrically registered using the UTM projection of Zone 36, south with the MOZNET
(WGS84) datum using the same procedure as outlined in the data compilation report of the
LOT 2 area (GTK Consortium, 2006b).
First, the LANDSAT ETM scenes were registered to their original UTM projection
and datum based on the Clarke ellipsoid. The parameters of the Tete datum were used that
apply to the successive latitude ranges of the LOT 3 (+ Extension) area. The scenes were,
after datum registration, resampled to UTM projection, Zone 36 South, WGS84 (MOZNET
datum). The required datum transformation parameters were retrieved from the database on
datum transformation released by the European Petroleum Survey Group, EPSG Geodesy
parameters data set version 6.3. The Bursa-Wolf transformation parameters recommended for
the project area are presented in the Table 2.1. The residuals for this transformation are
generally less than 4 meters.

Table 2.1. Bursa-Wolf transformation parameters from Tete datum (20 – 24°S) to MOZNET datum (assuming
MOZNET is equivalent to WGS84) valid for provinces of Gaza, Inhambane and southern parts of Sofala and
Manica, i.e., between approximately 24° and 20° S Tete, EPSG 2003).

Parameter Value Dim.

1 Shift Dx -138.527 Meters
2 Shift dY -91.999 Meters
3 Shift dZ -114.591 Meters
4 Rotation about X -0.14 " (arc seconds)
5 Rotation about Y -3.363 " (arc seconds)
6 Rotation about Z 2.217 " (arc seconds)
7 Scale 11.748 Parts per million

The re-registration of the Landsat scenes will greatly facilitate the registration of GPS
stations collected during fieldwork without the need to apply datum transformations
afterwards and at the same time to use the most recent datum assigned to the territory of
Mozambique. A visual comparison between roads on the ETM scenes and GPS track logs
collected over the entire latitude range of the LOT 3 area, yielded non-systematic
discrepancies to a maximum of two pixels (about 60 metres).

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Fig. 2.5. Merged blocks of LANDSAT 7 ETM scenes. Initial blocks of LANDSAT scenes (bands 7, 3 and 1)
with similar radiometric responses.

For the image maps, the band combination B7, 3, 1 in RGB was chosen, because these
provide optimal spectral information for geological interpretation. The compilation of the
mosaic was done in several steps, from small to large areas, to keep the colour balance in
hand and to avoid boundary effects. The various blocks of Landsat scenes that were merged
during the first step are shown in Fig. 2.5. Sometimes histogram matching and/or feathering
in the overlaps was needed. Finally, four blocks were combined into one image, as shown in

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Fig. 2.6. The mosaic has a spatial resolution of 30 metres and is 3Gb in size. The geometry
has been compared with the GPS field measurements, where tracks were logged. The track
logs fit within one pixel to the corresponding roads on the mosaic (Fig. 2.8).

Fig. 2.6. LANDSAT 7 ETM mosaic (LOT 3 and parts of Extension areas). Final mosaic generated by merging
the LANDSAT scene blocks shown in Fig. 2.6. Differences in radiometric responses were levelled using
histogram matching and feathering functions. Red = band 7, Green = band 3 and Blue = band 1.

The geometric registration procedure used for the VNIR ASTER scenes was different
from the one applied to the LANDSAT scenes, because they are by standard registered in
UTM projection and WGS84 datum. This standard geometric registration is, however, only
accurate up to 200 metres. Comparative analysis with the GPS track logs showed indeed
systematic discrepancies up to 120 metres. The ASTER image data were registered by
interactively applying shifts to each individual 60 x 60 km scene in x and y directions,
reducing estimated planimetric discrepancies on the basis of the GPS track logs to a
maximum of two pixels (i.e., 30 meters).

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2.4.2. Topographic Base Maps

Scanned digital copies of the existing geological maps, projected on existing topographic base
maps, 1:250 000 scale, have been prepared. Although these maps were very useful for
controlling the geological interpretation of the remote sensing and geophysical datasets, their
geometric quality generally appeared to be poor. When superposed on the geometrically
registered satellite images, non-systematic discrepancies of up to 400 metres and even more
became readily apparent (Fig. 2.7). As a result of this poor geometric registration, it was
decided to use these maps for reference purposes only. Unlike the procedure used in the LOT
2 area (Map Explanations; Volumes 2 and 4; GTK Consortium, 2006b, 2006d), where a
certain proportion of digitised maps from Hunting were re-used, all units of the image
interpretation of the LOT 3 area have been digitised anew on screen and new simplified
topographic base maps have been prepared.
The existing topographic maps have been improved by integration with Landsat
imagery and GPS control points and track logs. The latter include about 200 GPS points,
collected from distinct topographic features like junctions of bridges and rivers. New road
data have been collected by GPS tracking (Fig. 2.10). Hydrological features have been
digitised mainly from Landsat images. Details of the methodology are described below.

Fig. 2.7. Example showing overlays of digitised lithological contacts on LANDSAT ETM colour composite
images to illustrate registration problems of the digitised 1: 250 000 scale geological maps with respect the
LANDSAT ETM colour composite images. Note the variation in direction and magnitude of the shifts. The
superimposed grid is north oriented and has a spacing of 1 km.

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Datum Transformation
Since the available 1:250 000 topographic maps of Mozambique use UTM Tete datum in
stead of Moznet datum, the geodetic reference system could not be readily used for preparing
base maps for plotting geology. Consequently, the UTM grid coordinates have been
transformed from the Tete datum to the Moznet datum. This is implemented as a three-step
process:
1) UTM (Tete datum, zone 36/37, Clarke 1866 ellipsoid) → 3D geocentric
2) 3D geocentric (Tete datum) → 3D geocentric (WGS84)
3) D geocentric → UTM 36/37 (WGS84)

Fig. 2.8. GPS track logs collected by the GTK Consortium superimposed on LANDSAT TM mosaic to verify
accuracy of geometric registration.

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Step 1 and 3 are purely mathematical. In step 2 the standard 7-parameter Helmert
transformation (also known as Bursa-Wulf formula) is used. The values of Geodetic
Parameters released by European Petroleum Survey Group (EPSG) are used. Following the
sign convention of ‘Coordinate Frame rotation’ the values are shown in Fig.2.9.

Parameter General South of 24° 20°-24° 16°-20° North of 16°

dx [m] -115.064 -82.875 -138.527 -73.472 219.315

dy [m] -87.390 -57.097 -91.999 -51.660 168.975
dx [m] -101.716 -156.768 -114.591 -112.482 -166.145

x rot ["] 0.058 2.158 0.140 -0.953 -0.198

y rot ["] -4.001 -1.524 -3.363 -4.600 -5.926
z rot ["] 2.062 0.982 2.217 2.368 2.356

Scale [ppm] 9.366 -0.359 11.748 0.586 -57.104

Fig. 2.9. Parameters for Datum transformation.

For the area covered by this Map Explanation the values from the column 20° – 24°
have been used. This way the coordinates in Moznet, UTM zone 36/37 have been computed
for 9 grid points of each involved map sheet. Using these values and the GPS track logs the
topographic map sheets have been rectified to the Moznet coordinate system, using UTM
zone 36 west of the meridian 36°W. Results are satisfactory as shown in Fig. 2.8.

Manual Digitising
Using the rectified topographic map sheets as background in ArcMap, a number of shape
files, including point names (e.g., hill tops), roads and paths, railroad, power line and towns
and villages, have been created by manual digitising. In some cases, the manual digital results
have been adjusted using Landsat imagery.
It further appeared that the hydrography had changed significantly since the old
topographic maps were made in the 1970’s and before. The hydrographic map themes were
therefore based mainly on satellite images. The rivers were predominantly digitised on top of
the satellite images while picking up the names from the topographic maps. The other three
hydrographic themes were made semi-automatically from the satellite images using the
method described below:
• Only band 4 of the Landsat imagery was used because it shows significant
discrimination between water covered surfaces and dry surfaces.
• The images have been reclassified into 3 classes (land, water and no data) after an
empirically found threshold value (varying between 44 and 55).
• By using the raster-to-feature conversion in ArcMap a polygon theme (per image)
was made.
• The features were generalised and polygons with an area of less than 0.5 km2 were
deleted.
• Clouds and other errors were removed.
• By selecting the sea-polygon the islands theme and a coastline could be produced.
• The new coastline was inserted into the older MZ_poly theme containing the
complete Mozambique outline in small scale.

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• The residual polygons were a mixture of lakes, parts of rivers and wetlands, which
is still to be discriminated.

SRTM Digital Elevation Data

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (STRM) elevation data covering LOT 2 have been
collected and processed. SRTM data covering Africa are available in the public domain from
the NASA SRTM ftp site ftp://edcsgs9.cr.usgs.gov/pub/data/ srtm/Africa since 1st of April
2004. The grid size of the data set is 90 metres. It is a generalisation from the full resolution
30 metres data set.
SRTM DEM’s are less resolved than ASTER DEM’s but ten times better than DTED0
or GTOPO30, which have previously been the best public elevation data sets covering
Mozambique. Many applications can be processed with this data and the GTK Consortium
has transformed the DEM covering the project areas into an easily usable form. The data set
was completely processed and the null value areas (areas without elevation information) were
extrapolated. This data set has been found to be very useful for the project and it was largely
used for the creation of elevation contours (Fig. 2.10) and structural interpretation.
SRTM data form a good source of elevation contours for the base maps at 1:250 000
scale. The spatial accuracy is usually better than 15 meters. A pilot study was performed on
map sheet 2032 (LOT 3) to produce contours with 50 meters interval.

Fig. 2.10. Unedited contours on the digital elevation model (map sheet 2032).

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2.4.3. Digital Enhancement of SRTM Data

The SRTM data were relief-shaded using an inclination and azimuthal angle of respectively
30 degrees and 250 (WSW) degrees. This relief-shaded representation was also enhanced
interactively during image interpretation through linear contrast stretching. The resultant
relief-shaded image representation of the SRTM data was particularly useful in tracing the
boundaries between Quaternary units (shallow circular and sausage-shaped depressions,
known as dambos), which expose an argillic unit (Qpi) underneath sandy deposits that
comprise unit Qps. Although the boundaries between these units could usually be traced on
Landsat and ASTER imagery, the relief-shaded SRTM image was useful in verifying if
individuals of unit Qpi were not accidentally omitted. Relief-shaded SRTM data also
provided support in validating the position of the Qpi-Qps boundaries by the 3D perception
and relative depth of the depressions. This helped in verifying if the boundaries
corresponded closely to the lower break of slope, the morphological feature assumed to be
near the Qpi-Qps unit boundary.

2.4.4. Digital Enhancement of LANDSAT-7 TM Scenes

Several enhanced products were derived from the LANDSAT-7 scenes to support geological
interpretation. Enhancement methods include: linear and interactive contrast stretching of
single bands and colour composite images and principal component analysis. In selecting the
band triplets for generating colour composite images from a total of twenty possible
combinations of the six 30-metre bands, the discrimination of rocks (or related soil cover) was
considered an important factor in selecting an optimal triplet for lithological units.
Another less important factor was the possibility to detect lithological variations
indirectly and present these broad-scale geobotanic relationships in natural vegetation
communities. The band combinations (Red = TM7, Green = TM3, Blue = TM1) and (Red =
TM7, Green = TM3, Blue = TM2) provided attractive colour composites, particularly for
Landsat scenes acquired over relatively dry areas or during dry seasons. Both band triplets
utilise strong and broad absorption features of carbonate and hydroxyl-bearing minerals
between about 2.2 - 2.4 micron, a range overlapping with the wavelength position of TM7.
In addition, these band combinations give information about the spectral slope
between 0.4 and 0.7 micron (the visible range comprising TM1, TM2 and TM3) that is
diagnostic to iron-oxide minerals (Goetz et al. 1983). Good exposures of carbonate- and
mica-rich rocks typically appear in shades of blue on such colour composites, whereas rocks
with red alteration, due to high contents of iron-oxides, appear in yellow to reddish tones. The
use of these diagnostic spectral properties of rocks and derived soil material is obviously
hampered in areas with a moderate to dense vegetation cover. In these areas, subtle geo-
botanic relationships between natural vegetation communities and their substrate may be
employed instead, by using band combinations that include the prominent and steep slope
between the visible red and near infra-red range of the green vegetation spectrum. Hence, the
combination (Red = TM 4, Green = TM7 and Blue = TM3) was used as an additional
combination to maximise spectral discrimination of lithological units in areas with higher
green biomass densities. Examples of colour composite images generated from the band
combinations are shown in Fig. 2.11.

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Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to exploit another important diagnostic
image characteristic for discriminating lithologies. In short, PCA generates a new orthogonal
set of bands along the lines of maximum variance among the original bands (Curran, 1985).
This effectively minimises redundant information, particularly because the original bands
tend to be highly correlated. The new bands, called principal components, are ordered
according to their percentage of variance. Thus the highest percentage of the total variance is
mapped on the first principal component, whereas the lowest percentage of the total variance,
often considered as noise is mapped on the last principal component. The first principal
component contains the information that is common among the multi-spectral bands, which is
usually strongly related to the scene illumination. As a result PC1 provides optimal
enhancement of relief features provided by the sun illumination of the scene, which may be
exploited for outlining lithological units on the basis of their variable geomorphologic
expression. PC1 images, for example, appeared to enhance the differences between granites
and intrusive mafic intrusives and the differences among felsic suites themselves, as well as
the more subtle small-scale linear patterns reflecting differences in the degree of penetrative
foliation/bedding fabric in various plutonic, metamorphic and sedimentary rock units.

Fig. 2.11. Subset colour composite images for different band combinations (Images processed by E.
Schetselaar).

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2.4.5. Digital Enhancement of ASTER VNIR Scenes

The ASTER VNIR scenes were enhanced and displayed as false colour composite images
(red = band3, green = band2 and blue = band1). The stretching intervals of the three bands
where interactively adapted to background brightness variations. Although the visible-near
infrared (VNIR) spectral response of the ASTER scenes is highly sensitive to the vegetation
cover, their higher spatial resolution (15 m in comparison to the 30-m pixels for LANDSAT)
is their most important asset. Consequently, the scenes appeared most useful for tracing
contacts and boundaries that were difficult to identify on the LANDSAT ETM scenes. This
applied particularly to areas with vegetation burns and areas with complex contorted unit
boundary geometries. Figure 2.12 illustrates a typical example where the higher spatial
resolution of the ASTER VNIR scenes provided a clear advantage.

Fig. 2.12. Landsat ETM sub-scene colour composite, bands 7, 3 and 1 (left) and ASTER VNIR colour
composite bands 3, 2 and 1 (right) to illustrate the advantages of the higher spatial resolution of the ASTER
scenes in areas of complex unit geometry (Quaternary units Qpi and Qps, 5 km grid).

2.4.6. Digital Enhancement of Airborne Geophysical Grids

The Hunting data (Hunting, 1983) were received as contour maps and as digital grids. The
grid data included total magnetic field, potassium, thorium, uranium channels and total count.
Although the grids were useful for a quick assessment on how to exploit the data in map
production and geological mapping, the effects of flight-based level shifts and micro-levelling
errors seriously hampered the Hunting airborne geophysical data. This restricted their use for
digital classification and other image processing applications. Hence, the line data from the
Hunting geophysical surveys were recovered as ASCII line data from the GEODESA5
archives at ITC to investigate if these levelling errors could be reduced to produce better grids

5
GEODESA (1996 – 2000) was the name for an Institutional Strengthening project, addressing 12 Geological
Survey organisations in eastern and southern Africa and the Mineral Coordination Unit of SADC (Lusaka)
and co-implemented by SEAMIC (Dar es Salaam), ITC and TNO-NITG (the Netherlands).

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for geological interpretation. The recovery and processing of the line data, proved to be
effective in:
• Reducing significant level shifts of the Th channel in the northern block of the
survey area
• Reducing the micro-levelling errors of the aero-magnetic data

The U channel, suffering from similar flight-based level shifts, could not be improved
since the shifts were ‘smeared out’ over adjacent flight lines, apparently induced by previous
attempts to correct level shifts by filtering the data.
The new preliminary airborne geophysical survey data (Fugro, 2003) were received
through DNG in September 2003. The data suffered from the following shortcomings:
• Incomplete overlap between older and new surveys.
• Absence of calibration details and values of Cosmic Stripping Ratios and Aircraft
background.
• Absence of height attenuation coefficients.
• No stripping ratios and their calibration details.
• No specific details on data correction and reliability (% errors) in areas of extreme
topography.
• Presence of a large number of negative values in all radiometric channels in areas
of flat topography (in database and grids).

The line data of K, eTh, eU, TC and the total magnetic field channels were registered
on the MOZNET datum and gridded on 200-metre cells using a minimum curvature gridding
algorithm. The gamma-ray spectrometry channels were enhanced and displayed as ternary
radioelement maps in RGB colour space using linear contrast enhancement with cut-off
percentages of 2%. In areas with very high or low gamma-ray response, stretching intervals
were interactively adjusted. Reduction to the pole, vertical derivative and residual magnetic
field grids were computed from the total magnetic field grid in order to further facilitate the
interpretation of regional geological units and structures. The total field and first vertical
magnetic derivative grids were enhanced in colour-shaded relief images, using an illumination
inclination angle and azimuth of respectively 25 and 300 degrees for the relief shading and a
rainbow hue spectrum.
Tests with the preliminary Fugro magnetic grid show that it can be successfully
merged with the old Hunting data without applying any regional correction other than IGRF
removal. Overlapping areas ‘blend‘ well to give continuity of short-wavelength features
across the boundary, although the difference in resolution of the two grids is apparent. The
latter is due to three factors: (a) lower flying height (100m versus 120m), (b) greater down-
line sampling (0.1s versus 1s) and (c) improved navigational accuracy (differential GPS
versus Doppler + visual). Regression analysis of the overlapping parts of the grids for the
gamma-ray spectrometry data cover almost the full dynamic range and provide reasonable, if
not perfect, equations for back calibration of the older data. The calculated sensitivity
constants are not too far from what would be expected for the crystal volume and flying
height used in the older survey but they may be a little biased by the present number of
negative values in the new survey.

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The difference between the expression of short-wavelength anomalies in the Hunting

(1983) and Fugro (2003) aeromagnetic survey data are illustrated in Fig. 2.13. In the 2003
area, short-wavelength anomalies are resolved from each other and appear sharp and
continuous in the image. In the older survey data, evidence of short-wavelength features is
apparent but individual anomalies and trends are not always clear.

Fig. 2.13. Comparison of the spatial

resolution of short-wavelength
magnetic anomalies from the 1983
(right) and 2003 (left) airborne
surveys. The white line marks the
boundary between the two surveys.

2.4.7. Integrated Enhancement of Radiometric and Landsat TM Scenes

Previous studies have shown that integrated enhancement of remote sensing and airborne
geophysical data sets may yield significant geological information, not obvious in enhanced
products of the individual data sets (Harris et al. 1994). The integration of gamma-ray
spectrometry grids and satellite imagery of higher spatial resolution in image products, in
particular, has proven useful to enhance geological information. Such integrated
enhancements allow the interpretation of the geochemical information contained in the
gamma-ray spectrometry channels in the context of structural features, such as lithological
contacts, faults and foliation trends (Wilford et al. 1997; Schetselaar, 2000).
The digital processing methods used to generate integrated enhancements are all based
on the principle of mapping co-registered grids/images on distinct perceptual attributes of
human colour vision using image algebraic operations. In practice, the geo-science data sets
are first co-registered on a common pixel/grid cell size, after which they are ‘fused’ in colour
composite images by the application of an algebraic algorithm to the pixels.
Composite enhanced image products of geophysical grids and Landsat TM scenes
were prepared to aid the extraction of complementary geological information. Grids of K, eTh
and eU were registered with Landsat-7 band 5 on 50-metre pixels and integrated using the
HDF transform (Chavez et al. 1991):
Red = (K + 3.TM5)/4
Green = (eTh + 3.TM5)/4
Blue = (eU +3.TM5)/4

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The ternary/TM5 image data appear to be an ideal enhancement for geological

interpretation as it allows interpreting the geochemical information of the gamma-ray
spectrometry channels in the context of structural features, such as lithological contacts,
foliation trends and various erosional landforms. In other occasions, merging of remote
sensing and airborne magnetic data produced powerful imagery for geological interpretation.
A subset of the composite image is shown in Fig. 2.14. Optimal image products for geological
interpretation can be summarised as follows:
• IHS colour composite images of gamma-ray spectrometry channels (K, eTh, eU)
and high-passed filtered Landsat TM band 7, co-registered on 30 metre pixels.
Chromatic (hue and saturation) contrasts provide lithological differentiation
(mostly of igneous rocks) whereas image texture allows differentiating various
sedimentary units. High spatial resolution intensity from Landsat provides, in
addition, structural details to differentiate foliated from non-foliated rocks.
• Landsat TM colour composites, bands 7, 3 and 1, provide high spatial resolution
and multi-spectral details to further confirm and better outline the geometry of
units inferred from the IHS composite images.
• First vertical derivative of pole-reduced magnetic data, further enforces geological
significance of lithological differentiation and shows complementary structural
details (particularly dykes).
• ASTER VNIR colour composite images (15 metre spatial resolution) for detailed
interpretation of geological boundaries and structures and for tracing tracks/roads.

Fig. 2.14. Image clips to illustrate the effects of merging relief-shaded SRTM data with gamma-ray
spectrometry channels. Left original ternary radioelement map, right ternary radioelement map ‘sharpened’
with relief-shaded SRTM data, (50 km grid). Note that the integrated terrain rendition in the ternary
radioelement map facilitates the perception of 3-D relationships between geological units (Images by E.
Schetselaar).

2.4.8. Digital Interactive Interpretation of Compiled and Processed Data Sets

Geological interpretation of the LOT 3 and Extension areas (this Map Explanation) was
similar to the approach used for the LOT 2 area (Map Explanations, Volumes 2 and 4; GTK
Consortium, 2006b, 2006d) based on an interactive analysis of the various map and image

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layers in a digital (GIS) environment. This approach facilitated in assessing the

complementary geological information content of the geological maps and various enhanced
images. The extensive visualisation functions of the modern GIS environments allow one to
dynamically and interactively compare any set of image layers with any map overlay in any
desirable layout and at any scale.
The methodology broadly followed the approach used for the geological interpretation
of the LOT 2 area. There were, however, also some significant differences:
• All line work was digitised from scratch, as the re-use of existing line work from
digitised geological maps was hampered by geometric registration problems
• Relief-shaded SRTM digital elevation data of 90-m spatial resolution were
included in the interactive interpretation, both as a single source of information and
as a component of integrated enhancement with the gamma-ray spectrometry
channels
• ASTER scenes were employed occasionally to solve interpretation problems that
were difficult to resolve on the basis of LANDSAT ETM scenes alone.
• Two interpretation products were delivered, one exclusively containing geological
features recognisable on the various image data sets and one integrated compilation
in which the image interpretation was augmented with units from the 1:250 000
scale geological maps.

2.4.9. Interpretation of Lithological Units

The first step towards outlining lithological units consisted of a systematic comparative
analysis between the digital geologic map compilation and the above described enhanced
image data. The main objectives of the interpretation were to:
• Identify discrepancies between available geological maps and geological features
inferred from the enhanced image products deemed to be geologically significant;
and
• Improve, whenever possible, the geometry of lithological unit boundaries.

The relationships between mapped lithological units and image characteristics, such as
tone, diagnostic hue and texture were established by overlaying the digital geological maps on
the image enhancements. The main diagnostic image characteristics on which geological units
and structures could be recognized from the LANDSAT scenes were summarised. The
gamma-ray spectrometry grids provided, in addition to the satellite imagery, complementary
discrimination potential, although the 250-m spatial resolution of this dataset has its
limitations. The good correlation between airborne radioelement concentrations and total
counts with most lithological units is clearly apparent when listing the mean and standard
deviations of these airborne measurements for all the image-interpreted lithological units.
Note, for example, the high total count values of the Karoo rhyolites and the relative high
thorium concentrations of the Sena Formation* and river terraces (unit Qt). Occasionally,
where gamma-ray spectrometry data complement the geological information content of
satellite imagery, it was helpful to first digitise boundaries on basis of contrasting hues on the
ternary radioelement image (Fig. 2.15). Thereafter boundaries could be further refined on the
basis of ASTER and LANDSAT scenes.

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Fig. 2.15. Potassium-rich signature (red-pink hues) consistent with exposure of Sena Formation* to the west
on a fused image of relief-shaded SRTM and gamma-ray spectrometry channels suggest that a small domain of
the Sena Formation* (red arrow), not previously mapped, is exposed as an erosion window in the upper
valleys of one of the tributaries of the Save River. Also note the distinct contrasts between potassium and
thorium signatures within the Sena Formation*, suggesting internal variations in lithological composition. Grid
is north oriented and has a spacing of 10 km.

Although the majority of units identified by image interpretation correspond to units of

the previously published 1:250 000 scale geological maps, the identification of some units
was impossible or doubtful (Fig. 2.16). The following summarises the most significant
problems encountered during the geological interpretation phase:
• The lacustrine limestones sensu Hunting (1984) (Qll) could, in the majority of
cases, not be identified on any of the available image data. In some situations
recognition was doubtful. The image-inferred polygons correspond only poorly to
the outlines of their equivalents on the previously published maps.
• Many elongated unit ‘slivers’ shown on the 1:250 000 scale previously published
geological maps correspond to steep riverbanks where Cretaceous and Tertiary
units are exposed underneath a Quaternary cover. These units are due to their
limited width of exposure difficult or impossible to detect in the remotely sensed
data, let alone their further litho-stratigraphic differentiation.
• In addition to the difficulty of recognising Cretaceous and Tertiary units of limited
width, the boundaries between the Jofane Formation* (unit TeJ) and the internal
dunes (Qds) or arenaceous flows (Qss) are often ambiguous, probably due to deep
weathering or surface cover on the Jofane Formation*. The large unit underlying
the plateau east of Mabote asks for extensive field verification in order to better
establish its aerial extension.

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• The analysis of image signatures over mapped volcanic units at different levels in
the Karoo sequence in respectively (P1, P2) rhyolites and (B1, B2) basalts did not
yield diagnostic image criteria that would allow to further refine its main bimodal
differentiation into rhyolite and basalt.

Fig. 2.16. Tone and textural image characteristics on a Landsat ETM colour composite image (red= band 7,
green = band 3 and blue = band 1) suggest exposures of Sena Formation* (indicated by red arrows) in drainage
system. Grid is north oriented with a spacing of 5 km.

The above-mentioned problems provide rationale for the selection of targets for aerial
photograph interpretation. Problems 1 and 2 in particular may be resolved by interpretation of
aerial photographs, provided that such interpretations are carefully calibrated with field
observations that describe the litho-stratigraphic sequence of these units in detail.
Besides these problems, the interactive interpretation of merged and processed data
sets has obviously yielded opportunities to improve on the previously existing 1:1 000 000
and 1:250 000 scale map products covering the LOT 3 and its Extension area (this Map
Explanation). The following summarises, in our view, the most significant contribution for
upgrading the geological knowledgebase:
• An overall improvement of the geometric accuracy (e.g. position and shape) for
most of the previously mapped units in the interpreted area.
• A further differentiation of the Sena Formation* (units CrSb and CrSt) based on
contrasting eTh signatures reflecting litho-stratigraphic or lateral facies differences.

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• Suggestions on the presence of units that went unnoticed before, such as isolated
exposures of Karroo volcanic rocks and elongated exposures of Cretaceous and
Tertiary sedimentary rocks at the lowest topographic levels in drainage channels
and valley floors, particularly in the upper Limpopo and upper Save drainage
systems.
• The addition of many Quaternary units over the entire LOT 3 and Extension area
(Fig. 2.17).

Fig. 2.17. Image interpretation of ASTER VNIR scene at about 23°25 S and 31°50 E. The interpretation
shows isolated outcrops of Umbeluzi rhyolite (Karoo) east of its main contact with the Cretaceous Grudja
Formation*. Note the consistency between hue and joint patterns between the large western polygon and the
isolated outcrops. Note also the isolated pockets of Quaternary cover (Qpi) covering the Grudja Formation*
(CrG). Grid lines are north oriented and spaced 2 km apart.

2.4.10. Geological Image Interpretation of Structural Features

The interpretation of structural features was largely based on the relief-shaded SRTM and
Landsat ETM scenes (Fig. 2.18). The surface interpretation was verified against lineaments
apparent on colour-relief shaded representation of the total and first vertical derivate magnetic
fields. In addition to the tectonic structures, confined in the Map Explanation (Volume 3) area
to brittle faults and lineaments, also sedimentary and igneous structures were included in the
interpretation. These features included the axes of palaeo-beach ridges and longitudinal dunes
and the traces of igneous layering in the Karoo volcanic complexes.

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Fig. 2.18. Relief-shaded SRTM data (90-m pixels) manifesting the intersecting NNW-SSE and N-S trending
rift structures. Dextral shearing along WNW-ESE and ENE-WSW faults offset the small-scale rift structures.
These strike-slip faults are also reflected in the drainage pattern. Inset shows detail with overlay of published
1: 250 000 scale geological maps (orange lines) and the image interpretation (yellow lines) of Quaternary units
(Qps and Qpi). Note the shifts between the overlays and the differences in interpretation styles. The image
interpretation positions the boundary between the Qps and Qpi units at the lower break of slope, effectively
outlining the floor of the depressions whereas the map compilation puts the boundaries closer to the upper
break of slope. The round to oval- to irregular-shaped depressions are believed to represent solution-collapse
features in sub-outcropping rock units.

The SRTM data was one of the most useful products to analyse and interpret the
tectonic structural elements and palaeo-beach ridges along the east-trending coastline. The
igneous layering and dune axes on the other hand, were best enhanced on the satellite image
products. Figures 2.19 and 2.20 show examples of the structural interpretation as overlays on
relief-shaded SRTM data.

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Fig. 2.19. Structural

interpretation of the south-
eastern corner of the LOT 3
area. Orange lines represent
palaeo-beach ridges and light
brown dotted lines are dunes
axes that overprint the
former. Red lines indicate
tectonic faults that
correspond to offsets of the
beach ridges with an
apparent displacement of 1 –
5 km. The grid is north
oriented with a spacing of 50
km.

Fig. 2.20. Structural inter-

pretation of the area directly
north of Maputo on relief-
shaded SRTM data. Magenta
lines indicate the traces of
igneous layering in Karoo
volcanic complexes, red lines
indicate inferred faults.
Green lines indicate
lineaments. Also note the
NNE-SSW directed rift
feature in the eastern part of
the image. Light brown lines
indicate depositional (dunes)
and possibly denudation
features of aeolian transport.
The grid is north oriented
and has a spacing of 50 km.

2.5. FIELD VERIFICATION AND MAPPING

Field verification and mapping of the LOT 3 and Extension areas took place by a team of
field geologists from the GTK Consortium, in close cooperation with geologists and
technicians from the DNG, during two consecutive field seasons (March – November 2004
and 2005). Complementary revision was made in the field in July 2006. Field verification was
done along pre-selected itineraries in function of access and complexity of geology from
various service bases. More remote areas were surveyed from fly camps. Transport was
generally by 4 x 4 traction vehicles, ATV’s, and foot traverses.
From the LOT 3 and Extension area, a total of 3709 GPS-controlled field observations
(Fig. 2.21) were entered into field forms and, subsequently, together with representative
digital photographs of the outcrops, entered as .pdf files into the DML. All field data was

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subsequently transferred into the observation database. All observation points and attached
tectonic data have also been stored in a GIS database for preparing work sheets and final
maps. From the area of this specific Map Explanation (Volume 3), entries have been made for
431 field observations.
Of the rock samples collected during field verification in LOT 3 and Extension area,
962 representative samples have been archived, photographed digitally and stored at the DNG
regional or head offices. The rock sample photos have been organised in the Photo data base
and utilised in lithology descriptions.

Fig. 2.21. Map sheet division and locations of field observations (●) in the area of this Map Explanation
(Volume 3). Background map with road network tracked by GTK Consortium on simplified geology.

2.6. MAP PRODUCTS

2.6.1. Geological Maps

A total of 6 geological map sheets – scale 1:250 000 – have been prepared within this Map
Explanation (Volume 3). They may correspond with an area of 1° x 1° (Square Degree Sheet,
SDS). Near the coast, several Square Degree Sheets have been combined in a single Map
Sheet 1737-1738-1739. In Table 2.2 the names and numerical codes of the map sheets are
given. The geological maps discussed in this Map Explanation (Volume 3) correspond to

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Zambézia and Sofala Provinces and cover both LOT 3 (SDS 1835, 1836 and 1935) and
Extension Contracts (SDS 1735 to 1739).

2.6.2. Map Explanations

This Map Explanation (Volume 3) is part of a series of four Map Explanations prepared by
the GTK Consortium (GTK Consortium 2006a, b, c, & d). These Map Explanations aim to
describe all aspects of the geology, structural and tectonic settings, as well as mineral
resources and resource potential zones. The grouping of Map Sheets covered by a single Map
Explanation Volume is shown in Table 2.2 and in Fig. 2.22.

Fig. 2.22. Division of Map Explanations and numbering of map sheets in scale 1: 250 000. Degree sheets
1735, 1736, 1737/1738/1739, 1835, 1836 and 1935 are discussed in Map Explanation - Volume 3.

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Table 2.2. Geological map sheets in the LOT 2 and LOT 3(+ Extension) area, showing Square Degree Sheet
number, Sheet Codes and Names. Square Degree Sheet (SDS) numbers in bold are discussed in this Map
Explanation (Volume 3).

No LOT Map Square Degree Sheet Name 1:50 000

Expl. Sheet Code Sheets
1 1430/1431 24/25 Inhamambo/Maluwera
2 1432 26 Chifunde
414, 415,
4 451, 452,
3 1530/1531 35/36 Zumbo/Fíngoè-Mágoè
453, 454,
489, 490
4 1532 37 Songo
5 2 1533/1534 38/39 Cazula/Zóbuè
627, 628,
6 1631/1632 47/48 Mecumbura/Chioco
656
7 1633 49 Tete 629, 657
8 1634 50 Tambara
9 1732/1733 57/58 Guro 683, 684
10 2 1734 59 Chemba
803, 804,
805, 819,
11 1832/1833 65/66 Manica/Catandica
820, 821,
822
12 1834 67 Gorongosa
835, 836,
13 1932/1933 70/71 Rotanda/Chimoio
837, 838
14 1934 72 Beira
15 1735 60 Mutarara-Morrumbala
16 1736 61 Quelimane
17 1737/1738/1739 62/63/64 Namacurra/Maganja/Pebane
18 2/3 Ext. 3 1835 68 Inhaminga/Marromeu
19 1836 69 Chinde
20 1935 73 Savane
21 2032/2033 74/75 Espungabera/Chibabava
22 2034/2035 76/77 Nova/Mambone
23 2131/2132 78/79 Massangena
24 2133 80 Chidoco
25 2134/2135 81/82 Save/Bazaruto
26 2231 83 Chicualacuala
27 2232 84 Machaila
28 2233 85 Chigubo
29 2234/2235 86/87 Mabote/Vilanculos
30 2331/2332 88/89 Rio Singuédzi/Massingir
31 3 1 2333 90 Rio Changana
32 2334/2335 91/92 Funhalouro/Inhambane
33 2431/2432 93/94 Chilembene
34 2433 95 Chókwè
35 2434/2435 96/97 Zavala/Inharrime
36 2531/2532 98/99 Maputo
37 2533/2534 100/101 Xai-Xai/Zavala
38 2632 102 Bela-Vista

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2.6.3. Petrophysical Database

Petrophysical measurements, including magnetic susceptibility and density of 900 rock

samples from Volume 1 and 3 areas have been measured in the petrophysical field laboratory
that was set up first in the GTK Consortium Manica office and, subsequently in the Maputo
office. The results are available as Excel files and shown in Fig. 2.23.

Fig. 2.23. Petrophysical characteristics of rock samples from northern Volume 1 and Volume 3 area.

2.7. INVENTORY OF MINERAL RESOURCES

Existing mineral deposit data, obtained from the Council for Geoscience (CGS), Pretoria,
South Africa, was incorporated into ArcGIS project format. The data, dealing with
approximately 90 mineral deposits, was reformatted into ArcView shape file in order to
facilitate matching with other geo-referenced data when producing mineral maps.
The GTK Consortium has compiled a new database with 16 mineral deposits and
occurrences located within the Volume 3 area, from analogue DNG reports and other sources.
In doing so, it was found out that the location of several mineral deposits and showings in
different databases was not coherently documented. GPS-controlled field checks were
obviously needed.

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Inspection of mineral occurrences proved to be time consuming and often impossible.

This was due to the inaccuracy of the reported coordinates (about one minute, meaning a
maximum error of about one km) in existing documents and, having been abandoned for over
40 years, a general lack of surface features of most workings. Occasionally, even greater
discrepancies, up to 2 – 3 km, were found when comparing indicated locations with GPS-
verified locations. As a consequence, 6 mineral deposits were selected and surveyed in detail
in this area, comprising an inventory of the mineral commodities and mode of occurrence,
sampling and digital photographs taken. The database structure is shown in Fig. 2.24. An
example of data capture, showing different attributes, is presented in Figs. 2.25 and 2.26.

Fig. 2.24. Structure of the database used in LOT 2, LOT 3 and Extension area mineral occurrence inventory.

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Fig. 2.25. An example of the data capture for the mineral database, attributes for identification.

Fig. 2.26. An example on data capture for the mineral database, attributes for deposit information.

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CHAPTER 3

INFRASTRUCTURE

The area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3) belongs to the Zambézia and Sofala
Provinces with populations of over 3.5 million and 1.5 million, respectively (2002).
Quelimane is the capital of Zambézia Province and has a population of about 100 000. Beira,
the capital of Sofala Province, and the second biggest city of Mozambique with a population
of 546 000 (est. 2006), is located south of the area. Quelimane was founded in the 15th
century as a Swahili trading town, linking gold and ivory producing states in the African
interior, especially Great Zimbabwe of the Karanga people, to the Indian Ocean trade
network. Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed in Quelimane on his way to India in
1498.
The Map Explanation (Volume 3) covers districts in Sofala Province as follows:
Dondo, Muanza, Cheringoma, Caia and Marromeu and in Zambézia Province the districts of
Chinde, Mopeia, Morrumbala, Milange, Lugela, Mocuba, Nicoadala, Namacurra and Mahanja
da Costa. Smaller towns in the area covered by this Map Explanation include Namacurra and
Nicoadala. Towns in the valley of the Zambezi River include Mutarara, Villa de Sena,
Marromeu, Luabo and Chinde. Inhaminga is located along the Sena railway line from Beira to
Moatize and Blantyre.
Both provinces are dominated by humid forest savannahs. Coastal areas are generally
dryer with the exception of the Zambezi delta which is covered by tropical rain forest and
extensive mangrove swamps. Agricultural products include rice, maize, cassava, cashews,
sugarcane, coconuts, citrus, cotton, and tea. The country's largest tea estates are at Gurúè.
Gemstones connected to pegmatites are mined at several sites in the interior.
Apart from the new, paved Inchope - Caia - Quelimane road, which connects the area
to the Beira - Manica highway, other main roads include the all-season gravel roads, which
pass via the Namacurra, Malei and Magania villages to the Cuamba and Nampula towns in
the north. Until the planned bridge across the Zambezi River has been constructed, traffic
continues to be hampered by the ferry at Caia, however. A gravel road also leads from Caia to
Vila de Sena in the north-western corner of the Map Explanation area. There the 3.7 km long
railway bridge and bank across the Zambezi is presently being used as a road bridge lacking
rails. From Mutarara the gravel road continues alongside the reconstructed Moatize - Beira
railway line to a tarred Tete - Blantyre (Malawi) road in the north. In addition, there are
numerous small village roads and tracks, many of them still unmapped. The GTK Consortium
geologists have registered many of these smaller roads as GPS track logs during fieldwork.
Quelimane has regular flight connections with the other provincial capitals. The major
port serving this area is located at Beira, with appropriate bulk and container handling
capacity in addition to Maputo and Nacala. The coal-handling terminal in Beira is probably
too small for the currently planned coal production in Moatize, but it might serve the export
of other bulk mineral products. Smaller ports are located at Quelimane, Pebane, Macuze and
Chinde. The port in Moma, just to the north of this map explanation area is currently
experiencing changes due to recent development on Moma Mineral Sands Project. The
African Development Bank estimates that up to 2000 new jobs will be created connected to
the mining operations. The construction of essential infrastructure, such as roads, schools,

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airstrip and jetty, as well as additional services, will improve he living standard of the people
living in the Moma District of the Nampula Province.
In Sofala and Zambézia Provinces, most of the towns and largest villages along the
main roads have at present GSM network coverage. For fieldwork in more remote areas all-
terrain vehicles (including AVT and motorbikes) are necessary as well as satellite phones for
communication. Availability of fuel must be checked and its relatively high price included in
cost calculations. Beira and Quelimane serve very well as basis for fieldwork with their
vehicle workshops and supermarkets.

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CHAPTER 4

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY

4.1. GEOMORPHOLOGY
The territory of Mozambique is divided into four physiographic zones or cycles (King, 1961).
Each zone or cycle has developed its own morphological plateau, separated by erosional
escarpments:
• Mountainous Zone or Gondwana Cycle (> 1200 m);
• Large Plateau Zone or African Cycle (500 – 1200 m);
• Intermediate Plateau Zone or Zumbo Cycle (200 – 500 m);
• Coastal Plain Zone or Congo Cycle (< 200m).

The Mountainous Zone was developed during the Gondwana Cycle that developed as
a consequence of the Permo-Carboniferous rift movements, the onset of the Karoo Event. It
essentially affected the crystalline basement and refers to plateaus located at altitudes between
1500 and 1800 m. It is distributed (outside the present Map Explanation) along the border
with Malawi. This cycle is responsible for a major phase of peneplanation of the African
continent during an extensive erosional period from the Upper Carboniferous till the Upper
Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous.
The Large Plateau Zone developed during the African Cycle, an Early/Middle
Cretaceous erosional phase that heralded the onset Gondwana drift and dispersal and initiation
of the East African Rift Event. It corresponds to an erosion level at altitudes of 500 to 1200 m.
In Mozambique, it can be divided into three distinctive sub-cycles, i.e., the Carumacáfuè Sub-
cycle with peneplains at altitudes of 600 to 800 m (with, as best example, the perfect meseta
of Mount Carumacáfuè; Fig. 4.1), the Messandaluz-cycle with plateaus between 500 and 1000
m of altitude, and the Songo Sub-cycle with plateau altitudes of 1000 to 1200 m.

Fig. 4.1. Meseta-like

Carumacáfuè Mountain,
located southeast of Mágoè
village, south of the Cahora
Bassa lake.

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The Intermediate Plateau Zone developed during the Zumbo Cycle, a phase of Middle
Tertiary epeirogenesis. It consists of a transitional erosional stage between the Large Plateaus
and the Coastal Plain Zones. It is developed along the mid-Zambezi Valley and its larger
tributaries with altitudes between 200 and 500 m.
The erosional process ends with the Coastal Plain Zone developed during the Congo
Cycle, starting in Plio-Pleistocene times. It corresponds to the present Zambezi Valley from
near the Cahora Bassa dam and extending towards the east to the Lupata Trough, next
Tambara and continuing to Chinde-Quelimane on the shore of the Indian Ocean.
From a geomorphological point of view, the region covered by this Map Explanation
(Volume 3) is mostly flat and belongs to the Coastal Plain Zone. Some sparse Inselberg,
occurring in terrains underlain by crystalline basement, are supposedly relicts of the
Intermediate Plateau Zone. The impressive Serra da Morrumbala on the Mutarara Map Sheet
(SDS 1735), composed of Cretaceous alkaline igneous rocks, is the only more extensive
elevated domain within the area covered by this Map Explanation (Fig. 4.2).

Fig. 4.2. Serra da

Morrumbala, seen from the
west. Map sheet 1735.

The Nicoadala (SDS 1736), and Pebane (SDS 1737/1738/1739) regions are mainly flat
terrains, covered by sedimentary deposits of Cenozoic and Quaternary age (Fig. 4.3).
Especially the southern portions are extremely flat. The same situation applies in the other
map sheets of the Map Explanation area, i.e., Inhaminga/Marromeu (SDS 1835), Chinde
(SDS 1836) and Savane (SDS 1935), which deals with recent terrains located on both banks
of the Zambezi River delta.

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Fig. 4. 3. Macuse beach with

flattened coastal dunes and
sands (SDS 1737).

4.2. BASEMENT TECTONICS

Apart from the geomorphological cycles, the drainage system and topography of Mozambique
are determined by basement tectonics as manifested by the development of two conjugate sets
of mega-fractures or faults, one with N-S and E-W directions and the other with NW-SE and
NE-SW directions. These correspond with zones of crustal failure that have been rejuvenated
repeatedly, most recently during the Karoo and East Africa Rift Events, the latter being coeval
with Gondwana rift/drift/dispersal. Frequently, these structures define contacts between
Precambrian crystalline basement and Phanerozoic cover.
The valleys of the mid-Zambezi River and tributaries (outside this Map Explanation)
form a characteristic geographic feature. After leaving the deeply dissected domain underlain
by the Proterozoic Tete (Gabbro-Anorthosite) Suite north of Tete, the river flows in an almost
straight streambed to the southeast within a wide trough filled with Phanerozoic sediments.
North of Tete, the river is offset by an E-W fault over a distance of about 5 km to resume
upstream its NW-SE direction. Tributaries join the Zambezi River under a 90° angle,
exhibiting predominantly NE-SW directions. Further southeast, it enters the southern
extension of the N-S trending Chire-Urema rift before reaching the Indian Ocean. The course
of the river appears controlled by the alignment of commonly NW-SE and W-E trending rift
or fault features. The courses of smaller streams and rivers are controlled by more local and
variable tectonic structures.
The drainage grid of the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3) is
represented by the Zambezi and Chire (SDS 1735 and 1836), the Licuari (SDS 1736), the
Licungo, Raraga and Nipiode (SDS 1737), the Melela (SDS 1738), the Mupa (SDS 1835)
and the Zambazô Rivers (SDS 1935). Their streambeds are partly controlled by basement
tectonics, including the East African Rift System. The coastal plain is characterised by
swampy areas, with braiding rivers, within a system of parallel-arranged longitudinal
(palaeo)dunes.

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After the deposition of the Karoo Supergroup the area underwent deep erosion. Next,
Cretaceous sediments were laid down. The most resistant, silicified layers protected
underlying beds from erosion. A spectacular example is the Carumacáfuè table mountain
(SDS 1632) where the sub- horizontal siliceous duricrust perches several hundreds of metres
above the Cretaceous peneplain.
The above uplift, erosion and deposition were associated with development of the East
Africa Rift System (EARS). Characteristically, Karoo and Cretaceous lithologic units occupy
low-lying terrain and are largely covered by recent sediments. Erosion of the Precambrian
basement has caused the development of a smoothly rolling terrain with, in places, inselbergs
of poorly fractured bedrock blocks.

4.3. CLIMATE
The region constitutes a semi-arid sub-zone within the tropical climate zone, and it
characterized by two well-defined seasons:
• Rainy season from December to March;
• Dry season from April to November.

Vegetation is mainly conditioned by climate and soil type. So far, the following flora
was observed:
• High and intermediate forests in valleys formed by the more deeply incised rivers;
• Savannah-like dry parklands in compact and sandy terrains;
• Shrub and bush savannah in terrains with a clayey-sandy soil or areas with coarse
clastic sediments.

The coastal plain shows extensive human-made palm tree plantations, as well as
casuarine-type pine trees along the edge of the beach rims.

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CHAPTER 5

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY

5.1. PRINCIPLES
Legends in the geological maps produced by the GTK Consortium are based on a
stratigraphic code that follows the recommendations of the International Sub-commission on
Stratigraphic Classification (ISSC) of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) of
the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). Details are contained in App. 1.

5.2. HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT

The first geological investigations in Mozambique refer to the litho-stratigraphy of coal-
bearing seams in the Lower Karoo near Moatize and include Guyot (1882), Thompson
(1882), Lapierre (1883), Zeiller (1883), Kuss (1884) and Potonié (1899). The work of these
early pioneers was followed in the first half of the XX Century by local and regional
stratigraphic studies of the carbonaceous Karoo sediments (Potonié, 1900; Gothan, 1912,
1914; Anthoine & Dubois, 1922, 1925; Gérard, 1924; Andrade, 1908, 1929; Dixey, 1929).
Similar lithologies were surveyed by Freitas (1932, 1939) and later Bebiano (1934, 1936),
Borges (1935, 1946), Teixeira (1943, 1946, 1947) and Gaspar (1948).
From the 1950’s till the 1980’s, various publications and technical reports were
elaborated based on fieldwork as part of a vast effort to improve the knowledge on the
geology and the economic value of the mineral resources of the Tete, Sofala and Manica
provinces. These works are contained in Teixeira (1950, 1951), Colin (1951), Borges (1952),
Longyear Company (1955), Real (1958, 1959, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1966), Carvalho (1960,
1961, 1962, 1964, 1969, 1975, 1977), Nunes (1961), Santos (1961, 1962, 1974), Pinto (1964,
1970, 1973) Feys (1965), Feys & Fabre (1966), Sousa & Mériaux (1971), Afonso (1975,
1976, 1984), Afonso et al. (1969, 1993, 1998), Sousa (1977, 1984), Limex (1981), LKAB
(1981, 1982) and Hunting Geology and Geophysics Limited (1984).
The discovery of uranium mineralisation in the Mavudzi valley, northwest of Tete,
triggered initial interest in the Tete area (Luna & Freitas, 1953; Davidson & Bennet, 1960).
The E. J. Longyear Company (1956) carried out the first systematic geological investigations
in this area (see also Lyall, 1955). Since then useful work has been carried out in the province
but with notable exceptions (Real, 1966; Vail, 1965; Vail & Pinto, 1966; Coelho, 1969;
Svirine, 1980), the results have remained unpublished.
Between 1980 and 1984 Hunting Geology and Geophysics Limited initiated new
phase of geological investigations (Hunting, 1984). They carried out a comprehensive mineral
exploration and reconnaissance geological mapping project under the aegis of the
Mozambican Government. The French BRGM surveyed approximately at the same time
(1980 – 1984) the northern part of Mozambique resulting in publication of a geological map –
scale 1:1 000 000 – that showed new insights in the geology of the Tete area (Pinna et al.
1986, 1987; Pinna & Marteau, 1987). For the Quaternary rocks in southern Mozambique the
fundamentals of the stratigraphy were conceived by Choffat (1887) and Freire de Andrade

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(1897,1929), which were further developed by Dias Bettencourt (1947, 1952, 1953, 1958),
Flores & Barbieri (1959) and Barrocoso & Oberholtzer (1963,1967).

5.3. REGIONAL GEOLOGY

Africa is largely composed of a mosaic of Archaean cratons and mobile belts amalgamated by
elongated Proterozoic-Cambrian fold belts and covered by undeformed sediments and
associated igneous rocks of Neo-Proterozoic, Late Carboniferous-Early Jurassic and
Cretaceous-Quaternary age. Younger fold belts, deformed during the Hercynian and Alpine
Orogenies, are only of local extent. The first is of Middle Palaeozoic age and restricted in
Africa to the Mauritides and the Moroccan Meseta in the northwest and the Cape Fold Belt in
the south. Alpine penetrative deformation (Cretaceous-Tertiary) is limited to the Kabylia-Rif-
Betic orocline that encloses the Alboràn Sea, the westernmost part of the Mediterranean.
In eastern and southern Africa the following tectono-structural-magmatic domains –
the building blocks – each related to major and specific geodynamic events – can be
distinguished (Table 5.1, mainly after Gabert, 1984; Dirks & Ashwal, 2002).

Table 5.1. Africa’s tectono-structural-magmatic domains.

Event/System Era Age (Ma)

East African Rift System Main Phase Neogene - Present 23 - 0
(EARS) Initial Phase Cretaceous - Palaeogene 140 - 23
Gondwanide Terrains Karoo Event Late Carboniferous – Early
318 - 180
Jurassic
Post-Pan-African
< 542
Platforms
Pan-African Pan-African Orogeny Neoproterozoic- Cambrian 750 - 490
Early Pan-African Basins Neoproterozoic 900 - 700
Kibaran Mesoproterozoic 1450 - 950
Ubendian/ Usagaran Late Phase Palaeoproterozoic ~ 1860
Early Phase 2100 - 2025
Cratons (granite-greenstone terrains) and Mobile Belts Archaean 3800 - 2500

5.3.1. Archaean Cratons and Mobile Belts

These include in Africa the West African Craton, Nile or East Sahara Craton, Central African
or Congo Craton (including Tanzania Craton), Southern Africa or Kalahari Craton, the
Malagarasy Shield and interlocking Archaean mobile belts such as the Limpopo Mobile Belt.
The latter high-grade mobile belt amalgamates the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe Cratons resulting
into the Southern Africa or Kalahari Craton for which recently the term Azania Craton has
been coined (McCourt et al. 2004). Large parts of Archaean cratons have been reworked
during younger orogenies. Alternatively, Archaean rocks also occur outside cratonic blocks in
younger fold belts. Well-known examples have been described in eastern Africa (Kenya,
Tanzania) and the Bengweulu Block in northern Zambia (Fig. 5.1).

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111
20
20
20
A
A
A
A
A
A
? IV
? I

B
B
B
B
B
B 222

C
C
C D
D
D K
K
K
K
K
K
Archean-Palaeo-
Archean-Palaeo-
proterozoic
proterozoic
333
II ? 555

66
666
6 G
G
G
Craton
Craton 18
18
18 E
E
E 777 888
999
44
444
4
Archean
Archean on
on craton
craton
F
FF
FF 19
19
19
Archean
Archean intracratonic
intracratonic basins
basins
Paleoproterozoic
Paleoproterozoic on
on craton
craton 10
10
10
?
Paleoproterozoic
Paleoproterozoic intracratonic
intracratonic basins
basins III JJJ
Eburnian
Eburnian orogenic
orogenic belt
belt
11
11
11 L
L
L
H
H
H

?
V
Archean
Archean in
in younger
younger belts
belts 17
17
17 15
15
IIIIII 15
Paleoproterozoic
Paleoproterozoic in
in younger
younger
belts
belts M
M
M
16
16 12
16 12
12
12
12
12
Gneiss
Gneiss of
of unknown
unknown age
age 13
13 14
14
13 14
but
but probably
probably >1800
>1800 Ma
Ma

Courtesy Paul Dirks, 2003

Cratonic Blocks Archaean Terrains in Cratons
I = West African Craton A = Reguibat Shield G = Tanzania Craton
II = Central African Craton B = Man Shield H = Zimbabwe Craton
III = Southern African Craton C = Chaillu – Gabon Block I = Kaapvaal Craton
IV = Nile or East Sahara Craton D = Zaire Block J = Malagasy Shield
V = Malagasy Shield E = Kasai Block K = Uganda & West Nile Complex
F = Angola Block L = Limpopo Belt (also 2000 Ma)
Palaeoproterozoic Terrains Palaeoproterozoic Terrains in Cratons
Outside Cratons
16 = Richtersveld terrane 1 = Birrimian: Reguibat Shield 7 = Ubendian belt
17 = Rehoboth Arc 2 = Birrimian: Leo Shield 8 = Usagaran belt
18 = Kimezian 3 = Gabon belt: Francevillian 9 = Bangweulu Block
19 = Nyasa province 4 = Angolan Birrimian 10 = Magondi belt
20 = Hoggar-Air massifs 5 = Ruwenzori belt 11 = Okwa gneiss
6 = Rusizian gneiss 12 = Kheiss belt
Archaean Intracratonic Basins Palaeoproterozoic Intracratonic Basins
M = Witwatersrand & Ventersdorp basins 13 = Griqualand basin
14 = Transvaal basin
15 = Waterberg-Soutpansberg basins

Fig. 5.1. Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic (Ubendian) terrains (3800 – 1750 Ma) (Dirks & Ashwal, 2002).

Archaean cratons represent stable remnants of the Earth’s earliest continental

lithosphere. Seismic investigations confirm that the structure of the crust and sub-crustal
upper mantle of these cratons differ significantly from that of most post-Archaean terrains.
High-velocity mantle roots extent to at least 200 km, locally up to 250 – 300 km, beneath

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cratonic terrains. Xenolith studies indicate that cratons have experienced a dynamic and
protracted history of tectono-thermal activity. Cratonisation occurred not as a discrete event,
but in stages, with final stabilisation postdating crustal formation. Archaean cratons are
generally composed of (from old to young) granulite-gneiss belts, granite-greenstone
associations, ‘younger granites’ and late-Archaean basins, mobile belts and dykes and layered
intrusions.

Granulite-Gneiss Belts
Granulite-gneiss belts represent exhumed, high-grade, mid- to lower crustal levels with a
complex, composite structural evolution. Some retain a history that goes back to 4.0 Ga and
beyond. Predominant rock types are granulite- to upper amphibolite-facies quartzo-feldspathic
gneisses, containing the remnants of some of the earliest known sedimentary and volcanic
rocks, as well as of layered igneous complexes (anorthosites). They are commonly folded into
large-scale interference patterns and intersected by major, crustal-scale shear belts.
Passchier et al. (1990) distinguished two major types of high-grade gneiss
assemblages. A first one is derived mostly from mafic to felsic volcanics, intruded by
granitoid gneisses of the TTG association6, and contains very little metasediments. A second
type is largely composed of metamorphosed clastic and carbonate sediments, often of fluvial
or shelf-type, intruded by dominantly S-type granitoid rocks. Field observations suggest that
the above two types merely represent the end-members of a continuous spectrum. Rock types
of the granulite-gneiss belts include quartzo-feldspathic gneisses, mostly belonging to the
TTG suite (with a volumetrically small component of paragneiss), amphibolites (derived from
volcanic rocks), mica schists (assumedly derived from pelitic protoliths), marbles and
quartzites (stable shelf settings?), BIF’s and layered igneous complexes. These units are most
often conformable, probably as a result of intense deformation under ductile conditions.

Granite-Greenstone Terrains
These comprise the oldest major belts of well-preserved volcano-sedimentary rocks. They
contain silicic to ultrabasic igneous rocks and volcanoclastic, siliciclastic and chemical
sediments, intruded by voluminous granitoid bodies. Since the early 1970’s, a tendency exists
to emphasize the similarities between greenstone belts and to view their stratigraphy and
structure in over-simplistic terms. Detailed recent studies reveal, however, that they are more
complex than previously thought and that many differences exist between individual
greenstone belts. Since the late 1980’s, general consensus has developed on the applicability
of accretionary plate tectonics to the Archaean in general (albeit with adapted parameters) and
on the equivalence, in principle, between greenstone belts and island arc/ophiolite complexes
in particular (e.g. Windley, 1993; de Wit, 1998). Nevertheless, opponents argue either that
unequivocal proof of Archaean ophiolites is still lacking (Bickle et al. 1994) or that plate
tectonic processes were inoperative during the Archaean (Hamilton, 1998).
Many greenstone belts display a common subdivision into a lower, dominantly
volcanic sequence and an upper sedimentary succession. The lower sequence can be further
subdivided into a basal section of primarily ultramafic rocks and an upper volcanic section
with a predominance of calc-alkaline or tholeiitic, mafic to felsic volcanics. The ultramafic

6
TTG: Tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite, geochemically similar to modern, mantle-derived I-type granitoids.

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section is composed mainly of (ultra-)mafic volcanics, including komatiites, with minor felsic
tuffs. The upper volcanic section consists of (often pillowed) basalts, andesites and rhyolites.
On average, from bottom to top, the stratigraphic pile is characterised by (1) a decrease in the
volume of komatiites and – to a lesser extent – basalts, (2) an increase in the volcanoclastic/
volcanic flow ratio and (3) an increase in the relative abundance of andesites and felsic
volcanics. Sediments in the volcanic group comprise chemically precipitated cherts, jaspers
and BIF’s, whereas the upper sedimentary succession consists of terrigenous clastic deposits
of shales, pelitic sandstones, greywackes, conglomerates and quartzites.

‘Younger Granites’
In most Archaean cratons the greenstone belts are pervasively invaded by granitoids that form
typical trondhjemite-tonalite-granodiorite (TTG) suites. It is generally believed that they
represent deeply eroded root zones equivalent to modern magmatic arcs. These are the so-
called ‘Younger Granites’.

Late-Archaean Basins, Dykes and Layered Intrusions

The prime example of a late-Archaean intracontinental basin is the South African
Witwatersrand basin that contains a sediment pile spanning a time interval from 2800 Ma to
about 2000 Ma, deposited on the Kaapvaal Craton. The Pongola Supergroup in the southeast
corner of the Kaapvaal Craton represents Earth’s presumably oldest rift sequence. The about
2575 Ma Great Dyke in Zimbabwe represents a unique linear feature (480 km long, average
width of 8 km) that consists of four aligned lopoliths, representing layered (ultra-)mafic
intrusions.

5.3.2. Palaeoproterozoic Fold Belts

These include the Usagaran-Ubendian Fold Belt along the western and southern border of the
Tanzanian Craton but also further southwards in Niassa Province (Mozambique), north-
eastern Zambia and Malawi. An early and a late orogenic phase are generally distinguished. It
is argued that the early phase resulted in the formation of the Usagaran fold belt during north-
directed collision and accretion during the Eburnian around about 2100–2025 Ma (Daly et al.
1985; Daly, 1988) with granulite-facies metamorphic conditions. Zircon ages of 2084±8 Ma,
corresponding with a phase of granitic magmatism, have been reported (Lenoir et al. 1994;
Boven et al. 1999).
In the Ubendian Belt this early phase of regional deformation and metamorphism was
followed by a Late Palaeoproterozoic phase of exhumation and extensive dextral shearing
along major, steep NW-SE directed shear zones. This resulted in widespread penetrative
deformation and development of a NW-SE fabric, transposition of the older E-W fabric and
retrogradation under amphibolite-facies P,T-conditions. Timing of this event is constrained by
the emplacement age of late-kinematic granitoids dated at 1847±37 Ma and 1864±32 Ma
(both whole rock Rb-Sr and zircon U-Pb ages). An upper limit for the Ubendian shear event
can be inferred from the age of the Kate shallow-level granite at about 1825 Ma
(Schandelmeier, 1983). The latter is associated with volcanics that unconformably overly
Ubendian gneisses. Rb-Sr data on the Kate granite further suggest that the main boundary
fault between the Bangwuelu Block and the Ubendian shear belt was reactivated 100 Ma after

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its emplacement (at 1724±31 Ma; Lenoir et al. 1993). Whether this age has regional
significance is, however, uncertain. Ar-Ar stepwise heating analyses of different barrosite
separates from mafic tectonite has yielded a weighted average cooling age of 1848±6 Ma for
the argon fractions released at intermediate temperatures. This corroborates the above data
and confirms the age of 1950–1850 Ma for the Late Palaeoproterozoic Ubendian tectogenesis
(Boven et al. 1999).

5.3.3. Mesoproterozoic Fold Belts

In southern and central Africa this comprises the Kibaran and Irumide Fold Belts. On a global
scale these fold belts can be correlated with the ‘Grenvillian Orogeny’ culminating in the
Rodinia Supercontinent around 1000 Ma. The Kibaran forms a curvi-linear fold belt striking
from Namibia via Zimbabwe, Zambia, Angola, eastern DRC, Burundi, Rwanda and NW
Tanzania into southern Uganda over a distance 1500 km (Fig. 5.2). The belt separates two
lithospheric domains that were cratonised since the Ubendian, i.e., a lithospheric mass centred
around the Congo Craton in the west and a lithospheric domain comprising the Kalahari and
Tanzania Cratons, the Bangwuelu Block and interconnecting fold belts in the east. In Zambia
the belt is exposed extensively and bifurcates into two separate fold belts that enclose the
Bengweulu Block, with the Irumides in the southeast and the Kibaran sensu stricto in the
northwest. The Belt is intersected by the Lufilian Arc of Neoproterozoic Pan-African age.
Here, rocks of the Kibaran Fold Belt are exposed in a number of windows unconformably
overlain by rocks of the Katangan System. Metamorphism in the Kibaran Belt generally
reached greenschist facies, peaking around 1300 Ma (1278±58 Ma), with post-tectonic
magmatism that according to Klerkx et al. (1984) continued up to 850 Ma.
Overlying strata, belonging to the Pan-African, Karoo and Kalahari Systems, largely
obscure the southern part of the Kibaran Belt. Small windows of Kibaran metasediments and
granitoids emerge, however, in the Damara Belt of Namibia, Angola (Carvalho et al. 1987),
Botswana and Zimbabwe. The UNESCO-sponsored IGCP 418 undertook to trace the Kibaran
Belt into southwest Africa (Botswana, Namibia) based on regional geophysical and new
geochronological data (Key, 1997). The Kibaran is now recognised in the northern part of
Zimbabwe as Irumide overprinting of older rocks. Radiometric dates from the Chewore
Inliers (quoted in Goscombe et al. 1997) confirm the presence of reworked Middle
Proterozoic rocks in northern Zimbabwe. While the northern Kibaran is an intra-cratonic fold
belt, zircon ages of 1390 Ma testify the presence of juvenile Middle Proterozoic oceanic crust
in the southern part of the belt (Johnson & Oliver, 1997). The end of the Middle Proterozoic
was characterised by a major phase of basic magmatism elsewhere in Zimbabwe, that
produced extensive flood basalts and major dolerite dyke swarms. Munyanyiwa (1997) has
suggested that this phase of basaltic magmatism heralded the break-up of Rodinia. The
recently completed airborne magnetic survey of northwest Botswana has evidenced the
presence of Middle Proterozoic Kibaran rocks that are infolded with younger Neoproterozoic
rocks, with the same NE-SW strike, belonging to the Damara Belt. Schwartz et al. (1995)
reported the presence of volcanic rocks with an age of 1106 Ma in Kibaran inliers in the
Damara Belt.

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Meso-proterozoic
Meso-proterozoic
(Kibaran
(Kibaran Orogeny)
Orogeny) 11

33
Kibaran
Kibaran (deformed)
(deformed)
Kibaran
Kibaran platform
platform sediments
sediments
10
10
Kibaran
Kibaran in
in younger
younger belts
belts
99 12
12
Kibaran
Kibaran orogenic
orogenic zone
zone 22 11
11

Archean-Paleoproterozoic
Archean-Paleoproterozoic cratons
cratons 88 44

Gneiss
Gneiss of
of unknown
unknown age
age
but
but probably
probably 1000-1800
1000-1800 Ma
Ma 55
66 77

Courtesy Paul Dirks, 2003

Mesoproterozoic Terrains on
Cratons
1 = Kibaran belt (failed rift)
2 = Kunene Anorthosite Cplx
3 = Muva Group (platform)
4 = Umkondo Group (platform)
Mesoproterozoic Active Continental Mesoproterozoic Collisional
Margins Orogens
5 = Sinclair Province 9 = Choma-Kaloma block
6 = Namaqua belt 10 = Irumide Belt
7 = Natal belt 11 = Zambezi belt
8 = Abbabis Gneiss 12 = Lurio belt

Fig. 5.2. Mesoproterozoic (Kibaran) terrains (1750 – 900 Ma) (Dirks & Ashwal, 2002).

5.3.4. Neoproterozoic Pan-African Fold Belts

Kennedy (1964) introduced the term Pan-African Orogeny. He preferred, however, the term
‘Pan-African thermo-tectonic episode’ manifesting the fact that evidence for this orogeny was
initially mainly derived from conventional whole rock Rb-Sr and K-Ar geochronology
yielding ages of about about 650 to 490 Ma for presumably older rocks (Cahen & Snelling,
1966). The Mozambique Belt can be considered as the ‘type-locality’ of the Pan-African
Orogeny and was first named by Holmes (1951) who recognised a structural discontinuity
between the Archaean Tanzanian Craton and younger gneisses to the east. Relatively recently,
the term ‘East African Orogen’ (EAO) has been introduced to describe the Pan-African
orogenic belt of eastern Africa (Stern, 1994). It is one of the earth’s greatest collision zones
that can be followed over a distance of about 6000 km from Antarctica in the south to the

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Arabian Peninsula in the north and has about 350 Ma of evolution (e.g., Stern, 1994, 2002;
Jacobs et al. 1998; Kröner et al. 2000a,b).

dd
55

ee
66
aa 11

bb oo
77 ff
cc kk

Neoproterozoic
Neoproterozoic
22 88 44
(Pan-African
(Pan-African Orogeny)
Orogeny)
Pan-African
Pan-African (deformed)
(deformed)
Pan-African (deformed)
Pan-African
Pan-African (deformed)
(deformed) gg qq pp
Older
Older gneiss
Older gneiss reactivated
gneiss reactivated in
reactivated in
in
Pan-African
Pan-African
Pan-African
Pan-African belts
Pan-African belts
belts
belts
belts 33
Pan-African
Pan-African
Pan-African
Pan-African
Pan-African orogenic
Pan-African orogenic
orogenic
orogenic
orogenic zone
orogenic zone
zone
zone
zone
zone m
m
Archean-Paleoproterozoic
Archean-Paleoproterozoic
Archean-Paleoproterozoic
Archean-Paleoproterozoic
Archean-Paleoproterozoic
Archean-Paleoproterozoic nn
cratons
cratons
cratons
cratons
cratons 99
hh
Neoproterozoic-Cambrian
Neoproterozoic-Cambrian
Neoproterozoic-Cambrian basinsbasins
basins
ll
(undeformed
(undeformed platform
(undeformed
(undeformed
(undeformed platform
platform &
platform
platform && molasse)
&
& molasse)
molasse)
molasse)
molasse)
Approximate
Approximate
Approximate extent
extent
extent
extent of
of
of
of Neoproterozoic
Neoproterozoic
Neoproterozoic
Neoproterozoic
10
10
Approximate
Approximate
Approximate extent
extent of
of Neoproterozoic
Neoproterozoic
intracratonic
intracratonic
intracratonic
intracratonic basins
intracratonic
intracratonic basins
basins
basins (foreland
basins
basins (foreland
(foreland
(foreland &
(foreland
(foreland &
&
& sag)
&
& sag)
sag)
sag) ii
sag)
sag)

Intracratonic
Intracratonic
Intracratonic fracture
Intracratonic
Intracratonic
Intracratonic fracture
fracture
fracture
fracture
Ophiolite
Ophiolite decorated
Ophiolite decorated
decorated suture
decorated suture
suture
suture
jj
Ophiolite
Ophiolite decorated suture

Courtesy Paul Dirks, 2003

Neoproterozoic Collisional Orogens
a = Mauritides g = West Congo belt m = Lufillian Arc
b = Bessarides h = Kaoko belt n = Zambezi belt
c = Rokolites i = Gariep belt o = East African: Nubian shield
d = Anti Atlas j = Saldahnia belt p = East African: Mozambique belt
e = Trans-Saharan: Pharusian belt k = Oubangide belt q = Ubendian belt
f = Trans-Saharan: Dahomeyan belt l = Damara belt
Neoproterozoic Failed Rifts Neoproterozoic Platforms-Foreland-Molasse Basins
1 = Gourma Trough 5 = Anti-Atlas 9 = Owambo basin
2 = Sangha Rift 6 = Taoudeni basin 10 = Nama basin
3 = Kundelungu basin 7 = Volta Basin
4 = Bukoban 8 = Congo basin*
Sub-basins in the Congo basin include: NW: Sembe Ouesso basin; NNE: Bangui-Lindian basins; SE: Bushimay
basin; SW: West Congo basin.
Fig. 5.3. Neoproterozoic-Early Palaeozoic (Pan-African) terrains (900 – 450 Ma) (Dirks & Ashwal, 2002).

The EAO is traditionally divided into a northern zone of juvenile Neoproterozoic crust
and a southern zone mainly comprising reworked older rocks (Fig. 5.3). This is confirmed by
modern Sm-Nd model age studies. The tight clustering of Nd model ages in the northern zone
manifest an overwhelming presence of new Neoproterozoic crust extracted from depleted
mantle. Unlike the abundance of juvenile crust in the north, the southern part of the EAO is

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composed of remobilised older rocks. Model Nd ages of rock samples of the Archaean
Tanzanian Craton cluster tightly around 2.83±0.08 Ga (Stern, 2002). A Nd and Sr transect
across Mozambique Belt rocks immediately east of the Tanzania Craton shows that the Belt is
composed of reworked Archaean crust that show TDM ages of about 2.5 Ga (in the west) and
granulites with a TDM ages of 1.0 – 1.4 Ga (in the east) (Maboko, 2000; Stern 2002). These
ages supersede typical Pan-African K-Ar or Rb-Sr cooling ages of about 650 to 490 Ma
known for a long time (Cahen & Snelling, 1966).
Biotite cooling ages show a pronounced age gradient and manifest diachronous
cooling across the Belt with the western parts cooling below about 300° C up to about 150 Ma
earlier than the eastern parts. The oldest biotite ages of 618±14 Ma from the western margin
provide the best minimum estimate for the age of the pervasive amphibolite grade
metamorphism. The EAO marks the disappearance of a major oceanic basin – the
Mozambique Ocean – and the collision between East and West Gondwana (Roger et al.
1995). It is assumed that this regional metamorphic and deformational event occurred prior to
about 650 Ma (Maboko, 2000).
The Zambezi belt of central southern Africa forms another Pan-African fold belt. It
constitutes the eastern segment of a transcontinental Damara-Lufilian-Zambezi orogenic belt
(about 850 – 450 Ma). This transcontinental system separates the Congo Craton from the
Kalahari Craton (Shackleton, 1996).
The Pan-African Orogeny is also present in West Africa, surrounding the West Africa
Craton, as (clockwise, starting in the north) Anti-Atlas, Hoggar and the Dahomey Belt.
Further southwards the orogeny continues into South America as the Brasilian Orogeny and
in Africa as the West Congo and Gariep Belts. Most recently the Pan-African Orogeny has
also been recognised in large parts of southern Europe as the Cadomian. Pan-African
continental collision resulted in the formation of the Pangea Supercontinent.

5.3.5. Neoproterozoic-Cambrian Platform Sediments

Large parts of the sediments deposited in the Pan-African ‘geosyncline’ have remained
undeformed They include the upper part of the Bukoban System in northwest Tanzania, the
Kundulungu in Shaba, the Plateau Series overlying the Bengweulu Block in northern Zambia
and the Buschimay, Bilatian and Lindian in the eastern D.R. of Congo. Molasse-type
sediments of the Bukoban (Burundi, northwest Tanzania) include diamictites, sandstones,
siltstones, shales and conglomerates with subordinate dolomitic limestones, rhyolites and
basaltic lavas. In Burundi these rocks are grouped together as the Malagarasian (Waleffe,
1965). Volcanics of the latter have been dated and yield rather consistent results (Deblond et
al. 2001): 813±21 Ma and 810±25 Ma (K-Ar, recalculated after Cahen & Snelling, 1974) and
822±30 Ma (K-Ar, recalculated after Briden et al. 1971).
Late- to post-Pan-African platform foreland deposits overly Pan-African and older
basement with a marked unconformity – the Tassilian discordance with an age of about 570
Ma – in North and West Africa. Coeval deposition took place in the Cape Fold Belt
‘geosyncline’. The event is not present in Mozambican territory.

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5.3.6. Post-Pan-African Cambrian-Carboniferous Platform Sediments

Cambrian-Carboniferous basins of the North and South African Gondwana margin (570 – 290
Ma) are exposed in northern and western Africa (Morocco, Mauritania, Algeria and Libya)
and the Cape Fold Belt. Cambrian-Carboniferous foreland basins comprise the Taoudeni,
Bove and Volta basins (Fig. 5.4). The Mauritides and Cape Fold Belt manifest Hercynian
deformation.

SAHARA
SAHARA
SAHARAFLEXURE
SAHARA
SAHARA
SAHARA FLEXURE
FLEXURE(Hercynian
FLEXURE
FLEXURE (Hercynian
(Hercynianbasin
(Hercynian
(Hercynian basin
basinmargin)
basin
basin margin)
margin)
margin)
margin)

33 55 77
88
11 22 44
MAURITINITES
MAURITINITES
MAURITINITES
MAURITINITES
MAURITINITES
MAURITINITES 66
99 11
11
aa

0
10
10

0
bb
cc

Gondwanide events
Gondwanide events
(570-180 Ma)
(570-180 Ma)
A
A
290-180 Ma
290-180 Ma (Karoo)
(Karoo) rift-sag-
rift-sag-
forland
forland deposits
deposits (S
(S Africa)
Africa) and
and
N-African
N-African platform
platform deposits
deposits FF H
H
D
D
570-290
570-290 Ma
Ma platform-foreland
platform-foreland
deposits
deposits
II
Tassilian
Tassilian discordance
discordance (~570
(~570 Ma)
Ma)
Karoo
Karoo faulting
faulting
0

B
B EE
Hercinian
Hercinian deformation
deformation front
front
G
G

Pre-Cambrian
Pre-Cambrian basement
basement C
C

0
Post-180
Post-180 Ma
Ma cover
cover sediments
sediments
CAPE
CAPE FOLD
CAPE
CAPE
CAPE
CAPE FOLD BELT
FOLD
FOLD
FOLD
FOLD BELT
BELT
BELT
BELT
BELT
12
12
0

Courtesy Paul Dirks, 2003

Cambrian-Carboniferous Basins of the North & South African Gondwana Margin (570 – 290 Ma)
1 = Tindouf basin 5 = Oed Mya basin 9 = Murzuq basin
2 = Reggane basin 6 = Illizi basin 10 = Kufrah basin
3 = Bechar basin 7 = Ghadames basin 11 = Western Desert
4 = Ahnet basin 8 = Hamra basin 12 = Cape Sequence
Base of sequence is formed by the Tassilian discordance (about 570 Ma).
Top of sequence is formed by the Hercynian unconformity (about 290 Ma).
Cambrian-Carboniferous Foreland Basins (570 – 290 Ma)
A = Taoudeni B = Bove C = Volta basin
Permian-Triassic Rift-Sag Basins (Karoo: 290 – 180 Ma)
A = Congo basin D = Mid & Lower Zambezi rift G = Lebombo rift
B = Kalahari basin E = Luangwa rift H = East Africa rift
C = Karoo basin F = Tuli-Sabi-Soutpansberg rift I = Malagasy basin

Fig. 5.4. Gondwanide post-Pan-African terrains (about 570 – 180 Ma) (Dirks & Ashwal, 2002).

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5.3.7. Late Carboniferous-Early Jurassic Sediments and Volcanics of the Karoo

Continental sediments and subordinate flood basalts and rhyolites testify the break-up of
Gondwana and the opening of the south Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The term ‘Karoo’ was
first used to describe a depositional sequence from the Great Karoo Basin in South Africa,
where it encompasses strata of Late Carboniferous (about 290 Ma) to Early Jurassic (about
180 Ma) age (SACS, 1980). Time equivalent depositional sequences, exhibiting similar
sequential trends, occur widespread in southern Africa (Figs. 5.4 and 5.5) and other
Gondwana fragments. They reflect important tectonic and climatic events, posterior to the
Pan-African Orogeny, during the time that Pangea had obtained its maximum size. During
this period, while accretion was still going on in some places, major rift structures started to
propagate, eventually ending in the break-up of Gondwana (Veevers & Powell, 1994;
Wopfner & Casshyap, 1997; Wopfner, 1999, 2002).

Fig. 5.5. Distribution of Karoo rocks

(outcrop and subsurface) in southern
Africa (adapted from Verniers et al 1989).

From a geodynamic point of view three types of Karoo basins can be distinguished: (1)
large foredeep/sag basins, (2) passive margin basins and (3) intracratonic rifts (Figs. 5.4 and
5.5). Foredeep/sag basins include, apart from the Great Karoo Basin, the Kalahari, Barotse
and Congo basins. Passive margin basins are particularly developed along the Indian Ocean
coastline. Intracratonic rift basins appear controlled by crustal weakness zones that were
rejuvenated during the Late Palaeozoic Gondwanide Orogeny (e.g., Cape Fold Belt) and
ensuing continental break-up. In the east of Southern Africa, Karoo sediments were originally
deposited in broad down-warps. As the deposition continued, rifting of such down-warps
produced graben-type structures, in which deposition of a great thickness of Karoo sediments
took place. When comparing Karoo sedimentary successions, similar underlying processes
and sequence of events are reflected in individual basin fills. Each lithological sequence
normally commences with (fluvio-)glaciogene rock types. This is followed by an interval in

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which red colours are absent and coal seams are commonly present. The higher strata exhibit
reddish and greenish mudrocks manifesting a change to oxidising sub-aerial conditions. Next,
aeolian sandstones often cap the older succession and reflect increasing aridity. Finally,
basaltic lavas complete the succession. Although the above general trends can be observed in
most Karoo sequences in southern Africa, rift development appears largely controlled by local
tectonic factors and, consequently, Karoo sequences may differ along strike in individual rift
basins and between different rift basins. Both basement geomorphology and syn-depositional
tectonic movements have obviously controlled deposition of Karoo lithologies.
Dating and litho-stratigraphic classification of sedimentary units of the Main Karoo
basin is mainly based on non-marine vertebrate and plant fossils. For example, the Beaufort
Group has been successfully subdivided into eight fossil assemblage zones. A palynological
biozonation has proved feasible for the Permian strata in some Karoo basins. Basalts and acid
lavas of the Drakensberg Group that top the Karoo Supergroup yield K-Ar and Rb-Sr ages of
about 180 Ma. A similar age for this late Karoo igneous event has been found in e.g.
Antarctica and elsewhere. A summary description (from young to old) is presented in Table
5.2.
Whereas the Karoo Supergroup in the Great Karoo Basin has been divided into five
Groups7, a division into Lower and Upper Karoo Groups (e.g., Engelbronner, 1996) is
employed for most rift fills in southern and eastern Africa and also in this Map Explanation.
The boundary between these Groups corresponds approximately with the Permian-Triassic
boundary.
From an economic perspective the Karoo is unique in that it hosts all the coal deposits
in southern Africa. The combined reserves are estimated at about 67 000 Mt, nearly 10% of
the world total (World Energy Council, 1992).

Table 5.2. Litho-stratigraphy of the Main Karoo Basin, South Africa (Johnson et al. 1996).

Group Age Lithology

Drakenberg Early Jurassic (200 – Extensive flood basalts dated at about 180 Ma (Aldiss et al.
Basalts 180 Ma) 1984; Allsop et al. 1984; Fitch & Miller, 1984; Hooper et al.
1993). Subordinate acid lavas.
Stormberg Late Triassic – Early The lower part comprises grey mudstones and sandstones with
Group Jurassic (215 – 200 Ma) local coal seams. Where not removed by erosion, largely
largely aeolian sandstones cap this sedimentary succession.
Thickness about 2000 m.
Beaufort About Late Permian – Mainly lighter-coloured mudrocks (including greenish, reddish
Group Middle Triassic (270 – and purple varieties), sandstones and occasional conglomerates,
215 Ma for most part representing overbank fluvial deposits that
accumulated sub-aerially under oxidising (semi-arid and arid)
conditions. Characterised by vertebrate fossils rather than plant
remains. Thickness up to about 5000 m.
Ecca Group Early Permian – Late Dark-coloured shales with interspersed siltstones and
Permian (280 – 270 sandstones (coarse-grained and pebbly in places) and
Ma) occasional coal seams, deposited sub-aqueously under
reducing, generally moist conditions in marine, lacustrine,
deltaic and fluvial environments. Up to 3000 m in thickness.
Dwyka Late Carboniferous – An up to 800 m thick sequence reflecting a glacial or glacial-
Group Early Permian (290 – related origin (diamictites, conglomerate, fluvio-glacial pebbly
280 Ma) sandstone, rhytmites and mudrock with dropstones).

7
The Dwyka Formation (see Table 5.3) has been upgraded to Group (Johnson et al., 1996)

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5.3.8. Cretaceous – Recent Sediments and Volcanics of the East Africa Rift Sequences

Renewed continental extension lead the development of the great East Africa Rift Sequences
(EARS). An eastern branch can be followed from south of Lake Niassa (Lake Malawi) into
the Afar Triangle (Ethiopia) and further into the Red Sea, a young ocean. The Western Rift of
the East African Rift System branches off the Eastern Rift north of Lake Niassa (Lake
Malawi) and describes an arc-like structure of 1500 km of length till the Albert Lake in
northern Uganda. It obviously follows older crustal weakness zones in the Ubendian and
Kibaran fold belts (Fig. 5.6).

kk

A
A

II

bb IIII cc III
III hh
gg
dd ff
ee ii
aa
V
V
jj
Crateceous-Tertiary
Crateceous-Tertiary
(Break-up
(Break-up of
of Gondwana)
Gondwana) IV
IV

B C
C
B
Jurassic
Jurassic volcanics
volcanics (pre-rift
(pre-rift
hot
hot spot
spot activity)
activity)
Crataceous
Crataceous failed
failed rift
rift and
and
continental
continental margin
margin deposits
deposits
Crataceous-Tertiary
Crataceous-Tertiary sag sag basins
basins
ll
Crateceous
Crateceous faulting
faulting

Pre-180
Pre-180 Ma
Ma basement
basement
Quaternary
Quaternary cover
cover sediments
sediments

Courtesy Paul Dirks, 2003

Cretaceous Failed Rifts
a = Benue trough e = Doba-Doseo basin i = Melut basin
b = Gao basin f = Muglad basin j = Anza basin
c = Tenere basin g = White Nile rift k = Sirt basin
d = Bongor basin h = Blue Nile rift l = Lower Zambezi basin
Cretaceous Rifts Developed into Passive Margins of the African Craton
A = North Atlantic Margin B = South Atlantic Margin (about 135 C = Indian Transform
(about 200 Ma) & 115 Ma) Margin (about 165 Ma)
Cretaceous-Tertiary Sag Basins
I = Taoudeni basin III = Chad basin V = Ogaden basin
II = Iullemeden basin IV = Congo basin

Fig. 5.6. Break-up of Gondwana (180 – 40 Ma) (Dirks & Ashwal, 2002).

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Rift Valley faulting started during Cretaceous time but greatly accelerated during late
Cenozoic time. Rifting started with regional uplift between 120 and 75 Ma. In East Africa this
caused uplift along the Western and Eastern Rift and subsidence in the central part with the
formation of Lake Nyanza, the bigger predecessor of Lake Victoria. These differential vertical
movements caused a new phase of erosion and deposition with the desiccation of old
peneplains and the formation of a new drainage system.
Incipient development of the East African Rift System coincides with the
emplacement of a family of carbonatites and associated rocks in east Africa that is called the
Chilwa Alkaline Province after the ‘type-locality’ on Chilwa Island in Lake Chilwa8 in
southeastern Malawi.

5.4. GEODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES: WILSON OR SUPERCONTINENT

CYCLES AND SUPERPLUMES
5.4.1. Wilson or Supercontinent Cycles

The evolution of Africa’s chrono-magmatic-tectonic provinces – the ‘building blocks’ – all

related to major geodynamic events, can be viewed in terms of Supercontinent or Wilson
Cycles. In its simplest form, a Wilson Cycle involves formation of a Supercontinent from
smaller continental blocks, followed by fragmentation and then by re-assembly of a new
Supercontinent. Most computer models of Wilson Cycles suggest that continental break-up
and fragmentation is caused by shielding of the mantle by a large plate that carries the
Supercontinent which, in turn, results in mantle upwelling beneath the plate during a period of
200 – 500 Ma (Gurniss, 1988; Lowman & Jarvis, 1999; Condie, 2002). Mantle plumes,
developing in a mantle upwelling (Courtillot et al. 1999; Golonka & Bocharova, 2000), in
combination with pre-existing weakness zones of crustal or lithospheric dimension define the
actual sites of fragmentation. Supercontinents formed at 2.7 Ga, 1.9 Ga, 1.2 – 1.0 Ga
(Rodinia), 650 – 550 Ma (Gondwana) and 450 – 250 Ma (Pangea) (Condie, 1998, 2000,
2001). The youngest orogenic peak at 100 – 50 Ma, as expressed by the Alpine-Cordilleran
fold belts, can be considered as the first step in the formation of a future Supercontinent.
Although periods of fragmentation (at one location) and collision (at another location)
may overlap, it is justifiable to translate the above Cycles into periods of crustal extension and
compression, each characterised by specific geodynamic processes. The coeval development
of the extensive East African Rift System (EARS) and the continuous compressive movement
of the Indian Craton below Asia may serve as a modern analogue.
Mantle upwelling results in mantle plumes and crustal extension. The emplacement of
small volumes of ultra-potassic magmatic rocks (carbonatite, kimberlite and associated
alkaline or ultra-potassic igneous rocks) heralds incipient rifting. Mantle plumes generate
beneath the lithosphere, measure typically 2000 km in diameter and have temperatures raised
200° C above normal (White & McKenzie, 1989). Mantle upwelling causes an adiabatic rise
of mantle rock, partial melting and the formation of large volumes of magma of basaltic
composition. These magmas may be emplaced at or near the base of the continental crust
(‘basaltic underplating’) and/or, extrude to the Earth’s surface, about coeval with continental

8
Lake Chilwa in Malawi is named Lago Chirua in Mozambique.

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break-up, as continental flood basalts (CFBs). The Deccan of India, the Paraná of South
America and the Karoo of southern Africa are well-known examples. Basaltic underplating
generally causes partial melting of the lower crust and the generation of melts of granitoid
composition. Together they may form bi-modal igneous suites, characterised by interbeds of
rhyolite or tuff in the sedimentary pile (see below) in combination with sills or dykes of
basaltic composition. Plutonic equivalents include pre- to early-kinematic granites and
granodiorites and layered (ultra-)mafic suites. The granitoids have generally a peraluminous
S-type geochemical signature. Differentiation of basaltic magma may result in A-type alkali
granites as described, for example, by Tack et al. (1994), in association with late-kinematic
(ultra-)mafic layered bodies, in the northern Kibaran of Burundi and northwest Tanzania.
Crustal extension leads to rifting by listric faulting. The net result will be crustal
thinning and the formation of depositional basins that will be filled with sediments including
evaporites, terrigenous sediments and igneous material at or near the surface. The latter is co-
magmatic with pre- to syn-kinematic basalts and granitoids at depth. Rifting and crustal
thinning may cease without formation of oceanic crust: an aborted or failed rift. Continued
rifting will eventually result in continental break-up with passive margins and the formation
of a young oceanic basin. Passive margin basins are often characterised by shallow marine
environments and the deposition of carbonates. Carbonates have rather restrictive
occurrences, constituting only about 2% of the rocks of the Earth’s crust (Wyllie, 1971).
Consequently, carbonates, or their metamorphic equivalents, are useful in defining palaeo-
continental margins.
Ophiolites and eclogites, or their metamorphic equivalents, are also useful indicators
of continental margins. Ophiolites are fragments of hot oceanic crust obducted onto – instead
of subducted below – the continental margin. They are often intermingled with sedimentary
rocks, forming so-called ‘mélanges’. Retrograde metamorphism, hydration and metasomatism
may result in the genesis of whiteschists, characterised by, e.g., talc-kyanite assemblages.
Eclogites in metamorphic belts originate from deeply buried (about > 10 kb; Newton, 1986)
ocean floor basalt in subduction settings, exhumed during subsequent plate margin collisional
orogenies. Their preservation is ascribed to rapid exhumation as mantled relics, preventing
complete re-equilibration. Eclogite fragments may also be carried to the surface as xenoliths
by deep intracratonic volcanic vents. The distribution of supracrustal rocks, including
carbonates, ophiolites and eclogites in Mozambique has been summarised by Grantham et al.
(2002) and is based on data by Vrána et al. (1975), Andreoli & Hart (1985), Mosley (1993),
Groenewald (1995), Möller et al. (1995) and Dirks (1997).
Posterior reassembly of continental fragments, ultimately resulting in the formation of
the next Supercontinent, will generate compressional forces. Compressional forces affecting
failed rifts may give rise to back-thrusting of the listric fault blocks and folding and
metamorphism of the basinal sedimentary pile: an intracratonic fold belt. Crustal thickening
may cause anatexis of the lower crust. Consumption of oceanic basins and subduction of wet
oceanic crust will result in the creation of island or Andean-type continental magmatic arcs
and eventually in collision and amalgamation of lithospheric fragments. Passive margin
sediments will be tectonised and metamorphosed in the process.
Igneous rocks in magmatic arcs typically have calc-alkaline signatures. They include
volcanic piles dominated by andesites and dacites with subordinate basalts and rhyolites or as
their plutonic equivalents in the form of tonalities, trondjhemites and granodiorites (TTG
suites) with relatively low 87Sr/86Sr ratios. High heat flow generally associated with

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magmatic arcs cause HT/LP metamorphic conditions manifested by mineral assemblages

characteristic of upper amphibolite to granulite facies, generally accompanied by extensive
migmatisation.
The most recent Supercontinent assemblies pertinent to southern and eastern Africa
include Rodinia and Gondwana/Pangea. Rodinia assembled largely between about1200 and
1000 Ma during the Grenvillian Orogeny (Hoffman, 1991; Jacobs et al. 1993; Grantham et al.
1997, Wareham et al. 1998; Manhiça et al. 2001; Condie, 2002a), represented regionally by
the Kibaran, Irumide and Namaqua-Natal fold belts. Rodinia rifting commenced around 1000
Ma and included extension in eastern and southern Africa as manifested by, for example, the
Richtersveld igneous suite, South Africa (Frimmel et al. 2001) and, within western
Mozambique, by the emplacement of 850 – 870 Ma bi-modal igneous rocks contained in the
Masoso and Guro Suites (Vinyu et al. 1999; GTZ Consortium, 2006b) and the Rushinga
Basal Intrusive Suite dated at 805±11 Ma (Vinyu et al. 1999).
Although most fragmentation took place between 900 and 700 Ma, the opening of the
Iapetus Ocean began around about 600 Ma with the separation of Baltica-Laurentia-
Amazonia. Gondwana assembled chiefly between 600 and 500 Ma (Condie, 2002a) although
earlier (850 – 750 Ma) collisions have been reported in the Arabian-Nubian Shield (Hanson et
al. 1994; Stein & Goldstein, 1996). The assembly of Gondwana thus followed immediately
the break-up of Rodinia with some overlap in timing between 700 and 600 Ma. Baltica-
Laurentia-Siberia briefly collided with Gondwana to form the short-lived Supercontinent
Pannotia between 580 and 540 Ma (Dalziel, 1997).
Pangea began to form about 450 Ma with the collision of the Pre-Cordillera-Rio de la
Plata, Amazonia-Laurentia and Laurentia-Baltica collisions and amalgamations (Li & Powell,
2001). Further growth was caused by collision between Baltica and Siberia as manifested by
the Ural Orogeny (Scotese & McKerrow, 1990). Rifting of Pangea started around 180 Ma
with the development of the Indian and South Atlantic oceanic basins and, on the African
continent, numerous Karoo troughs.

5.4.2. Superplumes

Based on the distribution of ages in continental crust, Condie (1998, 2000) proposed episodic
growth of continents with each maximum in continental growth manifesting a superplume
event. Superplumes are supposedly triggered by catastrophic slab avalanching at the 660-km
mantle discontinuity (Maruyama, 1994; Condie, 1998). Consequently, many mantle plumes
are generated that bombard the base of the lithosphere in a short period of time (≤ 50 Ma).
When plotted in time, superplumes represented by culminations in juvenile crust
production, can be correlated with the formation of Supercontinents. Only two major
superplume events can be established in the Precambrian at 2.7 and 1.9 Ga, respectively.
Phanerozoic superplumes include a small peak in crustal growth in the Late Cretaceous at
about 110 Ma and a Late Palaeozoic peak at about 300 Ma. The Grenvillian Orogeny and the
formation of Rodinia cannot be correlated with a superplume event. Rogers (1996) has
suggested that during the 1.9 supercontinent/ superplume event (in Africa to be correlated
with the Ubendian Orogeny, see Fig. 5.1) actually two Supercontinents formed. Lack of a
Grenvillian superplume event may be due to either subsequent failure of the two
Supercontinents to break-up or to inadequate lithospheric shielding of two instead of a single
Supercontinent for the production of mantle upwellings large enough to break the continental

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lithosphere (Lowman & Jarvis, 1996). Condie (2001) suggests that during the Supercontinent
break-up at 1.6 – 1.4 Ga only a small proportion of the Supercontinent (or Supercontinents)
was fragmented. The resulting increase in subduction rates was not sufficient to initiate slab
collapse at the 660-km seismic discontinuity, which would normally lead to a superplume
event (Larson, 1991; Maruyama, 1994; Condie, 1998). Consequently, worldwide Grenvillian
juvenile crust (1.35 – 0.9 Ma) is limited to only 7 to 13%. Of this, only a minor proportion
was created in Africa with estimates ranging from 0.9 to 1.6% and located in the Namaqua-
Natal orogen in southern Africa, the Lurio Belt in Mozambique, northeast Tanzania and
Burundi/northwest Tanzania (Condie, 2001; see also Figure 5.2).

5.4. GEOCHRONOLOGY, WITH EMPHASIS ON NEW DATA

5.5.1. Introduction

Older geochronological data are mainly whole rock Rb-Sr and K-Ar ages. As can be expected
in polyphase terrains, these data display large to excessive error margins, reflecting either
incomplete resetting of the isotopic system, material losses through circulation of
metamorphic fluids or diffusion. Modern geochronological methods such as Ar/Ar,
conventional U-Pb, U-Pb SHRIMP, Sm-Nd and Nd model ages (TDM) have greatly improved
the reliability and accuracy of rock igneous emplacement and metamorphic overprint ages.
Such geochronological data from Mozambican rocks are contained in Sacchi et al. (1984),
Barr & Brown (1987), Bigioggero et al. (1990), Costa et al. (1992, 1994), Pinna et al. (1993),
Manhiça (1998), Evans et al. (1999), Jamal et al. (1999) and Manhiça et al. (2001).
The Sm-Nd parent-daughter pair is strongly fractionated during the complex processes
that form juvenile crust from primary mantle sources. The subsequent crustal processes,
however, normally produce only minor or negligible changes in the Sm/Nd ratio, a property
that has made Sm-Nd isotope studies a powerful tool in defining continental crustal provinces.
Sm-Nd TDM model ages are related to the evolution of the mantle during geological time
assuming episodes of fractionation associated with the generation of basaltic magmas and an
increase of the Sm/Nd ratio in the residual mantle, which is otherwise depleted in
incompatible elements (DM= depleted mantle). Because of natural variations in mantle
material and mixing of material from geochemically distinct reservoirs and other crustal
sources, TDM model ages must be interpreted with care but serve as a first approximation (de
Paola, 1980, 1988).
The validity that Sm-Nd TDM model ages represent crustal formation ages is based on
two assumptions: (1) That only a short time interval elapsed between formation of the mantle
derived magma and the final emplacement of the differentiated material in the continental
crust, with Sm to Nd fractionation and acquisition of a continental Sm/Nd ratio, and (2) That
the Sm/Nd ratio was not modified by subsequent geological processes. Assuming these
assumptions are valid, the Sm-Nd systematics provide an estimate of the average time that the
rock has been resident in the continental crust (Arndt & Goldstein, 1987).
In combination with other geochronological data (preferentially conventional U-Pb or
SHRIMP ages) Sm-Nd systematics allow distinguishing between ‘juvenile’ granitoids,
formed by mantle-continental crust differentiation or whether they have been formed by
melting of older crustal protoliths. Juvenile material is indicated by concordant (or slightly
discordant) Rb-Sr or U-Pb and Sm-Nd apparent age values, as well as positive (or slightly

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negative εNd(T) values and low 87Sr/86Sr initial ratios and small time lapses between Sm-Nd
TDM model ages and U-Pb magmatic crystallisation ages.
Grantham et al. (2002) have summarised published geochronological data in
eastern Africa. Although metamorphic ages and Nd model (TDM) ages are relatively scarce in
Mozambique, TDM ages of < 1.5 Ga in the Tete area and northern Mozambique and 1.5 to
>2.0 Ga in central Mozambique near the Zimbabwe Craton confirm that the Pan-African
metamorphic ages, ranging from 450 to 750 Ma, reflect indeed overprinting of older rocks.
Igneous crystallisation ages can be divided into four groups: (1) 1100 – 1400 Ma, (2) 900 –
1100 Ma, (3) 700 – 900 Ma and (4) 450 – 700 Ma. Grantham et al. (2002) postulate that the
first group (1100 – 1400 Ma) corresponds with post-Ubendian (= pre-Kibaran) break-up
including the formation of oceanic crust (e.g. Chewore Inliers; Zimbabwe); the second group
(900 – 1100 Ma) with the Kibaran/Grenvillian Orogeny and the formation of the Rodinia
Supercontinent, the third group (700 – 900 Ma) with post-Rodinia break-up and the formation
of oceanic basins including the Mozambique Ocean and, finally, the fourth group (450 – 700
Ma) with the Pan-African collision and the formation of Pangea (for details see Chapter 8).
Different tectonic regimes at different locations at the same time complicate, however,
this regional picture. For example, an about 800 Ma igneous event in the Zambezi Belt is
interpreted as extensional by Dirks et al. (1998). U-Pb zircon and baddeleyite ages of between
804 and 776 Ma from Tanzania and Madagascar are related to a 450 km long continental
magmatic arc at the time of, or slightly preceding the break-up of Rodinia.
Meert (2002) recognises three broad age groups related to tectonic phases. These
include (1) the initial oceanic arc/ophiolte genesis in the East African Orogeny (EAO)
between about 710 and 800 Ma. This was followed by (2) the EAO between about 690 and
580 Ma in a N-S belt stretching from the Arabian-Nubian Shield to northern Mozambique and
(3) the Kuunga Orogeny from about 580 to 460 Ma in about E-W and N-S zones along the
northern and eastern margins of the Kalahari Craton.
No geochronological studies have been carried out by the GTK Consortium in the area
covered by the present Map Explanation. New data is provided, however, within the context
of the mapping project carried out by the Council for Geoscience (CGS) of South Africa in
the area directly to the north of this Map Explanation area (Macey et al. 2006). It is based on
age determinations of 33 samples of which 16 fall within the area covered by this Map
Explanation. Employed methods include conventional U-Pb (TIMS), SHRIMP and Sm-Nd
dating.

5.5.2. Crystalline Basement

New geochronological data by the GTK Consortium from the crystalline basement of
Mozambique can be correlated with major epochs and geodynamic events as outlined in the
previous section (section 5.3). The crystalline basement in the area of this Map Explanation is
mainly composed of Mesoproterozoic pre- or early-Kibaran (=Irumide) basement and various
generations of Kibaran (= Irumide) intrusive rocks. A small proportion of Neoproterozoic-
Cambrian-Ordovician Pan-African intrusive rocks is also present. The geochronological
results by the GTK Consortium are listed below:
• Relicts of Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic rocks are restricted to zoned, mostly
rounded zircon cores in metasediments of the Zâmbuè Group. These inherited
zircons yield ages clustering around 2.7 – 2.5 Ga and 2.1 – 1.9 Ga, respectively.

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• Mesoproterozoic pre- or early-Kibaran (= Irumide) ages are derived from 1327±16

Ma zircons in metavolcanic rocks of the Fíngoè Group. This age is in line with the
maximum age of quartzites of the Zâmbuè Group as derived from 1310±54 Ma
detrital zircons in this lithology.
• Kibaran (=Irumide=Grenvillian) compression and collision, resulting in the
formation of the Rodinia Supercontinent, is well documented in Mozambique.
Various generations of Kibaran granitoids yield ages between 1200 and 1040 Ma.
The latter include a Sm-Nd age of gabbroic rocks of the Chipera Suite dated at
1047±Ma and a SHRIMP age of 1050±2 Ma of Granito Castanho charnockites.
The Chipera Suite is considered to be equivalent to and coeval with the much
larger Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Intrusive Suite.
• Post-Rodinia extension and break-up is reflected by new ages of about 860 Ma in
the Matumba Complex and Atchiza-Ualadze Suite. Similar ages have been found
in the area south of Tete (Volume 2) where the Guro and Masoso Suites produces
similar ages.
• Neoproterozoic Pan-African granitoids include massive porphyritic biotite-
hornblende granite of the Monte Ichinga Suite dated at 528±4 Ma. The youngest
Pan-African granitoids in the area comprise coarse-grained potassium granites with
a high K-U-Th signature. These include the Sinda Granite Suite with ages ranging
from 502±8 Ma (Late to Middle Cambrian) to 470±14 Ma (Early to Middle
Ordovician), respectively.

5.5.3. Phanerozoic Cover

The Phanerozoic cover in the area covered by this Map Explanation comprises sedimentary
strata and associated igneous rocks belonging to the Karoo Supergroup and East Africa Rift
sequences, deposited during the Karoo and East Africa Rift Events, respectively.
Rocks belonging to the Karoo Supergroup in Mozambique are dated by their fossil
content, or by analogy with Karoo successions in neighbouring countries, particularly by
correlation with strata in the Main Karoo basin, South Africa. New geochronological data by
the GTK Consortium includes an imprecise Sm-Nd dating of 180±43 Ma of the Moeza dyke.
This late Karoo dyke can be followed in the eastern part of DS 1432 (Chifunde) as a N-S
directed discontinuous over about 100 km into Zambia and can be attributed to the Rukore
(Bimodal) Suite.

5.6. TERRANES
Lithostratigraphic units that underlie the territory of Mozambique can be conveniently divided
between the crystalline basement of Archaean-Cambrian age and Phanerozoic cover. The
crystalline basement comprises a heterogeneous assemblage metamorphosed supracrustal
paragneisses, granulites and migmatites, orthogneisses and igneous rocks. They can be
divided into a number of gneiss complexes on the basis of their lithologies, metamorphic
grade, structure, tectonic relationships and ages. The Phanerozoic cover mainly comprises
lithologies deposited during the Karoo and East African Rift Events. They will be assembled
into the Karoo Supergroup and East African Rift sequences, respectively.

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From a geodynamic point of view it is generally accepted that the crystalline basement
of Mozambique is composed of three different terranes9 that have been collided and
amalgamated during subsequent orogenic phases. Prior to amalgamation, each terrane was
characterised by an individual and specific geodynamic development. Provisionally, these
terranes are called the East Gondwana, West Gondwana and South Gondwana terranes (Table
5.3).
Being located close to a triple junction between the Irumide belt, Zambezi belt
(about850 – 450 Ma) and Mozambique belt, the basement geology of the Tete province
(including the northern part of the Manica province) is extraordinarily complex with the
above three terranes are all being present.

Table 5.3. Basement Terranes in Mozambique.

Cover East African Rift Sequences

Karoo Supergroup

Basement South Gondwana Terrane West Gondwana Terrane East Gondwana Terrane

Mavuradonha Metam. Complex Pan-African Granitoids Geci Group

Guro Bimodal Suite Atchiza Suite Txitonga Group
Báruè Metamorphic Complex Irumide Granitoids Ocua Group
Umkondo Group Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite Montepuez Complex
Rushinga Group Mualadze Group Lalamo Complex
Gairezi Group Fíngoè Group M’Sawize Complex
Zimbabwe Craton Zâmbuè Group Muaquia Complex
Gazula Group Xixano Complex
Chidzolomondo Group Meluco Complex
Nairoto Complex
Marrupa Complex
Unango Complex
Lúrio Supergroup
Nampula Complex
Angónia Group
Ponta Messuli Complex
Mugeba Complex

South Gondwana
Comprises the Zimbabwe Craton and a number of tectono- or litho-stratigraphic units,
contained in Proterozoic fold belts, which have been thrusted or deposited on top of the
northern and eastern margin of the Craton. The Sanangoè Shear Zone (SSZ), now largely
covered by Karoo and younger sediments of the Zambezi Trough, separates the South
Gondwana Terrane from the other terranes. The Lupata Trough and Mozambican Basin
covers the eastern boundary.

9
The term ‘terrane’ is used to indicate a tectonic unit of variable size, i.e., a lithospheric plate, a plate fragment
or sliver or a tectonic mass such as a ‘nappe’. ‘Terrain’, on the other hand, is a generic term, broadly similar
to ‘area’.

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West Gondwana
In Tanzania the west verging thrust front of the Mozambique Belt and associated sparse
ophiolites mark the boundary between the West and East Gondwana Terranes. Further
southwards this suture is less well defined, straddling the boundary between Zambia and
Malawi, but in the Tete area this suture is believed to correspond with the contact between the
WSW-ENE trending Tete-Chipata Block and the NW-SE trending Desaranhama Granite and
Angónia Group.
The Tete-Chipata Block is part of the West Gondwana terrane. It is a triangular crustal
block bounded by the E-W trending Sanangoè Shear Zone (or Mágoè-Estima Fault Zone
sensu Hunting, 1984) in the south and the Mwembeshi Dislocation in the North. The Tete-
Chipata Block is characterised by generally WSW-ENE trends.
The Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite is considered an allochtonous thrust mass, largely
located south of the Sanangoè Shear Zone. Its precise origin is uncertain, but it is thought to
originate north of the Sanangoè Shear Zone from the West Gondwana Terrane.

East Gondwana
In Tanzania this comprises the crystalline basement east of the Pan-African suture that is, in
broad terms, east of the Tanzania Craton. Further southwards it comprises most rocks in
Malawi and northern Mozambique. Bjergård et al. (2006) have divided the crystalline
basement of northern Mozambique into a number of gneiss complexes. These range in age
from the Palaeo- to the Neoproterozoic that were juxtaposed along tectonic contacts during
the Pan-African Orogeny (Bingen et al. 2006; Viola et al. 2006).

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CHAPTER 6

CRYSTALLINE BASEMENT – PROTEROZOIC FOLD BELTS

6.1. INTRODUCTION
The geology of northern Mozambique has been recently upgraded and re-mapped within the
framework of the present GIDP Project (see ‘Foreword’). Geological mapping by a
consortium headed by the Norwegian Geological Survey (NGU), comprising most areas of
the Lúrio Thrust Belt and further to the north, was supported by new airborne geophysical
data and geochronology. U-Pb, LA-ICPMS and SIMS isotopic data were collected on zircon
and monazite from 30 samples (Bingen et al. 2006). The Council for Geosciences (CGS) of
South Africa implemented a similar project south of the Lúrio Belt and re-mapped seven Map
Sheets (SDS 1537 – 1540 and SDS 1637 – 1639) in crystalline rocks attributed to the
Nampula sub-Province (Macey et al. 2006a,b). Fieldwork was supported by airborne
geophysical and satellite data, litho-geochemistry and geochronology. The latter included
SHRIMP analyses on zircon and monazite dating, using the CHIME method (Chemical Th-U-
total Pb Isochron Method). The southernmost part of the Nampula sub-Province was covered
by the GTK Consortium and will be discussed in this Map Explanation (Volume 3).

6.1.2. Geological Units in Northern Mozambique

Several teams (BRGM, Aquater, DSGM and others) have carried out geological mapping,
applying modern structural methods, of northern Mozambique (Niassa, Cabo Delgado,
Nampula and part of the Zambézia Provinces) between 1970 and 1984. The results are
contained in Pinna & Marteau (1987a,b) and Pinna et al. (1993) and references therein. They
argued that the crystalline basement of northern Mozambique is mainly composed of high-
grade gneisses, granulites, migmatites and orogenic plutonic rocks emplaced during or after
the Kibaran Orogeny, between 1100 and 850 Ma, and/or superimposed Pan-African (800 –
550 Ma) Orogeny. Pinna & Marteau (1987a,b) retained the term ‘Mozambican Cycle’ (or
‘ciclo Moçambicano’) for the first main orogenic period.
Traditionally, the crystalline basement of northern Mozambique has been divided into
three structural ‘blocks’ or domains (Cadoppi et al. 1990; Pinna et al. 1993): a domain north
of the Lúrio Thrust Belt (LTB) and its continuation into Tanzania (e.g., Eastern Granulites,
Fig. 9.2), the LTB itself and a domain south of the LTB. The high-grade ortho- and
paragneisses, granulites and migmatites were considered to represent the juvenile basement in
northern Mozambique (Pinna et al. 1993) formed, deformed and metamorphosed during the
Mesoproterozoic Mozambique Cycle (=Kibaran/Grenville). This juvenile basement was
structurally overlain by granulites of the Lúrio Supergroup and metamorphosed supracrustals
of the Chiúre Supergroup.
The autochthonous basement, collectively referred to as ‘Série de Nampula’ by Jourde
& Wolff (1974), was assigned the rank of Nampula Supergroup by Pinna & Marteau (1987a)
and included originally lithologic units both north and south of the LTB. Units N of the LTB
comprised the Marrupa, Nairoto and Meluco Groups. The autochthonous crystalline basement

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south of the LTB was called Nampula Group sensu stricto and included the Namarroi
granulite zone but not the supracrustal rocks of the Mecuburi Group.
Based on new data gathered by the NGU Consortium and CGS, the tectono- and litho-
stratigraphic sub-division of the crystalline basement of northern Mozambique has been
amended and upgraded. The crystalline basement of northern Mozambique has been divided
into a northern and southern structural sub-Province, separated by the WSW-trending Lúrio
Thrust Belt (LTB).
According to Bingen et al. (2006) and Viola et al. (2006) the following tectono-
stratigraphic units can be identified in the northern province (Fig. 9.3):
• The Ponta Messuli Complex, a Palaeoproterozoic (monazite age 1954±15 Ma)
basement fragment, constitutes the north-westernmost part of the crystalline
basement of northern Mozambique. It has experienced amphibolite-facies
migmatisation and can be considered an extension from the Palaeoproterozoic
Ubendian-Usagaran Belt.
• The low-grade Txitonga Group, of unknown age, overlies the above complex.
• South of the Karoo Maniamba Graben and north of the Lúrio Thrust Belt, the
crystalline basement is mainly composed of Mesoproterozoic (1110 to 990 Ma)
felsic gneisses contained in (from west to east) the Unango and Marrupa
Complexes and a number of Pan-African nappes, comprising (from west to east)
the M’sawize, Muaquia, Xixano, Nairoto, Montepuez, Lalamo and Meluco
Complexes.
o The Unango and Marrupa Complexes consist mainly of about 1.1 to 0.9 Ga
orthogneisses associated with variable quantities of high-grade paragneiss. The
1.07 – 0.99 Ga magmatic event includes deformed granodiorite, granite,
leucogranites, locally massive charnockite, proto-raapakivi granite and meta-
dolerite. A monazite upper intercept age of 1.03 Ga manifests evidence for
Grenville/Kibaran metamorphism in the Unango Complex. Pan-African
overprinting, associated with amphibolite- to granulite-facies, of the two
complexes is estimated at about 560 to 520 Ma. The most precise estimate is a
zircon age of 536±6 Ma from a granulite-facies paragneiss. Late- to post-Pan-
African thrusting along a NE-SW trending sinistral shear zone is demonstrated
in a mylonite with an age of 444±5 Ma (Ordovician) located close to the
northwest boundary of the Unango Complex.
o The Meluco and Nairoto ‘nappes’ consist of felsic orthogneisses and are
tentatively correlated with the Marrupa Complex.
o The M’sawize, Muaquia and Xixano Complexes overly the Marrupa and
Nairoto Complexes. The M’sawize and Xixano Complexes comprise
commonly granulite-facies, dominantly mafic to intermediate ortho-gneisses.
M’sawize metatonalite yields a magmatic age of 641±5 Ma.
o Xixano granulites are juxtaposed with amphibolite-grade metasediments,
including meta-arkose, graphite-bearing metapelites and tremolite marble.
Granulite-facies dehydration melting in the Xixano Complex is dated at 735±4
Ma (zircon in garnet-orthopyroxene paragneiss). The Lalamo Complex is also
mainly of para-derivation and comprises biotite gneiss, meta-arkose, marble
and graphite schists.

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The WSW-ENE trending Lurio Thrust Belt (LTB) separates the northern structural
block from the southern basement of the Nampula sub-Province. Lithologically, the LTB can
be regarded as a tectonic mélange including:
• Granulites and sheared gneisses, incorporated into the newly established Ocua
Complex. Metamorphism and deformation in the Ocua Complex yields ages of
578±10 and 545±6 Ma. A monazite age of 531±6 Ma is related to extensional
structures.
• Metasediments of the Montepuez Complex.

The crystalline basement of the southern Nampula sub-Province, south of the LTB,
comprises the Nampula Complex and the so-called Monapo and Mugeba ‘Klippen’. These
structural units will be discussed in sections 6.2 and 6.3, respectively.

6.2. NAMPULA COMPLEX

6.2.1. Introduction

High-grade gneisses and migmatites and associated concordant granite bodies of the Nampula
area were first described by Lyall (1955) in the Alto Ligonha region. Jourde & Wolff (1974)
referred to these rocks as ‘Série de Nampula’, to which Pinna & Marteau (1987) assigned the
rank of ‘Supergroup’. Stressing its tectono-stratigraphic independence, Macey et al. (2006a,b)
introduced the term ‘Nampula sub-Province’.
According to Pinna & Marteau (1987) and Pinna et al. (1993), the crystalline rocks
south of the LTB can be divided into three superposed structural complexes, separated by
sub-horizontal thrust planes (from top to bottom):
• Upper structural units, including the Mugeba and Manapo Klippen, supposedly
related to the Lúrio Thrust Belt.
• Intermediate structural units, including the ‘Grupo de Metolola, Mólócuè (or
Zambézia), Nantira-Metil (or Nametil) and thrust masses below the Mugeba and
Manapo Klippen, grouped into the metamorphosed supracrustals of the Chiure
Supergroup of which the type-locality is located north of the LTB.
• ‘Basement complex’ comprising the ‘Grupo de Namarroi’ (including granulites),
‘Grupo do Mecuburi’ and rocks loosely grouped as ‘Antiforma de Nampula’,
representing the structurally lowermost lithologies.

Rocks of the Nampula sub-Province (Macey et al. 2006a,b), now assembled in the
Nampula Complex, comprise Mesoproterozoic amphibolite facies ortho- and paragneisses
(about 1125 – 1075 Ma) with largely uniform tectonic histories that were intruded by
Cambrian and Ordivician Pan-African granitoids (about 530 – 450 Ma) and pegmatites (about
480 – 430 Ma). Based on recent data, the Nampula Complex is divided into five major units
(Macey et al. 2006a,b; Table 6.1):
• Mocuba Complex (in this report Suite) (about 1125 Ma) – Banded migmatic
biotite±amphibole gneiss and migmatitic TTG-orthogneiss.
o Rapale Gneiss (about 1095 Ma) – Tonalitic to granodioritic TTG-orthogneiss.
o Mamala Gneiss (about 1090 Ma) – Quartzo-feldspathic gneiss.

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• Molócuè Complex (in this report Group) (<1125 Ma) – Meta-pelitic and meta-
psammitic paragneisses mica schists with interlayered marbles, calc-silicate gneiss
and felsic and mafic meta-volcanics and ultramafic rocks.
• Culicui Suite (about 1075 Ma) – Streaky Augen granitic and leucogranitic
orthogneiss; locally charnockitic.

Table. 6.1. Lithostratigraphic units of the crystalline basement (Courtesy Paul Macey, 2006b).

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Equally metamorphic sedimentary cover rocks, younger than the rocks of the Molòqué
Group, rest unconformably on the older basement and include:
• Alto Benfica Group – Meta-conglomerate and quartzite

The above units form together the tectono-stratigraphic Nampula sub-Province, which
was tectonically overthrusted by nappes of the LTB, of which relicts are contained in the
Monapo and Mugeba Klippen (Complex). Their lithologies are attributed to the
• Ocua Complex – Clinopyroxene + orthopyroxene ± garnet granulite; quartz-
feldspar leucogranulite; charnockitic rocks and (blasto-)mylonites.

Finally Pan-African granites invaded the rocks of the Nampula Complex.

• Murrupula Suite – Equigranular and porphyritic granite

The lithostratigraphic subdivision of rock units in the Map Explanation Volume 3 area
is shown in the Table 6.2.

6.2.2. Mocuba Suite

The Mocuba Suite represents the oldest dated rocks in the juvenile basement of the Nampula
sub-Province. Regionally, the meta-volcanic and meta-plutonic, heterogeneous poly-deformed
and poly-metamorphic gneisses and migmatites of the Mocuba Suite are characterised by
tonalitic-granodioritic-granitic (TTG) compositions manifesting emplacement in a magmatic
arc setting (Lyall, 1955; Aquater, 1983; Cadoppi et al. 1987; Sacchi et al. 2000: Macey et al.
2006a,b). Mocuba gneisses are composed primarily of heterogeneously banded gneisses and
subordinate homogenous orthogneiss of granodioritic, tonalitic and granitic composition
(Sacchi et al. 1984; Cadoppi et al. 1987). The Mucoba Complex sensu Macey et al (2006b)
also includes the slightly younger Mamala and Rapala Gneisses (Table 6.1). The Rapala
Gneiss is mainly found in the northeastern part of the Nampula sub-Province, outside the area
covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3; Fig. 8.1).
Aquater (1983) described the Mamala Formation as interlayered meta-rhyolitic lavas
and pyroclastic rocks, and they further subdivided the unit into three subtypes (fine-grained
biotite-bearing quartzo-feldspathic gneiss; medium-grained biotite ± pyroxene-bearing
quartzo-feldspathic gneiss and magnetite-bearing quartzo-feldspathic gneiss) based on rock
textures, grain size and the proportions of biotite, pyroxene and magnetite. Macey et al.
(2006b), abolished this subdivision – they were beyond the scale of the map – and all large
mappable bodies of quartzo-feldspathic gneiss of the Nampula sub-Province were mapped as
the Mamala Gneiss. Whilst these rocks are grouped together, rock macro-textures and
associations and whole rock geochemistry do indicate that the Mamala Gneiss is comprised of
at least several protolith varieties. Like the Rapale Gneiss, the Mamala is mainly exposed in
the northeastern part of the Nampula sub-Province, with only a limited extent in the area
covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3; Fig. 8.1).

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Table 6.2. Tectono- and litho-stratigraphic subdivision of rock units in this Map Explanation (Volume 3).
Tectono-Stratigraphic

Litho-Stratigraphic

Legend Code
Correlation
Complex/
Unit
Unit

with Macey et
Group/ Description
al. (2006b)
Suite Meta-
Meta-
volcanic;Meta-
plutonic
sedimentary
Murapula Pegmatite
Suite Granite (CaRgr)
********************************* Pan-African Orogenic Cycle
*************************************

Mafic Granulitic gneiss P2MBmg

Mugeb

Klippe

Mugeba Mylonitic to flaser orthogneiss P2MBog

a

Complex Ultramafic Rock P2MBum

>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> thrust plane >>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>> thrust plane
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
? Gabbro and Diorite P2NMgab
Strongly foliated pink K- P2NMfgr
Culicuí feldspar granite gneiss
Suite Garnetiferous leucogranite, P2NMlcn
often gneissic
Augen gneiss with P2NMga
charnockite/migmatite
Charnockite P2NMch
Nampula sub-Province

Marble P2NMma
Molócuè
Nampula Complex

Group Quartzite/Meta- P2NMsg

Arkose/Ferruginous Quartzite
P2NMlg Mamala
Leucogneiss
Gneiss
Mocuba Leucocratic gneiss and P2NMlcl Granitoid
Suite leptynites Orthogneiss
Medium-grained leucocratic P2NMlc
gneiss/ migmatite
Garnet-Sillimanite P2NMgs Banded Grey
Gneiss/Migmatite Migmatitic
Banded Biotite P2NMgm Quartz-
Gneiss/Migmatite Feldspar-
Biotite±
Amphibole
Gneiss

Due due limited exposure in the small part of the of the Nampula sub-Province in the
Map Explanation area (Volume 3), covering most of the crystalline basement area in SDS
1736, 1737 and 1738, a one-to-one correlation with litho-stratigraphic units identified by
Macey et al. (2006b) – Mocuba Complex, Mamala Gneiss; Table 6.1 – has not been possible.
The lithologies of the Mocuba Suite within the Map Explanation area are composed of
leucocratic gneisses and mesocratic migmatites with a variety of migmatitic structures (Figs.
6.1 and 6.2). Mesocratic migmatitic gneisses are found as isolated and elongated exposures
along the northern and eastern borders of SDS 1735. They are also discovered in the northern

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half of SDS 1736 and almost in all crystalline basement of SDS 1737, where they show an E-
W orientation. They are generally bound to undifferentiated deformed granites. They include
some elongated enclaves of mica schist, gneiss and granulitic gneiss bodies.

A B

Fig. 6.1. (A) Biotitic gneiss exposed southeast of Monte Mutitima (0279332/8103692), (B) Rock sample from
the same outcrop. Scale bar is 10 cm.

A B

Fig. 6.2. (A) Outcrop of mesocratic migmatites northwest of Monte Mututuma (0269908/8113085), (B) Sample
of the mesocratic migmatite shown in previous figure. Scale bar is 10 cm.

Banded Biotite Gneiss and Migmatite (P2NMgm) and Garnet-Sillimanite Gneiss/Migmatite

(P2NMgs)
According to Macey et al. (2006b), Banded Grey Migmatitic Quartz-Feldspar-Biotite±
Amphibole Gneiss are heterogeneous banded Mocuba gneisses that typically consist of
commonly isoclinally folded gneissic compositional bands, 0.2 – 2 m in width, interlayered
with substantial amounts of (sub-)parallel quartzo-feldspathic leucosomes. Due to grey
weathering colours this unit is commonly referred to as ‘grey gneiss’. The GTK Consortium
has mapped these rocks as Banded Biotite Gneiss/Migmatite (P2NMgm) and scarce Garnet-
Sillimanite Gneiss/Migmatite (P2NMgs). The banded biotite gneisses and migmatites
(P2NMgm) cover extensive areas in SDS 1735 and smaller, isolated bodies in SDS 1736.

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High-grade gneisses with granulite facies relics also occur in the extreme northwest part of
the area covered by this Map Explanation. The gneisses form a typical hilly landscape (Fig.
6.3).

Fig. 6.3. Typical landscape underlain by high-grade gneisses occurring in the north-western part of SDS 1735
(Mutarara).

Dark palaeosomes are composed of quartz (20 – 40 %), plagioclase (25 – 45 %), K-
feldspar (10 – 30 %), biotite (5 – 10 %) and hornblende (1 – 10 %). Fe-Ti oxides, apatite,
zircon and sphene are accessory minerals. Plagioclase compositions vary in the range An20-40.
K-feldspar is microperthitic and cross-hatched microcline or orthoclase. Yellow-brown
pleochroic biotite flakes and green-brown pleochroic hornblende (sometimes poikilitic,
2V=70, c-γ=20 – 25˚) grains show a strong preferred orientation (Aquater 1983; Macey et al.
2006b).
Leucosomes are typically equigranular (grain size generally about2 mm, locally up to
5 mm) and consist of quartz, feldspar and minor quantities of biotite and hornblende. The
earliest melt bodies, supposedly formed during the D1/M1 event of the Kibaran/Grenville
Orogenic Cycle, have been subsequently folded and sheared and occur as rootless intrafolial
isoclinal folds within the gneissic layering. Pan-African D2 dynamo-thermal metamorphism
was also accompanied by partial melting, as evidenced by S2 parallel stromatic leucosomes.
Crosscutting, occasionally ptygmatically folded veins and strain-free patchy-type leucosomes
manifest late phases of migmatisation. Multiple generations of fabric-parallel and discordant
felsic, aplitic to pegmatitic veins and dykes add to the complexity of the banded grey gneisses
(Macey et al. 2006b).

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Grey gneisses display discontinuity of layers, common pinch-and-swell structures and

boudinaged layers. Both banded grey gneisses and granitoid orthogneisses contain infolded
layers, lenses and ovoid boudins of melanocratic amphibolite and biotite-rich rock that
probably represent relicts of pre-tectonic mafic dykes or restites. The heterogeneous,
compositionally banded nature of the grey gneisses suggests that they form part of a meta-
volcano-sedimentary succession. The apparent lack of aluminous minerals (Sacchi et al.
1984; Cadoppi et al. 1987; Costa et al. 1992; Macey et al. 2006b), however, is more in favour
of a precursor assemblage composed of co-magmatic felsic volcanics, tuffs with little or no
evidence for meta-sedimentary rocks.
The most widespread litho-type is a cream-coloured, fine- to medium-grained quartzo-
feldspathic leucocratic gneiss (Fig. 6.4), composed of quartz, K-feldspar and garnet. Biotite-
rich bands are common, as well as mafic enclaves. These enclaves are amphibolitic and
biotite schist xenoliths, surrounded by numerous garnets (mafic front, due to partial melting)
in commonly mm-sized crystals but, in places in grains up to 5 cm in diameter. Frequently,
the rock is massive and strongly recrystallised, but also severely deformed members are
found. These gneisses and granulites apparently formed by high-grade metamorphism and
partial melting of felsic volcanics/granites with interlayered metapelite and mafic volcanic
rocks.

A B

C D

Fig. 6.4. Different aspects of granulitic rocks with xenoliths/remnants of biotite schists and amphibolites. (A)
Northwest of Morrumbala village (0773122/8085179), (B) and (C) southwest of Monte Nhacamba
(0770987/8091030), (D) Granulitic gneiss with lots of oriented garnet, that form Augen structures. Southeast of
Monte Nhacamba (0780892/8091703). Scale bar is 15 cm.

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Minor garnet-sillimanite gneisses, mica gneisses and meta-greywackes, occurring as

narrow strips in the eastern part of SDS 1738/1739 within the granulitic rocks, have been
attributed to Garnet-Sillimanite Gneiss/Migmatite (P2NMgs). They are folded along NW-SE
axes.

Leucogneiss and granitic leptynite (P2NMlg, P2NMlcl)

GTK Consortium field verification has identified leucogneisses and granitic leptynites as pink
to white gneisses, with granitic composition, but sometimes with a metasedimentary
appearance (e.g., 17296-04, SDS 1735, UTM coordinates). These rocks are exposed
especially in the eastern part of SDS 1736 (Fig. 6.5), the western and eastern extremities of
SDS 1737. They correspond with the ‘Granitoid Orthogneisses’ and Mamala Gneisses
identified by Macey et al. (2006b).

A B

Fig. 6.5. (A) Leucogneisses in SDS 1736, about 60 km north of Nicoadala village (0276694/8110476), (B)
Sample from the outcrop shown in the previous figure. Scale bar is 10 cm.

Geochemistry
When compared with the truly granitic Culicui and Murrupula Suites, the Mocuba gneisses
show a range of intermediate compositions (about 56 – 72 % SiO2, mean=66.3 %), have high
CaO and Na2O and low K2O contents. The granitoid orthogneisses classify as meta-tonalites,
trondjhemites and granodiorites (TTG) and rarely as gabbro on the O=Connor An-Or-Ab
normative diagramme. The banded grey Mocuba gneisses (P2NMgm) plot mostly in the dacite
field of the ‘Total Alkali Silica’ diagramme, with a few samples plotting in the andesite and
rhyolite fields (Macey et al. 2006b). Despite their differences in texture, the various gneisses
define relatively consistent trends in major element variations versus the degree of
differentiation. In general, CaO, MgO, FeOtot, TiO2, Al2O3, P2O5 and Sr decrease (CaO and Sr
show strong positive intra-group covariance) with increasing SiO2, which is interpreted to
indicate fractionation of plagioclase, mafic silicates (probably mostly hornblende), apatite and
Fe-Ti oxides. K2O and Rb show a slight increase with SiO2 whereas Ba decreases slightly
with SiO2, which is consistent with only minor K-feldspar fractionation (as would be expected
from the average bulk rock composition) and limited biotite fractionation. Zr, Nb and
(La/Yb)N show no variation with SiO2, suggesting a little zircon and sphene fractionation
(Macey et al. 2006b).

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According to Macey et al. (2006b), all Mocuba gneisses have sub-alkaline

compositions and define calc-alkaline trends on the SiO2-K2O plot and the AFM diagramme
of Le Maître et al. (1989). The Mocuba gneisses have I-type characteristics being mostly
metaluminous with mafic to intermediate compositions and relatively high Na2O contents.
They also have low initial 87Sr/86Sr values of between 0.70337 – 0.71736 (mean=0.70691,
Costa et al. 1992) and δ18O values between 7.9 and 9.9 ‰. The gneisses show a decrease in
the alumina saturation index with decreasing SiO2, which is also indicative of I-type, rather
than S-type parentage. The Mocuba gneisses plot in the volcanic arc granite field on the Rb, Y
and Nb tectonic discrimination diagrammes of Pearce et al. (1984).

Age
A sample of grey, banded Mocuba gneiss (meta-dacite) yielded a precise U-Pb Concordia
magmatic age of 1128±9 Ma (Macey et al. 2006b). This is the oldest non-detrital age obtained
for the Nampula sub-Province. This age is similar to the result of 1123 Ma for equivalent
banded grey gneisses in the Mulevale area, obtained by Grantham (unpublished data). A
Mocuba leucogranitic orthogneiss sampled in the western part of the Nampula sub-Province
yielded a preliminary U-Pb SHRIMP age of 1117±21 Ma (Thomas et al. 2005). Analyses of
twenty zircons extracted from the Mamala Gneiss provided a spread of discordant data from
which a regression line could be drawn with intercepts at 1090±22 Ma and 502±80 Ma. The
Mesoproterozoic age is regarded as an estimate of the crystallisation age for the original lava.
The Mamala meta-volcanics occur intercalated with meta-sedimentary rocks of the Molócuè
Complex. Assuming that these intercalations are of a primary nature, this age would provide
an approximate date for the deposition of the Molócuè Complex sedimentary rocks (Macey et
al. 2006b).
The gneisses of the Mocuba Complex have experienced several phases of deformation
and metamorphism and contain evidence of the D1/M1 dynamo-thermal event (intrafolial
folds, refolded leucosomes). Metamorphic overgrowth on one zircon yielded a Concordia age
of 1091 Ma, which may represent the age of D1/M1 dynamo-thermal and migmatisation event.
Alternatively, the overgrowth may have formed during thermal metamorphism as a result of
intrusion of the nearby (about 500 m) 5-km wide Namuchuca pluton of the Culicui Suite, in
view of the fact that equivalent granitoids yielded very similar about 1075 – 1090 Ma ages.
Both events – dynamo-thermal metamorphism and granite emplacement – may also have been
nearly coeval. Despite the fact that the Mocuba gneiss must have experienced the Pan-African
D2-3 tectono-thermal events, the zircons in the dated sample do not have the typical high U
Pan-African metamorphic growth rims (Macey et al. 2006b).
Hornblende-bearing tonalitic gneiss and migmatitic vein material within the host
tonalitic gneiss have been collected about 25 km WNW of Mulevala village. All data from the
tonalitic gneiss define a discordia with an upper intercept of about1119 Ma and a lower
intercept of about 487 Ma. Five analyses plot concordantly and indicate a crystallisation age
of 1078±16 Ma for the tonalitic gneiss country rock. All the data from migmatitic vein define
a discordia with upper intercept of about1040 Ma and lower intercept of about 336 Ma. Four
concordant spots define a date of 1063±47 Ma. Interpretation of petrographic data provided
by thin sections, the CL images of the zircons and the SHRIMP analyses suggest two
possibilities (quoted from Macey et al. 2006b):

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• The ages of the host rock and migmatitic vein are within an error limit of each
other which may imply that the zircons contained within the migmatitic vein are
inherited from the country rock and that the age does not constrain the age of
metamorphism.
• The preferred second alternative is that the metamorphism occurred relatively soon
after emplacement of the tonalite, resulting in the ages of tonalite emplacement and
subsequent migmatisation are within analytical error of one another. This
possibility is preferred because of the following: (a) the migmatitic vein has a
granoblastic texture typical of a metamorphic recrystallised rock, unlike the Pan-
Africa granites, which typically have granitic textures (b) the zircon populations in
the two samples are different with that in the vein being characterised by low U
cores and more geometric oscillatory zoning whereas those in the host rock have
higher U zircons with more rounded grains and rounded oscillatory zoning
patterns. These differences suggest that the zircons in the migmatitic vein are not
inherited from the host gneisses and are consequently interpreted to provide an age
estimate for the timing of migmatisation. The significance of this is that it implies
that the rocks have been subjected to two major episodes of medium to high-grade
metamorphism, one during the about 1000–1100 Ma period and the other during
the Pan-African at about 500 Ma.

Setting
In summary, it can be concluded that the textural, compositional, geochemical and
geochronological data suggest that the Mocuba gneisses and migmatites developed as juvenile
TTG-type granitoids in a calc-alkaline magmatic arc setting and their extrusive volcanic
equivalents between approximately 1115 Ma and 1130 Ma. The Mocuba Complex rocks were
deformed and metamorphosed to at least amphibolite facies soon after (1117 – 1090 Ma; see
Age Section Molócuè Group), possibly during subsequent arc amalgamation and/or accretion
(the D1/M1 dynamo-thermal event). Subsequent deformation and metamorphism during the
Pan-African events is reflected by metamorphic zircon ages of about 500 Ma (Macey et al.
2006b).

6.2.3. Molócuè Group

Metamorphosed supracrustal rocks in the Nampula sub-Province were first described by

Araujo (1972), Afonso (1974), Araujo et al. (1974) and Pinna (1983). Aquater (1983) and
Costa et al. (1983) suggested a correlation with the Namama thrust in the southern central
parts of the Nampula sub-Province. Pinna et al. (1993) included supracrustal rocks in the
Nampula sub-Province in (from west to east) the Metalola Group, Muaquia Group
(supracrustals below the Mugeba Klippe), Mólocuè Group, Nametil (Nametil/Namama or
Metil) Group, ‘Ramiane Series’ (supracrustals below the Monapo Klippe) and Mecuburi
Group. All, save the last unit, were incorporated into the allegedly allochtonous Chiure
Supergroup, previously defined by Jourde & Wolff (1974) as ‘Série de Chiure’ in the eastern
part of the Lúrio Thrust Belt (LTB). The so-called Chiure supracrustals comprised
unambiguous metasediments including thick marble beds, quartzite, graphitic schists and
meta-conglomerates, associated with various types of meta-igneous rocks, including rocks
with ultramafic, gabbroic, alkali leptonitic, mafic volcanic and anorthositic protoliths. Based

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on recent ideas regarding the tectono-stratigraphy of northern Mozambique (Bingen et al.

2006; Viola et al. 2006; Thomas et al. 2005, 2006; Macey et al. 2006a,b), the supracrustal
rocks of the Nampula sub-Province cannot be correlated with those of the other sub-provinces
north of the LTB.
Three groups of supracrustal gneisses are now identified in the Nampula sub-
Province: the Molócuè, Mécuburi and Alto Benfica Groups (Thomas et al. 2005, 2006;
Macey et al. 2006a,b). The Alto Benfica Group is significantly younger (< 610 Ma) and is
related to a post-Rodinia, pre-Pan-African extensional event. The Molócuè and Mécuburi
Groups are now intrinsic parts of the Nampula sub-Province. Only lithologies of the Molócuè
Group occur in the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3) and comprise a large
range of interlayered and tectonically infolded and interleaved rock types including felsic and
mafic meta-volcanics, ultramafic metamorphites, meta-pelitic- and meta-psammitic gneisses,
quartzitic rocks and minor marbles and calc-silicate gneisses.
Mafic rocks are prevalent together with ultramafic rocks along the Namama shear
zone. These rocks were grouped together as the Morrua Formation by Aquater (1983). The
meta-basites of the Molócuè Group are dominated by amphibolites but include meta-gabbro,
amphibole-epidote-pyroxene-garnet gneiss, as well as talc-schist, chlorite schist, anthophyllite
schist, epidote-rock, pyroxenite and dunite (Aquater, 1983; Cadoppi et al. 1987) and also
weakly magnetic talc-tremolite-bearing gneisses (Macey et al. 2006a,b).
Amphibolites are exposed in association with quartzo-feldspathic gneiss and mafic
granulite (hornblende, clinopyroxene, plagioclase, epidote, biotite, sphene ± garnet, quartz) in
small-sized, non-continuous horizons in poorly exposed outcrops. Well-layered greenish-
black amphibolite is interbedded with 15 – 150 cm thick quartzo-feldspathic gneiss (meta-
rhyolite). This illustrates the partial contemporaneous deposition of the extensive felsic
metavolcanic rocks and the mafic lavas with the onset of deposition of the sedimentary
succession at about 1090 Ma ago. In places ptygmatic quartz veins occur parallel to the
banding with both being deformed by several tectonic events (Macey et al. 2006a,b).

Quartzite/Meta-Arkose/ Ferruginous Quartzite (P2NMsg)

According to Macey et al. (2006b) white to light reddish brown to black quartzite and
ferruginous quartzite bands of the Molócuè Group occur as thin, discontinuous, fine to coarse
granular layers of less than one to two metres wide and with an strike length of up to 5 m.
They are rarely large enough to map as individual layers at the 1:250 000 scale. Black
quartzite contains variable amounts of magnetite. Typical quartzite is composed of quartz (up
to 90 %), with subordinate garnet, magnetite, muscovite and occasionally amphibole and
feldspar. The quartz is mainly milky but minor clear and smoky quartz is generally present.
Granoblastic polygonal mortar textures are observed in places. Fractures with micro-breccia
and iron oxide were observed in several thin sections. Where the recrystallisation is less
pronounced, larger grains of muscovite and biotite are present. Muscovite, and locally
chloritoid, replaces biotite. In places, garnet can make up to 25 % of the matrix, commonly
associated with aligned poikilitic amphibole porphyroblasts (Macey et al. 2006b). Alternation
of pure quartzite with layers or laminae rich in garnet and/or magnetite is supposed to reflect
primary compositional banding. Veins in the banded quartzite comprise calcite ± quartz core
and hematite margins. The occurrence of the Quartzite/Meta-Arkose/ Ferruginous Quartzite

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(P2NMsg) unit is limited to one occurrence of pink to light brown, fine-grained and foliated
metasandstone in SDS 1735 (Fig. 6.6).

Fig. 6.6. Medium-grained meta-

sandstone of the Molócuè Group
(0761055/8113589). Scale bar is 15
cm.

Marble (P2NMma)
Two small occurrences of Marble (P2NMma) have been displayed in the eastern part of SDS
1735, one about 15 km northeast and the other about 15 km south of Monte Morrumbala.
Marble has not been observed during present mapping and the information is based on
mapping by Araujo et al. (1968). Marble is reported to occur as bands and lenses in high-
grade gneisses.
At about 26 km northwest of Morrumbala town, outcrops of N-S trending, greenish-
grey, hard, resistant and well foliated/bedded metachert were found hosted by charnockitic
and granulitic gneisses (Fig. 6.7). The rock extent is beyond the scale of the map, but is
assigned to the Molócuè Group, in particular to horizons rich in marble and Ca-silicate. A
diabase dyke has intruded the metachert.

Fig. 6.7. Metachert northwest of

Monte Tchiciro (0757242/ 8100278).
Scale bar is 15 cm.

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Age
A calc-silicate gneiss from the Molócuè Group contains detrital zircons with ages of about
1850 Ma (intercept age, SHRIMP) and 1127±11 Ma (207Pb/206Pb, SHRIMP) (Macey &
Armstrong, 2005). The younger age is the same as the Mocuba Suite indicating that the meta-
sedimentary rocks were at least partially sourced from a Mocuba basement. Furthermore,
conglomeratic meta-sedimentary rocks in the northern part of the Nampula sub-Province
(Mercuburi Complex) contain clasts of migmatitic gneiss, most likely derived from the
Mocuba Complex (Thomas et al. 2005, 2006). Quartz-feldspar gneisses, which occur
interlayered within the Molócuè Group yielded an upper intercept age of 1090 ± 22 Ma
(Macey & Armstrong, 2005). These rocks are considered to represent metamorphosed felsic
volcanics and not only provide an approximate age for the Molócuè Group but since the
supracrustal rocks do not contain D1/M1 fabrics and melt veins (Sacchi et al. 1984; Cadoppi et
al. 1987), they constrain the D1/M1 tectono-thermal event to between 1117 and 1090 Ma.
Biotite-bearing, felsic quartzo-feldspathic gneiss attributed to the Molócuè Group was
collected about 12 km NNE of Mulevala village. SHRIMP data define a discordant line with
an upper intercept of about 1091±37 Ma and a lower intercept about 518 Ma. Most of the
analysed points suggest ages of about 1100 Ma with minor discordant grains. Concordant
analyses define a crystallisation age of 1123±14 Ma. In addition to these, two concordant
spots define a concordant age of 527±18 Ma. The data confirm the Grenvillian crystallisation
ages of the orthogneiss component of the supracrustal gneisses and indicate partial
disturbance of the U/Pb systematics with the growth of some metamorphic zircon during the
Pan-African (Macey et al. 2006b).

6.2.4. Culicuí Suite

Concordant sheets and lenses of granitoid orthogneisses of the Culicuí Suite represent one of
the most voluminous and widespread lithological units within the Nampula Supergroup (Fig.
8.1). In the field, the rocks of the Culicuí Suite are distinguished from the Mocuba
orthogneisses on the basis of their colour, granitic to leucogranitic compositions, apparent
single major episode of deformation and only weakly migmatitic nature. Weathered Culicuí
Suite granitoids show characteristic buff to reddish brown colours, unlike the grey colours of
weathered Mocuba gneisses. Meta-granodiorites, -diorites and -gabbros with similar
penetrative gneissic textures are locally observed, but it remains unclear whether they can be
attributed to the Culicuí Suite (Macey et al. 2006b). GTK Consortium field verification
identified three mappable units belonging to the Culicuí Suite:

Charnockite (P2NMch)
Charnockites occur as elongated bodies in the western and central parts of this Map
Explanation (Volume 3) area, associating with banded biotite gneisses (P2NMgm) in SDS
1735 and leucocratic gneisses of the Mocuba Suite in SDS 1736. The unit comprises high-
grade gneisses, granulites and charnockites, which were folded and boudinaged together,
forming an E-W axis in the central part of SDS1735. Charnockites and granulitic gneisses,
forming elongated Inselbergs in the area, are pyroxene-bearing quartzo-feldspathic rocks
with, when altered, a brownish tinge (Fig. 6.8).

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A B

Fig. 6.8. (A) Charnockitic granitoid along the main tarred road from Zero to Chimuara northeast of Mt.
Chirolo. (0764113/8035977), (B) Sample of the charnockitic granitoid from the outcrop of the previous figure.
Scale bar is 10 cm.

Augen Gneiss with local enclaves of Charnockite and Migmatite (P2NMga)

Three large areas of Augen gneisses and migmatites (P2Nmga) occur within this Map
Explanation area. The most extensive unit occupies the eastern side of SDS 1735 and the
western part of SDS 1736, as the two other units occur in the central part of SDS 1736 and the
western part of SDS 1737.
A pink, Augen-bearing, granulite facies granitic gneiss is found as boulders and
Inselbergs in the eastern and central parts of the area covered by this Map Explanation, in
particular north of Nicoadala village in SDS 1736 (Fig. 6.9). In some places, the rock is
associated with mylonite, which is well banded, having an alternation of pink, granitic and
dark grey, biotite-rich bands, and laminae on a millimetre- to centimetre-scale.

Fig. 6.9. Augen gneiss north of

Nicoadala village (0248884/
8075075). Scale bar is 15 cm.

Migmatitic varieties with granitic veins are found in SDS 1736 (Fig. 6.10) in
association with fine-grained, pink granitic gneisses and coarse-grained Augen gneisses, also
with a granitic composition.

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A B

Fig. 6.10. (A) Migmatitic granitoid outcrop a few kilometres south of Monte Mutitima (0277061/8104622), (B)
Sample from the outcrop shown at previous figure. Scale bar is 10 cm.

Strongly foliated pink K-feldspar granite gneiss (P2NMfgr)

This unit extends over SDS 1738, over the map margin from SDS 1638. There are no
observations made from this unit within this Map Explanation area and the following
description is from Macey et al. (2006b): The deformed and sheared megacrystic granite
gneisses are characterised by strongly aligned, S2-parallel, pink subhedral tabular twinned
orthoclase megacrysts (5 – 50 %, about 10 x 25 mm) enclosed in a streaky foliated, coarse-
grained grey- to pink-coloured quartz-feldspar-biotite matrix. The megacrystic granite
gneisses are distinguished from the true Augen gneisses in that a significant proportion of the
K-feldspar megacrysts are not recrystallised and show twinning. The deformed megacrystic
granite gneisses occur mainly in the form of several large (up to 20 km long), ovoid plutons
with long axes parallel to the regional foliation, that characteristically crop out as large
prominent mountain ranges.

Gabbro and diorite (P2NMgab)

The only gabbro indicated on the map is a small, isolated body in the eastern part of SDS
1735, located at the contact between Augen gneisses of the Culicui Suite and undifferentiated
banded gneisses and migmatites. The medium-grained, partly weathered, often quartz-
bearing metagabbros are found in the riverbeds of the Mucombézi and Cuácula Rivers.
Variously deformed metagabbros observed elsewhere within this Map Explanation area are
shown in Fig. 6.11.
The metabasic orthogneisses plot as gabbros and syeno-diorites on the TAS
diagramme, but it remains unclear if these rocks and the granitic orthogneisses are co-
magmatic.

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A B

Fig. 6.11. (A) Outcrop of gabbroic rock southeast of Monte Jerunca (0784847/8050358), (B) Sample from the
outcrop shown on previous figure. Scale bar is 10 cm.

Geochemistry
Culicui Suite granitic gneisses according to Macey et al. (2006b) are mostly acidic SiO2 (63.4
– 76.0 wt %) with high K2O, FeO and ∑REE, but low CaO, MgO and transition metals. The
streaky leucogneisses are very acidic with SiO2 contents in the range 75 to 79 wt %. Both the
granitic and leucogranitic gneisses straddle the peraluminous-metaluminous boundary (ASI
range 0.80 – 1.12; mean: 1.02±0.05) and mostly classify as granites, quartz monzonites and
granodiorites on the modified normative O’Connor and TAS diagrammes.
The Culicui Suite orthogneisses, in particular the megacrystic granite and the streaky
leucogranite orthogneisses, have a number of characteristics indicative of A-type granites
(Macey et al. 2006b). This includes the high FeOTotal/MgO, Ga/Al, ∑REE, Y and Zr contents;
and the low CaO, MgO, Sr, Sc, V, Cr, Ni and Co concentrations (Loiselle & Wones, 1979;
Whalen et al. 1987; Eby, 1990). In addition, most of the orthogneisses plot in A-type field of
the SiO2-FeOtotal/MgO, Ga/Al-Zr and Ga/Al-Zr+Ce+Nb+Y diagrammes of Eby (1990) and
Whalen et al. (1987) and largely as within-plate granites on the Rb-Y+Nb and Nb-Y tectonic
discrimination diagrams of Pearce et al. (1984). The Culicui Suite granites appear to have
developed as late- to post-orogenic anatectic A-type granites, possibly related to the collapse
of the D1 orogeny at 1075 Ma (Macey et al. 2006b).

Age
A megacrystic granite gneiss from the Culicui Suite type-area was selected for U-Pb SHRIMP
analyses. Of the twenty zircons analysed, thirteen were done on the core regions, of which the
four least discordant analyses gave a mean 207Pb/206Pb age of 1077±26 Ma [MSWD=0.25,
probability=0.86]. This is considered the crystallisation age of the rock (Macey et al. 2006b).
The remainder of the data are significantly discordant, and probably are a reflection of the
metamict nature of the zircons, which in turn, is probably related to the shear deformation. Of
the seven rim analyses, the two homogenous, non-metamict rims provided the least discordant
data and a mean 206Pb/238U age of 505±10 Ma [MSWD=0.18, probability=0.67], interpreted as
the age of the Late-Pan-African migmatitic episode (Macey et al. 2006b). The remaining rims
show evidence for zoning and metamict alteration and yielded largely discordant data with
mixed ages in the range of between about 700 and 600 Ma. A line regressed through all of the

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data gave intercepts at 1064 ± 27 Ma and 514 ± 37 Ma [MSWD=2.8]. Other rock samples
from the Culicui Suite gave comparable results.

6.3. PAN-AFRICAN GRANULITE TERRANES

6.3.1. Introduction

The Nampula sub-Province hosts three allochthonous granulitic ‘Klippen’, with ages ranging
from 735 Ma to 550 Ma (peaking at 640 Ma and 590 Ma). These include the Mugeba,
Plantação Santos and Monapo structures (Fig. 9.3). They consist of a variety of Late
Neoproterozoic high-grade gneisses and granulites intruded by alkaline ultramafic, mafic and
felsic plutonic rocks and are separated by a zone of mylonites from the underlying
Mesoproterozoic amphibolite-facies ortho- and paragneisses (about 1125 – 1075 Ma) of the
Nampula (Aquater, 1983; Cadoppi et al. 1987; Pinna et al. 1993; Kröner et al. 1997; Sacchi
et al. 1984, 2001; Roberts et al. 2005; Bingen et al. 2006; Viola et al. 2006). These
allochtonous ‘Klippen’ have been traditionally attributed to the Lúrio Belt (Pinna et al. 1993).
These high-grade rocks may correlate with other similarly aged granulitic remnants found in
Tanzania, Sri Lanka, Madagascar (Vohribory Complex) and Antarctica and form part of a
sub-continental-scale Pan-African nappe sheet (Grantham et al. 2006; Viola et al, 2006).
The Mugeba ‘Klippe’ (Fig. 9.3) extends into the area covered by this Map Explanation
(Volume 3) and was formerly attributed to the Mugeba Group comprising the ‘Allochthonous
Mylonites’ and ‘Granulitic Gneisses’ (Pinna et al. 1993). These rocks are now incorporated
into the newly established Ocua Complex.

Lúrio Thrust Belt and Ocua Complex

The ENE-WSW trending Lúrio Thrust Belt (LTB) of northeast Mozambique (Fig. 9.3) refers
to a linear tectonic melange of strongly flattened granulitic gneisses with a variety of
protoliths of various ages. The LTB supposedly represents a major tectonic boundary
between a northern Sub-province comprising the Unango and Marrupa Complexes and the
southern Nampula Sub-province (Pinna et al. 1993; Sacchi et al. 1997; Kröner et al. 2001;
Macey et al. 2005, 2006; Grantham et al. 2003, 2006).
The coherent belt of ‘allochthonous mylonites’ as shown on the earlier map of Pinna &
Marteau (1987) has not been confirmed by Thomas et al. (2005, 2006) and Bingen et al.
(2006). The latter report that the eastern parts of the belt are relatively well defined and easily
recognised on airborne magnetic images due to high-strain granulite assemblages, which
show a gradual decrease in structural intensity and metamorphic grade towards the southwest.
The granulite grade rocks that occur as pods and lenses broadly within the Lúrio Thrust Belt,
are grouped together as the Ocua Complex (Thomas et al. 2006), which replaces the Lúrio
Supergroup of Pinna et al. (1993).
The Ocua Complex comprises strongly deformed rocks with a well-defined planar
fabric. A blastomylonitic shear fabric is generally defined by variations in grain size and
compositional banding, which varies from a NE-SW strike, and <20° dip, in the southeast to a
NW-SE strike, with a shallow NE or SW dip, in the northwest. In the northeast, the dominant
structural trend is E-W with shallow dips to the north. A well-defined NNW to NW plunging

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stretching lineation indicates a SE transport direction. Based on garnet-biotite and garnet-

pyroxene-hornblende-plagioclase-quartz assemblages, Jamal (2005) determined peak
metamorphic conditions at 700 – 800ºC and 7.0 – 8.5 kb in the western parts of the LTB and
750ºC and 7.5 – 9.6 kb in the east.

Mugeba and Plantação Santos Terranes

The granulitic Mugeba ‘Klippe’ and its significantly smaller southern neighbour, the
Plantação Santos ‘Klippe’ are situated in the southern central parts of the Nampula Sub-
province and are considered allochthonous granulitic remnants or ‘Klippen’ of the Lúrio
Belt/Ocua Complex (Aquater, 1983; Sacchi et al. 1984, 2000; Pinna et al. 1993). The ovoid
Mugeba structure contains a wide range of rock types in which leucocratic charnockitic
gneisses predominate, together with subordinate garnet-bearing mafic granulites and high-
grade meta-sedimentary rocks. According to Sacchi et al. (1984), the structure is rimmed by
blastomylonitic gneiss with marked east-west orientated stretching lineations and mafic-
ultramafic gneisses.
Preliminary P,T-determinations on a metapelite and a two-pyroxene garnet granulite
sample from the Mugeba ‘Klippe’ records high pressure and high temperature granulite-facies
conditions of between 9 and 11.5 kb at 910±20º C. Following metamorphism, the rocks
underwent uplift and cooling probably related to nappe emplacement, reflected by the
development of garnet-quartz symplectites in metabasite, reflecting P,T-conditions of about 8
kb and 680 ºC (Roberts et al. 2005).
Previous geochronological studies to constrain the age of high-grade metamorphism of
the Mugeba ‘Klippe’ have provided slightly conflicting results. Initial Rb-Sr whole rock data
gave isochron ages of 1142±14 Ma, which have been interpreted by Costa et al. (1994) as the
age of granulite-facies metamorphism. More recent U-Pb zircon evaporation ages and
SHRIMP data, however, place peak metamorphic conditions at about 615 Ma (Kröner et al.
1997). New U-Pb zircon SHRIMP data provide even a younger age for peak metamorphic
conditions of 556±11 Ma (concordant), whilst the upper intercept of a discordant age suggests
protolith formation at about 1163 Ma (albeit with a large error) (Grantham et al. unpublished
data). In either of the latter two cases, granulite-facies metamorphism in the Mugeba ‘Klippe’
and emplacement is related to Pan-African age tectonic activity that clearly affected remnants
of older Mesoproterozoic crust.

Allochthonous mylonites (P2MBog)

Allochthonous mylonites are found in the northeast corner of SDS 1736. They are overlain by
quartzo-feldspathic granulitic gneisses of the Mugeba Complex and underlain by migmatitic
gneisses and leucogneisses and granitic leptynites of the Molócuè Group. The mylonites are
fine-grained, dark grey, well-banded, biotite-rich rocks (Fig. 6.12). Due to their wide area of
occurrence, they manifest a large-scale shear zone in the region.

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Fig. 6.12. Well-banded mylonites

east of Monte Mutitima (0287137/
8110923). Scale bar is 15 cm.

6.4. PAN-AFRICAN MURRUPULA SUITE

6.4.1. Introduction

The Mesoproterozoic gneisses have been intruded by two main suites of weakly to
undeformed, Late Pan-African, Cambrian to Ordivician granites: the Murrupula and Malema
Suites. The granites occur as large individual plutons (some over 10 km in diameter), and as
dyke- and pod-like apophyses of variable size, cross-cutting the older country rock units. This
granite forms prominent Inselbergs in the northwestern part of the area (SDS 1735). In the
area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3) Pan-African granites are restricted to the
Murrupula Suite (CaRgr).

6.4.2. Lithology

The weakly deformed to undeformed granitoids of the Pan-African Murrupula Suite mainly
comprise medium- to fine-grained equigranular granites in large individual batholiths up to 10
km in diameter and as dyke- and pod-like bodies that intruded older lithologies (Macey et al.
2006). Porphyritic varieties occur in small quantities.

Granite (CaRgr)
Many plutons of Pan-African granite (Fig. 6.13) occur in SDS 1737-1738, most of them close
to the northern map sheet boundary. A small body of undeformed, generally porphyritic
granite is found at the central-northern limit of SDS 1735, where it intruded high-grade
gneisses and granulites, and has a tectonic contact with charnockite and granulitic gneisses.
Coarse-grained, reddish to pink granite shows, in places, magmatic flow banding as
demonstrated by the preferred orientation of euhedral K-feldspars porphyroblasts up to 5 cm
in length. There are no indications of tectonic deformation. In places, K-feldspar blasts,
commonly with a Raapakivi texture, are ovoid in shape. Biotite and hornblende are locally
abundant. Elsewhere, mafic enclaves with K-feldspar porphyroblasts have been observed

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(Fig. 6.13B). Massive granites with pink K-feldspar phenocrysts, north and east of Namacurra
town (SDS 1737), are quarried and used in local construction works.

A B

C D

Fig. 6.13. (A) Oriented, euhedral K-feldspar phenocrysts in granite, northwest of Morrumbala village
(0772019/8088283), (B) Ovoid K-feldspar phenocrysts in a pink, coarse-grained and porphyric granite. A
mafic enclave with feldspar porphyroblasts in the left. North of Namacurra village (0292901/8084533), (C)
Coarse-grained, porphyric granite at 17347-04. (0197760/8073237), (D) Sample of Pan-African granite about
27 km west of Maganja da Costa town (0312975/8090355). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Geochemistry
Murripula granitoids are according to Macey et al. (2006b) acidic (SiO2 66.6 – 76.4 wt.%),
weakly peraluminous (ASI=0.96 – 1.11) rocks and define an alkaline magma series trend with
high K2O (about 5.3 wt.%), most LILE (especially Rb, Ba, Th, K and La) and HFSE
(especially Nd, Zr, Hf, Y and Eu) and low MgO (about 0.5 wt.%), CaO (about 1.5 wt.%),
Na2O (about 3.1 wt.%), MnO (about 0.04 wt.%), P2O5 (about 0.09 wt.%) and transition metals
(Co, Cu, Ni, V, Cr and Zn). High initial Sr isotope ratios range between 0.71863 and 0.73412
(Costa et al. 1992). The rocks classify as granites, alkali granites and monzogranites and
straddle the boundary between A-type and S/I-type granitoids on the FeOtotal/MgO versus
SiO2 diagramme (Eby, 1990) and along the VAG and Syn-Collisional Granite (Syn-COLG)
boundary and the triple junction VAG, Syn-COLG and WPG on the geodynamic
discrimination diagramme by Pearce et al. (1984).

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Age
The oldest Pan-African age is derived from the weakly deformed Mopui quartz monzonite
that yielded a precise U-Pb Concordia crystallisation age of 532±5 Ma (Macey & Armstrong,
2005). Six undeformed equigranular granite plutons gave crystallisation ages ranging from
514 to 504 Ma (U-Pb SHRIMP, all concordia ages; Macey & Armstrong, 2005; Roberts et al.
unpublished data). These ages correspond with zircon overgrowth in Mesoproterozoic
Kibaran rocks (538±8, 525±20, 505±10, 514±37, 555±12 and 502±80 Ma). The Pan-African
phase of magmatism is related to a D3 regional phase of shearing during which discretely
spaced shear bands developed. S3 leucosomes have been dated (207Pb/206Pb method) and yield
a mean age of 490±8 Ma. One granite sample yielded a significantly younger concordant U-
Pb SHRIMP age of 453 ± 7 Ma (Grantham et al. unpublished data).

Pan-African Pegmatites
At least two generations of pegmatite dykes, supposedly belonging to the Murrupula Suite,
have invaded all older rocks of the Nampula sub-Province. It includes the renowned Alto
Lihanga pegmatite field, mined for tantalite and semi-precious gemstones, which forms part
of a 170 km long belt, orientated NE-SW, extending from Mocubela, in the south to Alto
Ligonha, (SDS 1537, 1538, 1637 and 1638). The complex pegmatites represent late stage
highly fractionated REE-enriched melts that formed from partial melting and/or assimilation
of granitic melts with the various Mesoproterozoic lithologies in the region. Numerous other
smaller, less significant pegmatite districts occur around this main belt, within an area of
about 200 km radius of Alto Ligonha township. The entire region can be referred to as the
‘Alto Ligonha Pegmatite Province’ and encompasses almost every pegmatite in Mozambique
(Dias & Wilson, 2000).
Pegmatites in the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3) are mainly
composed of quartz and feldspar minerals. A syenite pegmatite was observed at Monte
Chinga-Chinga near the northwestern corner of SDS 1735, which is almost entirely composed
of microcline and small amounts of corundum. Serra do Iero, in SDS 1736, is another
prominent pegmatite with a massive quartz nucleus.
A few pegmatite bodies in garnetiferous biotite gneisses occur in SDS 1735, close to
the Malawi border. The most conspicuous body was illegally mined during the war period
(Fig. 6.14A), mainly for gemstones (blue beryl, variety aquamarine, Fig. 6.14B). Weathering
and eluvial concentration of small- to medium-sized garnets, some of them of gem quality,
has resulted in economically interesting placer deposits.

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A B

Fig. 6.14. (A) Abandonned quarry of Pan-African pegmatite, occurring northeast of Mt. Domoe
(0720838/8110140), (B) Samples of graphic potassium feldspar, biotite and blue beryl, collected from the
pegmatite dumps from the quarry. Scale bar is 10 cm.

Age
Unpublished CHIME ages of pegmatites indicate an age of about 470 to 430 Ma (Ordovician-
Silurian).

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CHAPTER 7

PHANEROZOIC COVER

7.1. INTRODUCTION
The Phanerozoic cover in Mozambique comprises all lithologies deposited after the Pan-
African Orogenic Cycle. These are generally (sub-)horizontal terrestrial to marine sediments
and associated (sub-)volcanic rocks that have not been affected by penetrative deformation
but may show extensive brittle deformation structures.
The Phanerozoic cover is conveniently divided into (from old to young) the Karoo
Supergroup and East Africa Rift sequences. The first, which has been deposited during the
Karoo Rift Event, has been divided into (1) Lower Karoo and (2) Upper Karoo Groups. The
East Africa Rift sequences comprise a loose assemblage of terrestrial to marine sedimentary
successions and associated (sub-)volcanic rocks that can, in part, be related to
rift/drift/dispersal of Gondwana and, in particular, the opening of the Indian Ocean, coeval
with the development of the East Africa Rift System (EARS).
The East Africa Rift sequences have here been divided into five sequences, i.e., (1)
Late Jurassic?-Early Cretaceous Lupata Group, and lithologic units deposited during the (2)
Middle to Late Cretaceous, (3) Late Cretaceous to Palaeocene, (4) Eocene, (5) Oligocene to
Pliocene and (6) Quaternary, respectively.

7.2. KAROO SUPERGROUP

7.2.1. Introduction

Karoo rocks in Mozambique are deposited in a number of Graben-type rift structures. These
include (from north to south) the Metangula Graben (Niassa Province), the Rovuma basin
(now passive margin; Cabo Delgado Province) and the mid-Zambezi Graben (Tete Province).
The latter is the eastward continuation of the Mana Pools/Cahora Bassa rift. Further
southwards, basic and acid lavas (including ignimbrites and tuffs) of the Lebombo and
Nuanetzi-Sabi monoclines make up the bulk of the Karoo sequence occupying a narrow belt
of Late Karoo volcanic rocks along the border of Mozambique with South Africa, Swaziland
and Zimbabwe. These strata dip eastwards, forming a monoclinal flexure, and underlie a thick
cover of Cretaceous and younger sediments of the Mozambique Basin.
Superposition of several phases of extensional brittle tectonics may produce complex
rift structures. As such, the mid-Zambezi Graben can be divided into several sub-basins. The
NW-SE trending Moatize-Luia Basin apparently formed by superposition of NE-SW directed
Cretaceous extensional tectonics superposed on the older E-W trending Mana Pools/Cahora
Bassa and mid-Zambezi Graben in the Zambezi valley (northern Zimbabwe, southern Zambia
and Tête Province). The crystalline basement block of Báruè gneisses in between constitutes a
horst block. Subsequently, during the Tertiary, E-W directed extensional forces gave rise to
N-S directed rift structures (e.g., the Lake Malawi/Niassa trend, e.g., Chire-Urema rift).
In the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3), only lithologies of the Upper
Karoo Group occur.

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7.2.2. Upper Karoo Group

Lithologies belonging to the Upper Karoo Group in the area covered by this Map Explanation
(Volume 3) are restricted to the Chueza (Basalt) Formation*. Late Karoo basalts and
rhyolites, belonging to the coastal Angoche-Nacala volcanic belt, fall just outside the area
discussed in this Map Explanation (Volume 3).

Chueza (Basalt) Formation* (JrC)

These lavas form continuous exposures from the Sinjal to the Chueza settlements in SDS
1734 (Map Explanation, Volume 2; GTK Consortium, 2006b), where the upper basalts are in
contact with the lower basalts of the Rio Mazoe (Basalt) Formation* (JrI). In the north-
western portion of SDS 1735, the basaltic sill forms an elongated NW-SE oriented polygon,
located along the margin of the Precambrian terrains where rifting took place from Triassic to
Early Jurassic time.
The unit is composed of basal, dark grey and compact amygdaloidal basalts, covered
by brecciated and vesicular basalts. The amygdales can present diameters of 5 to 8 mm and
are filled by quartz, calcite and zeolites. At Mount Cinzeiros, the geodes reach up to 30 cm in
diameter, filled with fine crystals of calcite up to 10 cm in length.

Age
This unit has not been dated. Provisionally, an Upper Triassic/Lower Jurassic age, equivalent
to the Upper Stormberg of the Main Karoo basin, South Africa, is attributed.
This above age is significantly older than the Late Karoo lavas of the Angoche
Formation* that are exposed in a NE-SW directed coastal belt between Angoche and Nacala,
just outside the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3). The latter have very
variable SiO2 contents ranging from 52 to 78% with most samples being andesitic with SiO2
contents between 54 and 62% (Jaritz et al. 1977; Grantham et al. 2004, 2006). In contrast with
Karoo basalt samples from southern Malawi, the samples plot in the calc-alkaline field after
Irvine & Barager (1971). This is confirmed by variations in the Zr/Ti*0.001 against Nb/Y
diagrammes of Winchester & Floyd (1977) and by Ti, Zr, Sr and Y contents in discrimination
diagrammes by Pearce & Cann (1973). Previous dating of the coastal basalts, include K-Ar
ages of 177 Ma and 121 Ma and Rb/Sr data of 179±14 Ma (Jaritz et al. 1977), are superseded
by recent SHRIMP U-Pb zircon data manifesting that the zircons are xenomorphic and yield
Pan-African ages of about 600 Ma. Initial 87Sr/86Sr and 144Nd/143Nd radiogenic isotope data
recalculated to 190 Ma indicate significant crustal contributions. δ18O values vary between
about +8 and about +13 and are much higher than in MORB. The data indicate that the
andesitic lavas along the northern Mozambican coast have an age typical of other late Karoo
lavas (i.e. about 180 Ma). The lavas are being interpreted to have developed in a trans-
pressional tectonic setting, in an early phase of Gondwana break-up prior to the phase of
extensional magmatism (Grantham et al. 2006).

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7.3. EAST AFRICA RIFT SEQUENCES

7.3.1. Introduction

The East Africa Rift Sequences comprise a loose assemblage of litho-stratigraphic units
composed of terrestrial to marine sedimentary strata and associated (sub-)volcanic rocks
deposited posterior to the Karoo Event during a phase of continental rift/drift/dispersal of
Gondwana. Their deposition or emplacement is broadly coeval with the development of the
East Africa Rift System (EARS) but does not imply a direct genetic relationship with the
EARS Event.
Six post-Karoo major depositional sequences, separated from each other by angular
unconformities and periods of non-deposition or erosion, have been recognised and
incorporated in a basin-wide stratigraphic framework for the Mozambique Basin (Coster et al.
1989; see also Map Explanation, Volume 1; GTK Consortium 2006a). This stratigraphic
framework is a synthesis based on surface geology and deep hydrocarbon exploration wells.
• Sequence 1: Late Jurassic(?)-Early Cretaceous deposition of the Lupata Group and
coeval emplacement of volcanics of the Chilwa Alkaline Province with Neocomian
(Berriasian till Barremian) and Aptian unconformities.
• Sequence 2: Middle to Late Cretaceous with deposition of Sena Formation* and
basin-wide intra-Senonian unconformity.
• Sequence 3: Late Cretaceous (Campanian-Maastrichtian) to Palaeocene deposition
of lower part of Grudja Formation* separated by Early Palaeocene unconformity
from upper part of Grudja Formation*
• Sequence 4: Eocene depositions Inhaminga and Cheringoma Formations above
Early Eocene and below intra- and late-Oligocene unconformities.
• Sequence 5: Oligocene-Pliocene deposition of Jofane, Inharrime, Divinhe and
Mazamba Formations* and ‘Zambezi Deltaic Complex’ in the East, erosion and
redeposition products elsewhere (Mamad, 2005).
• Sequence 6: Quaternary deposits, subdivided into Pleistocene deposits such as the
Internal Dunes, Fluvial Terraces, Coastal Sandstones (or ‘Beach Rock’) and
Lacustrine Limestones and Holocene deposits such as flood plain deposits of a
sandy-clayey or mud composition, coastal dunes and alluvial deposits.

7.3.2. Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous – Sequence 1: Lupata Group

Introduction
Renewed rifting of Gondwana was heralded by emplacement of carbonatites and associated
igneous rocks in southern Malawi and adjacent parts of Mozambique. They belong to the
Chilwa Alkaline Province10 (Bloomfield, 1961), a dominantly alkaline, silica-undersaturated
group of igneous intrusions of Late Jurassic(?) to Early Cretaceous age, which postdate the
Stormberg volcanic episode at the closure of the Karoo Event (Woolley & Garson, 1970) with
about 40 Ma.

10
Named after a carbonatite complex in Lake Chilwa (Lago Chiuta) at the border between Malawi and
Mozambique.

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Teale & Wilson (1915) and Dixey & Campbell Smith (1929) described the volcano-
sedimentary type-sequence in the Lupata Gorge of the Zambezi River (SDS 1633 and 1634;
Map Explanation, Volume 4; GTK Consortium, 2006d). Mennel (1929) coined the names
‘Upper Lupata Sandstones’ and ‘Lower Lupata Sandstones’ for the sandstones occurring
above and below rhyolitic rocks. Araújo et al. (1968) referred to this mixed clastic-volcanic
sequence as ‘Lupata Series’, making references to the ‘Upper Lupata Sandstones’ on top of
rhyolites and tuffs. Based on observations in the Doa and Lupata regions, Afonso (1975)
introduced the term ‘Lupata Group’, divided into the Upper and Lower Lupata Formations.
The Lower Lupata Formation is a volcano-sedimentary sequence with basal feldspathic
sandstones, topped by rhyolite flows with fluidal breccias and tuffs. These members were
formerly known as Feldspathic Sandstones and Acid Lavas, respectively. The Upper Lupata
Formation comprised (from bottom to top) conglomeratic sandstones, sandstone with
tuffaceous intercalations, trachytic agglomerate and trachyte and basalt. Based on field
observations and map analysis in the Lupata type-locality, the GTK Consortium (Map
Explanation, Volume 4; GTK Consortium, 2006d) has re-defined the Lupata Group and
proposes – in line with international nomenclature – the informal formation and member
names as presented in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1. Litho-stratigraphic units in the Lupata Group (GTK Consortium, 2006d).

Sub- Age
Group Formation* Member
Group (Ma)
Trachytic agglomerate 106±7
Upper

Monte Linhanga Phonolite to

131±10
Sandstone-Tuff
Lupata

Monte Mazambulo
Conglomeratic
Lower

Monte Sandstone
Palamuli Rhyolite 166±10?

Tchazica Basal Sandstone

In the area covered by this Map Explanation, the Lupata Group is represented by the
Monte Mazambulo (Conglomeratic Sandstone) Formation*.

Monte Mazambulo Formation* (JrLM)

This unit is locally known as Rio M’Fidze Formation* and is exposed in a single narrow
NNW-SSE trending polygon, about 20 km in length, from Dona Ana town to Nhacurule
River, north of Mutarara village along the western margin of SDS 1735.
Major rock types comprise pink to whitish, pure and tuffaceous sandstones with
variable grain sizes and with local conglomerate horizons, showing similarities to Sena
sandstones. Monte Mazambulo sandstones, however, do not contain alkaline lava pebbles,
which are common in Sena sandstones.

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Age
Initially, the volcanic rocks of the Lupata Group have been correlated with the Late Karoo
volcanics of the Karoo Large Igneous Province (KLIP). No modern geochronological data are
available. Older K40 - Ar40 data yielded ages of about 106 to about 130 Ma (Barremian-
Albian; Upper Early Cretaceous). Rhyolites are even dated at about 166 Ma (Late Jurassic;
see Table 7.2). Correlation of these (ultra)potassic magmatic rocks with about 140 Ma
kimberlites from the Metangula Graben (Key et al. 2006) is likely and thus suggests an Early
Cretaceous age.

Table 7.2. Age determinations volcanic rocks of Lupata Group.

Mineral/
Location Rock type Method Age (Ma) Source
Rock dated
Lupata Gorge Kenyte* Anorthoclase K-Ar 106±7 Gough et al. (1964)
Lupata Gorge Kenyte* Anorthoclase K-Ar 110±5 Gough et al. (1964)
Lupata Gorge Kenyte* Whole Rock K-Ar 115±10 Flores (1964)
Lupata Gorge ‘Basalt’ Feldspar K-Ar 131±10 Vail (1963, 1964, 1965)
Lupata Gorge Rhyolite Whole Rock K-Ar 166±10 Flores (1964)

* Kenyte is a phonolitic lava studded with 2.5cm anorthoclase crystals and named after Mt Kenya.

7.3.3. Middle to Late Cretaceous – Sequence 2

Sequence 2 deposits in the area covered by this Map Explanation are restricted to the Sena
Formation*.

Sena Formation* (CrSb)

Sedimentary strata of the Sena Formation* overlie lithologies of the Karoo Supergroup and
Lupata Group or, in places, overstep them onto the crystalline basement. These rocks occupy
narrow tracts of country along the western margin of SDS 1735 and 1835 at the base of the
Cheringoma Plateau, 25 km west of Caia town and south of the Zambezi River. They form the
eastward extension of vast exposures covering the Chire-Urema Graben and the southern
Lupata Trough. The unit reaches its maximum known thickness of 2,800 m in the Urema
Graben as shown in hydrocarbon well data (drill hole Inhaminga 5). In the Zambezi delta a
thickness of about 2000 m, with Albian and Turonian strata has been demonstrated (drill hole
Nhamura 1). The strata prograde towards the southeast, indicating a fluvio-deltaic
environment. The Sena sands and gravels form a flat featureless countryside. On airborne
magnetic maps these rocks show a very low magnetic susceptibility. Their natural
radioactivity is moderate but distinct zoning can be observed in places and appears to be
related to the proportion of sandy versus clayey material.

Lithology
The Sena Formation* comprises the former Grès de Sena (Sena Sandstone) and the litho-
stratigraphically equivalent Grès de Tete. The unit represents the ‘Continental Cretaceous’
and is mainly composed of brownish but sometimes reddish or brownish yellow to light grey,
medium- to coarse-grained, conglomeratic or arkosic sandstone (Fig. 7.1), which occur in the
western part of SDS 1735. Angular or sub-rounded quartz and feldspar grains and unaltered

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feldspars indicate a proximal source and/or rapid deposition. The rock is barely cemented or
contains carbonate cement. Intraformational conglomerate horizons or pebble layers occur in
places. Pebbles are derived from basement granite, gneiss, quartzite and, sometimes, rhyolite
and alkaline lavas of the Lupata Group (Lächelt, 2004). These conglomeratic sandstones are
massive and in places cross-bedded. Eluvial concentration of pebbles may give rise to a
pebble-rich coverage on top of the unit. Drill hole data indicate that the lower part of this unit
comprises impure limestone layers and calcareous clay stones with fragments of fish scales,
arthropods and fossil flora.
Deposition is believed to have taken place in an alluvial flood plain followed by
deposition in a lacustrine environment (Lucas & Afonso, 1965).
The Sena Formation*, together with the equally Cretaceous Grudja Formation*, are
exposed at the base of the Cheringoma Plateau, 15 km west of Inhamitanga village, in a flat
region on the right flank of the Zangue River valley (northwest corner of SDS 1835). The
Sena Formation* forms an elongate, 2 km wide, NE-SW trending polygon. The unit, in which
no fossils have been identified, presents an environment of rapid, proximal sedimentation.

Fig. 7.1. Arkosic sandstone of the

Sena (Conglomeratic Sandstone)
Formation*, 30 km south of
Mutarara village (0715890/
8043880). Number plate is about 10
cm.

Age
Initially considered as Undifferentiated Cretaceous aged (de Andrade, 1929), the Sena
sandstones have been dated as Albian-Turonian (Middle Cretaceous) by palynological
methods (although the facies may continue into the Late Cretaceous). This is confirmed by
the fact that Sena sandstones are resting, in places, on top the Lupata alkaline lavas, with (K-
Ar) ages of about 115 to 105 Ma, suggesting a Cenomanian-Turonian age.

7.3.4. Late Cretaceous to Palaeocene – Sequence 3

This sequence corresponds to the time of deposition of the Lower and Upper Grudja,
separated by an Early Palaeocene unconformity and hiatus, in the western part of the
Mozambique Basin coeval with the deposition of marine shales and deep water carbonates in
the eastern part and off-shore. The footwall and hanging wall of the sequence are formed by

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an intra-Senonian (= Late Cretaceous) and Early Eocene unconformity and hiatus,

respectively.

Grudja Formation* (CrG)

Introduction
Most of the exposures attributed to the Grudja (Sandstone) Formation* occur in a narrow,
NE-SW directed belt in SDS 1835 and SDS 1934 (Map Explanation, Volumes 3 and 2; GTK
Consortium, 2006c,b).

Lithology
The Grudja Formation* consists of progressive marine strata, starting with a basal bed with
Lopha (Alectryonia) ungulata, which is used as a marker-horizon separating the Grudja from
the Sena Formation*. The Grudja Formation* is composed of yellow-greenish calcarenites or
glauconitic calcarenites with rare limestone interbeds (Moura et al. 1968). These rocks
contain an abundance of microfossils that in the lower, marly-silty part are characterised by
the presence of Alectronya ungulate and Hexogyres and, to the top, by a fauna containing
various species of foraminifera including Cibicides sp., Nodosaria sp., Marginulina sp.,
Robulus sp. (Flores, 1964).
Field observations demonstrate a transgressive passage from the terrestrial Sena
sandstones to the marine Grudja sequence, composed of fine-grained sandstones, siltstones
and argillitic sandstones. Basal strata comprise yellowish, coarse-grained marine sandstones
and yellowish or reddish siltstones with abundant fossils at the base (Alectryonia ungulata,
Ostrea sp., Cardium sp., Cardita sp. and fragments of Inoceramus sp.). At observation point
10736-04, fossils of Cardium sp. have been observed and collected. The above sandstones are
covered by fine-grained, calcareous sandstones, yellowish to whitish grey siltstones and fine-
grained, yellowish to light grey glauconitic sandstones with Gryphea vesicularis, Gryphea
convexa, Veniella forbesiana, Baculites cf. vagina, Obulus sp., briozoa, fish teeth, Cibicides
sp., Nodosaria sp., Marginulina sp., ostracoda, etc. Medium- to coarse-grained, white, and
sometimes conglomeratic calcarenites (Fig. 7.2) with marine macrofauna occur in places
(northwest part of SDS 2034). These may contain small mafic rock fragments.

Fig. 7.2. Close-up photo of white, coarse-grained

calcarenite of the Grudja Formation*. Near Zambezi
River, northwest of Marromeu village (0774049/
8004584). Scale bar is 8 cm.

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7.3.5. Serra Morrumbala Suite

Introduction
Carbonatites and associated alkaline rocks – nephelinite and phonolite plugs, alkaline dykes,
dolerite and granophyre – occur throughout the area, particularly in adjacent Malawi and also
form part of the Chilwa Alkaline Province defined by Bloomfield (1961). Their distribution
appears related to the margins of the Lupata Trough, the Chire and the Urema Graben and
manifest igneous activity associated with reactivation of older basement faults.
In the Map Explanation area (central SDS 1735), the rocks of the Serra da Morrumbala
type-locality are composed of a rounded, alkaline plug, mostly comprising alkaline granite,
surrounded by syenite. The GTK Consortium has identified the following mappable units (1)
Quartz veins (CrMRq), (2) Alkaline intrusions (plug) and diabases (CrMRa), (3) Syenite
(CrMRs) and (4) Tuffites and volcanic breccias (CrMRv).

Quartz veins (CrMRq)

Quartz veins are common south of Serra da Morrumbala (SDS 1735) and form small,
elongated hills and ridges, which have mostly trends close to 100° and 160°. In places, the
dykes are brecciated.

Alkaline intrusion and diabase dykes (CrMRa)

Massive, medium-grained alkaline granites form the prominent Serra da Morrumbala massif
(SDS 1735; Fig. 7.3A). The usually granophyric granites are mainly composed of often
microperthitic K-feldspar, biotite and hornblende, while pyroxene, quartz and plagioclase
occur in subordinate quantities (Fig. 7.3B). Na-bearing hornblende and pyroxene show
alkaline affinities.

A B

Fig. 7.3. (A) Alkaline granite

mountain of Serra da Morrumbala,
seen from the west, (B) Detail of
alkaline granite. Eastern part of Serra
da Morrumbala (0755412/ 8068254).
Number plate is about 8 cm.

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Fine-grained, brownish grey to dark grey diabase dykes are found in several places,
usually forming small boulder hills or ridges. These dykes are undeformed, and either related
to late Karoo (e.g., the Rukore Suite) or to Cretaceous magmatism. In the Serra da
Morrumbala area they are, in places, strongly porphyritic, with megacrystic plagioclase
phenocrysts (Fig. 7.4).

Fig. 7.4. A boulder of plagioclase

porphyry dyke, west of Serra da
Morrumbala (0750170/8067956).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

Syenite (CrMRs)
Syenite is exposed in boulder clusters of non-deformed, pink, coarse-grained rock along the
northern, western, and southern slopes of Serra da Morrumbala (Fig. 7.5). The rocks are
composed of K-feldspar, subordinate quartz and biotite. Mafic dykes have intruded the
syenite.

Fig. 7.5. Intrusive rocks of the Serra da Morrumbala

Suite. Boulders of syenite outcropping at the western
slope of Serra da Morrumbala (0748834/8068807).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

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Tuffite and volcanic breccia (CrMRv)

Light grey to yellowish, fine-grained, finely stratified felsic tuffites are found at the top of
Serra da Morrumbala. They show a rhythmic, mm-scale alternation of dark and light grey
laminae (075/60), resting on peripheral syenites and a central alkaline intrusion (Figs. 7.6A
and 7.6B). The tuffite supposedly represents the final co-magmatic stage of the alkaline
magmatic event.
Various dykes and volcanic vents are exposed north and south of the Zambezi River,
in the Dona Ana-Sena area, along the western map sheet boundary of SDS 1735 (Fig. 7.6C).
They are situated, without exception, within the eastern edge of the Chire-Zangue Graben.
The larger vents include the isolated hills of Balamuana, Bambe and Massangano and are
mainly composed of basaltic lavas (augite basalt, olivine basalt, nepheline basalt) (Fig. 7.6D).
Associated dykes, up to 2 km in length, include porphyries and volcanic breccias. About 200
m northeast of Monte Toma, a unit of banded chert with calcium carbonate of possible
hydrothermal origin occurs.

A B

C D

Fig. 7.6. (A) Fragments of layered, fine-grained felsic rocks at the top of Serra da Morrumbala
(0751240/ 8067925), (B) Geomorphological expression of the Serra da Morrumbala tuffites, viewed from the
edge of its western slope, (C) General view of several volcanic vents occurring in the southern bank of the
Zambezi River, opposite Dona Ana town, (D) Internal part of an alkaline basalt vent, which has been quarried
in the past for road material and aggregate stone (0720334/ 8071180). Scale bar is 10 cm.

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Age
In the easternmost part of SDS 1634, in the Zemira railway yard, a single vent of basaltic
lavas has intruded sandstones of the Middle to Upper Cretaceous Sena Formation*.
Consequently, these rocks have been emplaced posterior to the Middle to Late Cretaceous
Sena Formation*.

7.3.6. Eocene-Oligocene Deposition – Sequence 4

In the eastern and offshore parts of the Mozambique Basin marine sedimentation continued
without interruptions. In the western part, this phase of basin development started with a
Palaeocene to Early Eocene hiatus and unconformity and terminates with an intra-Oligocene
and Late Oligocene unconformity and hiatus. Sequence 4 includes the Inhaminga and
Cheringoma Formations*.

Inhaminga Formation* (TeI)

Introduction
Outside the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3), rocks of the Oligocene
Inhaminga Formation* are covered, in places, by rocks belonging to Cheringoma and
Mazamba Formations*. Best outcrops of the Inhaminga purple sandstones are located along
the Massamba River, about 25 km southwest of Inhaminga town11 (SDS 1834). Inside the
map area, rocks of the Inhaminga Formation* are found in the north-western corner of SDS
1835 and the south-western corner of SDS 1735, where the unit rests discordantly on top of
the Mapai Formation* and is covered by Quaternary floodplain muds.

Lithology
The unit comprises a basal part composed of red to cream-coloured, fine- to medium-grained,
poorly bedded, argillitic, micaceous sandstones. The rock contains small fossils of gastropods
and lamellibranchia. The upper parts of the unit are coarser grained, including some pebbles
of generally angular vein quartz (Fig. 7.7). The mica content is lower than in the bottom part
of the sequence.
At Sambize River, located 65 km southwest of Massamba River, the succession starts
with a coarse-grained conglomerate with pebbles and boulders of basement granite, gneiss,
quartzite and Karoo basalt, cemented by a sandy or, in places, a mixed sand-carbonate matrix.
Overlying these conglomerates, yellow or grey, fine- to medium-grained, very micaceous
sandstones are found, with rare Nummulites, which, in turn, are overlain by purple, medium-
grained, micaceous sandstones, also with Nummulites. At the top, reddish, fine-grained
sandstones occur with lamellibranchia and gastropoda. Identified fossils include Turritela sp.,
Ostra sp., Protocardia sp., and Pecten sp., as well as small crustacaea and foraminifera
(Quinqueloculina, Robulus, and Cancris). These fossils and sedimentary facies indicate
deposition in littoral, open marine environment, possibly with deltaic intercalations.

11
Inhaminga township itself is located on the Mazamba Formation*

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A B

Fig. 7.7. Sandstones of the Inhaminga Formation*. (A) A typical flat outcrop of coarse-grained sandstone. B)
Close-up photograph of conglomeratic sandstone, which comprises quartz clasts up to 3 cm in size. Road
between Inhaminga and Marromeu villages. (767381/ 8001839). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Age
The Inhaminga Formation* is supposedly Late Oligocene in age.

Cheringoma Formation* (TeC)

Introduction
Between 18° S and 20° 30' S rocks of the Cheringoma Formation* are exposed in a NE-SW
directed zone, interrupted by the Miocene, N20°-N40° trending Urema Graben, along the
western flank of the Inhaminga Horst and west of the Urema Graben in the eastern flank of
the Búzi River. Along the flanks of the Cheringoma plateau, they reach 70 m of thickness.
The southern outcrops of this unit rest directly on Sena conglomeratic sandstones.

Lithology
Oolithic, glauconitic and white limestones, enriched in Nummulites, constitute a characteristic
lithologic unit called Cherinyoma or Cheringoma Formation* (the latter name will be
preferred). The basal greenish part contains glauconite and is devoid of fossils. Both facies
measure 50 m and comprise dominant nummulitic levels.
The deposits of the Cheringoma Formation* represent an open marine, infra- to circa-
littoral environment, with clear waters, devoid of fine clastic particles and tropical climatic
conditions.

Age
In the eastern parts of the Mozambique Basin the Eocene/Oligocene Cheringoma Formation*
was deposited without interruption on the Palaeocene. In the Zambezi River delta the Early
Eocene is missing (Flores, 1973) and further westwards a Late Maastrichtian to Ypresian
hiatus interrupts the stratigraphic column.

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7.3.7. Miocene-Pliocene – Sequence 5

In the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3) this sequence only comprises the
Mazamba Formation*.

Mazamba Formation* (TeZ)

Introduction
The Mazamba (Sandstone) Formation* was formerly named Inhaminga Beds or Inhaminga
Sandstones (Flores, 1959). Main exposures of this unit are located on the Cheringoma
Plateau, along the Massamba River (Map Explanation, Volume 1; GTK Consortium, 2006a).
Similar rocks have been found further southwards on both sides of the Save River, where they
were formerly called Chicolane Formation (Barrocoso, 1968). The Chicolane conglomeratic
sandstones rest on the Urrongas Limestone Member of the Jofane Formation. Elsewhere,
Mazamba sandstones overlie unconformably Inhaminga purple sandstones or Cheringoma
limestones.
Rocks of the Mazamba Formation* are exposed south of the lower Zambezi River, in
the banks of the Búzi River and in its nearby plateau with main distributions in areas covered
by SDS 2033, 2034 and 2133, with minor polygons in SDS 2132 and 2134. The unit presents
its largest extension along the northern and southern banks of the Save River (SDS 2133),
resting on top of the Jofane Formation* further east, when following the river down stream
(SDS 2134). In the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3) the Mazamba
Formation* is found in the southwestern corner of SDS 1735 and an extensive area in the
western part of SDS 1835.

Lithology
The Mazamba Formation* comprises a continental arenaceous-sandstone-conglomeratic
sequence, composed of detritic deposits of unsorted argillaceous sandy or conglomeratic
material, resting on top of the mostly marine Jofane Formation* (Fig. 7.8). In places,
sandstone boulders may reach 10 – 15 cm in diameter. The pebbles are overwhelmingly
composed of quartzite, with minor proportions of saccharoidal sandstone and carbonate. The
cement in the matrix-supported conglomerates is argillaceous and, depending on degree of
lateritisation, the rock shows a variable colour ranging from yellow to red (Figs. 7.8B and
7.8C). Pale kaolinite is commonly found in association with detrital feldspar.
In the northern part of the Lower Zambezi (Baixo Zambeze) and Save/Limpopo Basins
and the region overlying the Inhaminga Horst, the depositional facies becomes typically
littoral and is constituted by arkosic and conglomeratic sandstones of Chicolane (formerly
Chicolane Formation; Barrocoso, 1968).

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A B

Fig. 7.8. Sandstones of the Mazamba Formation*. (A)

Small outcrop at the road, (B) Coarse-grained,
slightly pinkish sandstone, (C) Close-up photograph
of sandstone, which comprises quartz clasts, several
millimetres in size. All photos have been taken 2 km
northwest of Inhaminga town (0712524/ 7964741).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

7.3.8. Quaternary – Sequence 6

Quaternary deposits cover a substantial part of SDS 1737/1738/1739 and the bulk of SDS
1835, 1836 and 1935. Their deposition is only partly controlled by endogenic forces exercised
during continued rift/drift/dispersal of Gondwana and development of the Mozambique Basin.
More important parameters governing Quaternary deposition are, however, exogenic
processes, notably significant sea level fluctuations due to the alternation of glacial and intra-
glacial episodes. As always, the mappable units deposited during this period are related to
their environment of deposition (marine, lacustrine, fluvial, aeolian, old soils, etc.) and to the
relative age in the different regions and physiographical units of the country.
The proposed chronology deals with four advances (transgressions) and five retreats
(regressions) of the sea, corresponding to the glacial and interglacial phases:
• Episode 1, corresponds to a transgression and alluvial and lacustrine sedimentation
maintained over a zone locally more than 100 km west of the actual coastline.
• Episode 2, a first regression of the sea corresponding with a second lacustrine
interphase east of the former one.

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• Episode 3, marked by fluvial deposition covering a marine abrasion glacis.

Alluvial deposits are partially blocked by a consolidated dune barrier, which
constitutes an obstacle to the normal fluvial discharge into an open sea. At the
interphase of fresh and salty waters in the intra-dune lakes, the first level of
diatomite has been deposited.
• Episode 4, the intra-dune depositional channels change with the accretion of new
dune barriers. Between the sea tides and lakes, lagoons with mangrove were
formed.

For practical reasons, Quaternary deposits, can be subdivided into Pleistocene deposits
such as the Internal Dunes, Coastal Sandstones (or ‘Beach Rock’), Fluvial Terraces, and
Lacustrine Limestones and Holocene deposits such as flood plain deposits of sandy-clayey or mud
composition, coastal dunes and alluvial deposits.

Fluvial terrace gravel and sand (Qt)

These gravel and sand deposits, located above the recent alluvium on both side of the
Zambezi River e.g., northwest of the Mutarara village (SDS 1735), represent the oldest
Quaternary unit in the Map Explanation area.
Terrace deposits are poorly cemented, reddish sandstones and conglomerates (Fig.
7.9) with clasts and boulders, up to 15 cm in size, usually composed of felsic volcanic rock
and vein quartz. Their matrix is typically rich in carbonate. Texturally, the rocks are bedded
and often show gentle dips.

Fig. 7.9. Conglomerate layer

in cemented fluvial terrace
sand deposit. Northwest of
Mutarara village
(0717726/8077613). Scale bar
is 8 cm.

Eluvial floodplain mud (Qpi)

This unit covers large areas with a flat topography and is situated at lower elevations with
respect to higher ground formed by the mud-arenaceous floodplains (Qps). Areas underlain
by this unit have a very low permeability due to the high clay content and, consequently, they
form frequently inundated zones with lagoons and swamps persisting for a long time after

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cessation of the rainfall. It is assumed that the origin of these floodplains is linked with the
development of small and shallow sea channels in between the eluvial clayey sand
floodplains. These deposits underlie the eluvial floodplain clayey sand deposits and present
more iron oxides than the previous, and are non-permeable and characterised by their ochre
yellowish to reddish colour.
In SDS 1835 and 1935, these deposits are basically distributed in the central portion of
the map sheets, bordering the alluvials located to the east (Fig. 7.10). In SDS 1836, they only
occur in intra-dune regions and are not very extensive.

Fig. 7.10. General overview

of eluvial floodplain mud
deposits in SDS 1935.

Colluvial deposits (Qc)

Relatively scarce colluvial deposits occur in patches within the coastal zone and along
escarpments in the Chire-Zangue Graben. Colluvial deposits are formed by debris of the
crystalline basement, Karoo volcanics and from other Phanerozoic rocks. It is concluded that
most of these deposits are beyond the map scale as, e.g., in SDS 1737 in an area located just
outside of Maganja town, along the road going to Mocubela.
Colluvial deposits occur in a small polygon located in the northwest corner of SDS
1835, at the base of the Cheringoma escarpment.

Raised beach sediment/Costal sand(stone) (Qcs)

The Coastal Sandstones or ‘Raised-beach sediments’ are lithified, carbonate-cemented,
fossiliferous, unsorted, occasionally cross-bedded arenaceous rocks. This type of deposit
occurs on some small island east of Pebane town (SDS 1738). They may also be found as
discontinuous narrow exposures along the present coastline.
Recent fossils (Ostrea sp.), particularly concentrated in the upper part of the unit,
demonstrate their Quaternary (Early Holocene-Pleistocene) age.

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Eluvial floodplain clayey sand (Qps)

Eluvial flood plain deposits cover vast areas in SDS 1835. They are composed of a rather
sandy unit at the top, which rests on a more clayey member exposed along streams within
numerous round to irregularly shaped depressions.
This unit is composed of loose clay and spherical or rounded, generally dull silica sand
grains with occasional indentation features caused by the wind ablation. Sand colours vary
with reddish tints occurring most frequently. Near the crystalline basement, particularly in
areas west of Maganja village, small eluvial floodplain clayey sand deposits are found but too
small to be presented in the geological map (Fig. 7.11). These deposits were most likely
formed during the Pleistocene by erosion acting on older sandstone units, especially the
Mazamba Formation*, which produced this extensive eluvial cover. These sandy flood plain
deposits are thus considered as being of proximal derivation.
Eluvial floodplain clayey sand deposits are very permeable and host rather dense
vegetation. In SDS 1835 these deposits occur from north to south, east of the Tertiary and
older terrains and are bounded in the east by alluvials belonging to the Zambezi River delta,
extending till the coast. SDS 1935 is also largely covered by this type of deposit, strictly in
combination with eluvial floodplain mud deposits. The unit extends up to the coastline, where
not extensive alluvial deposits and coastal dunes in parallel ridges rest on top of it.

Fig. 7.11. Sandy eluvial

deposits, 35 km west of
Maganja da Costa town in
map sheet SDS 1737
(0310216/8092057). Scale bar
is 10 cm.

Internal Dunes (Qdi)

Lithified dunes were observed some kilometres inland from the coast (Fig. 7.12), in SDS
1737. Obviously these are older longitudinal internal dunes distributed along the current
coastal zone, forming roughly NE-SW directed ridges.
Particularly in SDS 1836, possible internal dunes present a NE-SW general trend,
almost parallel to the actual coastline, having the biggest distribution between Inhassunge and
Micaúne villages (Fig. 7.13). In this area, they don’t exceed 15 m in altitude and are
composed of fine- to medium-grained silica sands. Sand grains are rounded with yellowish or,

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occasionally, darker colours. Palm tree plantations normally occupy these older internal dune
systems. Their continuity is frequently interrupted by river deltaic systems.
The internal dunes have a Pleistocene age, reflecting a lower sea level and different
palaeo-climate (notably preferential wind direction) and formed during the latest glacial
period. This is confirmed by fossils of Gerithium, Tapes and Tellina found in the similar
sands in Inhambane, southern Mozambique (Map Explanation, Volume1; GTK Consortium,
2006).

Fig. 7.12. Lithified Internal

Dune north of the Macuze
village (0308600/ 8053382).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

Fig. 7.13. Coastal sand dunes

(or internal dunes?) in the
Zambazi River delta area,
southwest of Chinde village
(0222890/ 7932127).

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Pebble-bearing debris (Qp)

Extensive horizons, composed of pebble-bearing debris layers, are common in the vicinity of
Pebane town (SDS 1738). They occur south of gneisses and form slightly elevated hills
compared to other Quaternary deposits nearby. The distribution of these sediments is, in
practice, interpreted from satellite images.

Alluvial mud of fluvial-marine origin (Qst)

Along some littoral areas, dark grey to black marine mud deposits are found. They have high
clay contents and are deposited by frequent seawater floods. The unit is rather common in the
coast zone of SDS 1836.

Alluvium, sand, silt and gravel (Qa)

Alluvial deposits, underlying featureless flat lands, are composed of fluvial sand, silt and
gravel. In alluvial flats they generally show fining-upwards with conglomerates at the base,
covered by intermediate sandy and surface argillaceous deposits. In this respect they differ
from mass flow deposits, including alluvial fans and ‘wash-out’ deposits that may show only
incipient or no granoclassification. Alluvial deposits also include deltaic deposits, which
occur in all map sheets constituting the area covered by this Map Explanation, particularly in
SDS 1835 and 1836.
Deltaic deposits are found near the mouth of large rivers and their tributaries and form
vast plains cut by an irregular hydrographic network of active and abandoned channels.
Alternating beds of clay and sand are found in depth. Along rivers they form banks and shoals
due to the natural meandering behaviour of rivers in flat terrains. This unit also includes
overbank mud deposits found in some littoral areas. They are composed of dark grey to black
clay and manifest periodic and frequent flooding (Fig. 7.14).
Alluvial deposits produce relatively fertile soils and are used for sugar cane growing
along both banks of the Zambezi River, close to Marromeu town (SDS 1835) and Luabo town
(SDS 1836). In SDS 1935, alluvials form a NE-SW trending strip between the eluvial deposits
and the coastal sands and dunes.
In places, e.g., in SDS 1736, alluvial sand and gravel are exploited on an artisanal
scale in small open pits (Fig. 7.15).

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Fig. 7.14. Alluvial clayey

deposit located close to the
coastline, 10 km south of
Maganja da Costa town.
(0346725/ 8073881).

Fig. 7.15. Gravel and pebbly

sand deposits in pit northwest
of Quelimane town.
(0258517/8062294). Scale bar
is 10 cm.

Coastal dune and beach sand deposits (Qd)

All along the littoral area recent aeolian and marine sands have been deposited. These
generally unconsolidated sands originate from the combined action of fluvial supply and
erosional factors such as wind, sea waves, tidal and along-shore currents. Unlike the red- and
brown-coloured Pleistocene Internal Dunes, recent dunes show white to light grey to
yellowish colours (Figs. 7.16A and 7.16C). Active coastal dunes derive from elutriation of
beach sands and the selection of sand grain sizes is a function of the prevailing wind
velocities. Due to prolonged winnowing sand grains are generally well rounded.
Coastal dunes are practically non-existent in SDS 1835 and 1935, but are more widely
developed in SDS 1737/1738/1739 (Fig. 7.16B).

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A B

Fig. 7.16. (A) Coastal flattened dunes and coastal

sand at Cabúri beach, 40 km SSE of Maganja da
Costa town (0353805/8061692), (B) Rare coastal
dunes distributed close to the light house along the
Savane seashore (0716574/7817342), (C) Detail of a
coastal sand deposit (0315357/8039360). Scale bar is
10 cm.

Thermal spring deposits

Two thermal springs are found in the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3).
Águas Quentes (SDS 1735), located some 20 km west of Morrumbala town at the foot of the
eastern slope of Serra da Morrumbala, is known for its supposedly curative properties since
1898. The second is Nhafuba (SDS 1736), situated about 35 km northwest of Nicoadala town
(Chapter 10, Figs. 10.2 and 10.3).
Both springs emit high-sulphur gases and hot water with a temperature above 70° C.
The Nhafuba spring precipitates carbonate, silica and salts, which form typical hydrothermal
sinter deposits comprising fine, contorted laminae.
These thermal springs are supposedly related to Early Cretaceous or younger mantle
plume activity, coeval with and triggering rift/drift/dispersal of Gondwana or, more likely, as
demonstrated by their location at the margins of the Zambezi River valley, they are related
with Cainozoic-Quaternary rifting along the East African Rift System (EARS).

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CHAPTER 8

STRUCTURE AND METAMORPHISM

8.1. INTRODUCTION
The area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3) comprises a crystalline basement of
the Nampula sub-Province and a Phanerozoic cover. The major part of the crystalline
basement of northern Mozambique is composed of Mesoproterozoic rocks that have been
emplaced or deposited prior to, or during the Kibaran/Grenville Orogenic Cycle and reworked
during the Pan-African Orogenic Cycle. A smaller portion of the crystalline basement has a
truly Pan-African age.
Phanerozoic cover rocks in the area discussed in this Map Explanation (Volume 3)
have been conveniently divided into the syn-rift Karoo Supergroup and a number of loosely
grouped lithologies, deposited or emplaced coeval with rift/drift/dispersal of Gondwana,
concomitant with the development of the East Africa Rift System (EARS). These rocks have
not been affected by dynamo-thermal (or regional) metamorphism and penetrative
deformation. Episodic and repeated brittle deformation is, however, widespread and played,
together with thermal subsidence, sediment loading and eustatic sea level fluctuations a major
role in the development of the Mozambique Basin.

8.2. METAMORPHIC AND STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE

PRECAMBRIAN BASEMENT
8.2.1. Introduction

The crystalline basement of the area discussed in this Map Explanation (Volume 3) – the
Mutarara (SDS 1735), Quelimane (SDS 1736) and Namacurra/Maganja/Pebane (SDS
1737/1738/ 1739) map sheets – is traditionally considered to constitute a small part of the
East Gondwana Terrane. The southernmost tectono-stratigraphic domain of the East
Gondwana Terrane in northern Mozambique is named Nampula sub-Province (Macey et al.
2006a,b). The rocks of the Nampula sub-Province exhibit structural fabrics, which formed as
a result of at least three or four major ductile and semi-ductile deformation events (D1, D2a,
D2b, D3) during two, perhaps three, major orogenic episodes during the Mesoproterozoic (D1,
Kibaran/Grenville), the Neoproterozoic (D2, Pan-African) and the early Palaeozoic Eras (D3 ,
late Pan-African) (Macey et al. 2006b).

8.2.2. Kibaran/Grenville Deformation and Metamorphism

The Mocuba Suite has a magmatic age of about 1125 Ma and was deformed and
metamorphosed soon after (1117 – 1090 Ma). This Kibaran/Grenville D1-deformation,
restricted to the Mesoproterozoic migmatitic gneisses is coeval with M1 amphibolite facies
metamorphism and migmatisation and corresponds with the Mozambique Cycle of Pinna &
Marteau (1987) and Pinna et al. (1993). D1 has produced a metamorphic or migmatic banding
(S1). The presence of D1 deformation features allows distinguishing the Mocuba rocks from

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younger (1095 – 1975 Ma) gneisses (Mamala Gneiss, Molócuè Complex, Rapale Gneiss, and
Culicui Suite) constituting the Nampula sub-Province (Macey et al. 2006b). The Mocuba
rocks were deformed (see Age Section Molócuè Group) possibly during subsequent arc
amalgamation and/or accretion (the D1/M1 dynamo-thermal event).

8.2.3. Pan-African Deformation and Metamorphism

The Pan-African Orogeny (about 750 – 550 Ma) represents the main deformation (D2) event
in the Nampula sub-Province, coeval with M2 amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphism
and migmatisation. D2 has led to the development of a predominant and penetrative regional
S2 ductile foliation (gneissosity, and locally schistosity) and, more locally, a L2 stretching
lineation, which is observed in all rock types except the youngest granites and pegmatites
(480 – 430 Ma). The S1 planar fabric has been largely transposed and obliterated by the
younger penetrative Pan-African S2 planar fabric. Evidence for the D1 event is restricted to
isoclinal intrafolial folded leucosomes with fold closures and more rarely rootless isoclinal
fold structures (Macey et al. 2006b). The S2 planar fabric is expressed by the preferred
orientation of platy minerals (e.g., biotite), m-scale compositional and metamorphic layering,
gneissosity parallel to leucosome banding, preferred orientation of stretched megacrysts
(Augen and streaky glandular gneiss, stretched porphyroblasts and clasts) and a penetrative
quartz and feldspar grain flattening fabric.
F2 isoclinal folds are evident at outcrop- and km-scale as demonstrated by satellite and
airborne magnetic imagery. S2 shows moderate NW dips (average 30º) and the F2 fold axial
planes broadly trend NE-SW across much of the Nampula sub-Province, but have been
reoriented by the megascopic F3 folding, especially in the regions adjacent to the Namama
Shear Zone.
According to Macey et al. (2006b) Pan-African D2 deformation was a prolonged event
and can be divided into three sub-phases, named D2a, D2b and D2c, respectively. These are
kinematically indistinguishable and suggest they developed during a single progressive
coaxial fold-and-thrust deformation event. All three sub-phases were preceded by, or
associated with partial melting and formation of neosomes. The distinction between them is
principally based on folding and crosscutting relationships of these neosomes.
Near the Namama mega-shear, the pervasive S2 fabric of the Nampula sub-Province
has been deformed during a ductile D3 event (about 490 Ma; Macey & Armstrong, 2005;
Macey et al. 2006b), which gave rise to largely symmetrical, wavy, gentle to open F3 folds
and associated ductile S3 shear bands. This NNE-trending sinistral shear structure, which
extends for over 100 km in a NW facing open arc across the central parts of the Nampula sub-
Province, extends from near the coastal village of Maganja to its northern termination
somewhere near Alto Ligonha. The S3 foliation may be described as non-penetrative with
discrete sub-vertical planar structures with a spacing of between 10 and 100cm. The S3
foliation planes are frequently filled with 2 – 3 cm-thick undeformed equigranular quartz-
feldspar ± biotite ± magnetite leucosomes (Macey et al. 2006b). The Namama shear belt is
approximately 20 km in width and is composed of a series of discrete zones of mylonitisation
manifesting zones of maximum strain partitioning. The blastomylonites are characterised by
strong flaser and quartz-feldspar ribbon textures demonstrating both grain-size reduction and
grain recrystallisation or neoblastesis. L3 mineral stretching lineations plunge at a relatively
low angle (average 20º) to the SSE, suggesting a sinistral transtensional shear sense with only

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a minor vertical component. Similarly directed, late Pan-African shearing has been observed
along the eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton (Manhiça et al. 2001; GTK Consortium,
2006b). Interference of fold structures resulted in mega-structures shown in Fig. 8.1.

Fig. 8.1. Simplified geology of the Nampula sub-Province (Courtesy Paul Macey, 2006). Key: Dark blue:
Mocuba Complex, Light blue: Mamala Gneiss; Purple: Rapala Gneiss; Dark brown: Molòcuè and Mecuburi
Complex; Light brown: Culicuí Suite: Black: Alto-Benfica Complex; Grey Ocua Complex (of LTB, including
Monapo and Mugeba Klippen). Light green: Unango sub-Province; Dark green: Marrupa sub-Province. Red.
Murrupula and Malema Suites.

8.3. PHANEROZOIC RIFTING

8.3.1. Introduction

Phanerozoic terrains in the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3) comprise the
Chire-Urema rift and coastal plains. Two main eras of Phanerozoic rifting can be
distinguished:
• Karoo Rift Event: Crustal extension during the Karoo Event (Late Carboniferous
to Early Jurassic) with development of intracratonic Grabens and sag basins and
terminating with emplacement Early Jurassic Karoo Large Igneous Province
(KLIP).
• Post-Karoo Drift Phase: Unconstrained continental spreading and dispersal with
drift dominating in the Early and Middle Cretaceous and thermal sagging in the
Tertiary (Coster et al. 1989). This phase is coeval with the development of the East
Africa Rift System (EARS), which was initiated in the Cretaceous but accelerated
strongly during the Tertiary.

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8.3.2. Karoo Rifting

The Karoo Rift Event can be divided into the Gondwana Rifting Phase (Late Carboniferous-
Triassic) and Gondwana Final Phase (Early-Middle Jurassic) (Salman & Abdullah, 1995).
The Gondwana Rifting Phase is characterised by tectonic fracturing along weakness zones of
Archaean and younger age. As such, the E-W trending Middle Zambezi Graben, the eastward
extension of the Mana-Pools rift, corresponds with the Zambezi-Lufulian-Damara Belt, a Pan-
African suture between the Kalahari Craton (South Gondwana) and Congo/Central Africa
Craton (West Gondwana) (GTK Consortium, 2006d). Near the Lupata Gorge, the Karoo
Graben deflects towards the southeast, following the Lower Zambezi River and delta
(Lächelt, 2004). Rifting continued and accelerated during the Gondwana Final Phase,
resulting in aborted rifting of the Gondwana Supercontinent and emplacement of the Karoo
Large Igneous Province at 180 – 195 Ma. The latter includes the coastal volcanic belt
assigned to the Angoche Group, located just north of the Map Explanation area.

8.3.3. Post-Karoo Major Tectonic Events

Dextral offset along boundary faults of the Maniamba Graben in northern Mozambique
triggered the emplacement of kimberlites dykes (and less common pipes) in extensional
fractures. Rb-Sr analyses of phlogopite from kimberlite yielded an isochron age of 138±9 Ma
(Key et al. 2006). This Early Cretaceous age is interpreted as the onset of post-Karoo
rift/drift/dispersal. Salman & Abdullah (1995) divide this cycle into three phases: (1).
Gondwana Break-Up Phase, (2) Stabilisation Phase and (3) Neo-rifting Phase. The latter
corresponds with an acceleration in the development of the East African Rift System of which
the initiation already took place during the Gondwana Cycle. Major tectonic phases identified
by the GTK Consortium include:
• Incipient rifting in combination with emplacement of alkaline volcanic rocks along
rift borders, generally in small intrusives, pipes, ring structures, circular massifs
and dykes in the Early-Middle Cretaceous. In the Tête area (SDS 1632, 1633 and
1634), Cretaceous NW-SE directed differential vertical tectonism was superposed
on the E-W trending Mid-Zambezi Karoo Graben and resulted in formation of the
upper Lupata and Luia-Cansana Rivers Graben and a central horst block composed
of crystalline basement of the Báruè Complex. Initial transgression with deposits of
continental facies (e.g., the red beds of the Lupata, Sena, Maputo Formations*) and
shallow-marine deposits (e.g., Lower Domo and Sena Formations*).
• During the Middle to Late Cretaceous period the interior of the continent was
uplifted by an estimated 1000 m. This caused tensile stresses and triggered
continued Graben development and concurrent sedimentation in the Mozambique
Basin. Deepening of Grabens culminated in the Maastrichtian and accommodated
thick sequences of shaly marine sediments. Outside Grabens sediments are
composed of different lithologies, are very much thinner or are completely absent.
On seismic data the seaward extension of both Lower and Upper Cretaceous
gradually thins and become discontinuous towards the east and southeast. In this
direction continental crust is juxtaposed with oceanic crust of Cretaceous age.

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• During the Oligocene the African continent rose substantially and was tilted to the
West. In Mozambique, graben faults became reactivated. The end of this largely
erosive event left a peneplain with just a little accommodation space in the eastern
half. Here shallow platform carbonates started to accumulate while large delta
complexes grew in the northeast, filling the Lower Zambezi depression with clastic
breakdown products from the West.
• Towards the Late Miocene a major upheaval of 600 m or more affected the entire
area.
• During the latest Pliocene uplift, the Karroo basalts of the Lesotho Drakensberg
reached their present heights of 2500 to 3000 m (www.kzn.org.za/kzn/121.xml).
This uplift is also manifested by raised Beach Rock cliffs all around the south and
southeast coasts of Africa and demonstrates that mega-uplift is still taking place. At
the same time, new graben-faults are initiated or reactivated and affect deposition
of Quaternary deposits.

Fig. 8.2. Rift structures within the floor

of the Mozambique Basin. Rocks of the
Karoo Supergroup have been divided in
the Late Karoo (about 180 Ma; Early
Jurassic) volcanics of the Lebombo and
Nuanetsi-Sabi Monoclines (purple) and
older sediments and volcanics (brown).
Early Jurassic rift structures (green)
include the Palmeira and Xai-Xai
Grabens. After ENH data.

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Chire–Urema Graben
In Malawi the Chire/Shire rift valley trends in a N-S direction from Lake Malawi/Niassa to
southern Malawi. South of Blantyre, the trough changes abruptly into a NW-SE direction to
resume a N-S trend in the Urema Trough at approximately the border with Mozambique. The
NW-SE trend in Malawi is defined by the Mwanza, Chikwawa and Cholo faults and is
mirrored in Mozambique by the NW-SE trending Zambezi River. The Chire–Urema Graben
(SDS 1735) is formed by Middle Miocene propagation of the N-S directed Cretaceous–
Cenozoic East African Rift System (EARS) – the Lake Malawi/Niassa trend – oblique to the
older NW-SE directed Zambezi Graben at the intersection of the Zambezi mobile belt and the
Mesozoic–Cenozoic Basin, close to Vila Fontes in the south (Lächelt, 2004). The eastern
boundary fault of the Urema Trough supposedly has a tectonic control on the location of the
Cretaceous Serra de Morrumbala alkaline intrusives. It demonstrates that the N-S weakness
zone was already present prior to the major phase of rifting of the Urema trough.

Mozambique Basin
The coastal zone and in the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3) forms the
northern extreme of the Mozambique Basin. It comprises the Zambezi delta (SDS 1935, 1835,
1836) and a narrow passive margin further northwards (SDS 1737/1738/1739). The present
structural framework of the Mozambique Basin is composed of a mosaic of approximately N-
S elongated Grabens and smaller horst-like plateaus, in places intersected by poorly defined
NE-SW faults. Entirely based on subsurface data, a number of highs, in fact plateaus, are
recognised in the central basin further southwards.
The Zambezi delta has subsided through Graben formation and sediment loading since
at least the Lower Cretaceous (Flores, 1973), but possibly as early as Karoo times. In the
lower Zambezi valley and delta, the Karoo rift valley is crosscut by the Inhaminga tectonic
system. The Lower Zambezi NW-SE directed Graben developed during the Upper Jurassic to
Lower Cretaceous. An E–W trending extension south of the Quelimane region is probably
constrained by the alignment of the present coastline (Salman & Abdula, 1995). West of the
delta, extending through the map area to the main basin are a series of NE-SW, NW-SE and
NNE-SSW rift-related tectonic structures have been delineated from deep hydrocarbon wells
and magnetic and gravity lineaments that underlie the coastal zone, some of which have
surface expressions and been traced from photo lineaments (Flores, 1973).

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CHAPTER 9

GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION

9.1. INTRODUCTION
The regional geology of Africa has been briefly summarised in Section 5.4. The principles of
geodynamics and continental crust formation – Wilson or Supercontinent Cycles,
Superplumes – have been sketched in Section 5.5. In its simplest form it can be argued that
Africa is largely composed of a mosaic of Archaean cratons and mobile belts amalgamated by
elongated Proterozoic-Cambrian fold belts and basins filled by undeformed sediments and
associated igneous rocks of Neo-Proterozoic, Late Carboniferous-Early Jurassic and
Cretaceous-Quaternary age. With the conclusion of the Pan-African Orogeny, the African
continent is largely cratonised. Younger fold belts (with penetrative deformation) formed
during the Hercynian (Middle Palaeozoic) and Alpine (Cretaceous-Tertiary) Orogenies are
restricted to the Mauritides and the Moroccan Meseta in the northwest, the Cape Fold Belt in
the south and the Kabylia-Rif-Betic orocline (or Gibraltar Arc) around the westernmost part
of the Mediterranean. Africa’s major structural-metamorphic-igneous domains – the ‘building
blocks’ – have been summarised in Table 5.2. They reflect the geodynamic evolution of
Africa in terms of successive and episodic periods of crustal growth during phases of
compression – plate collision and amalgamation, eventually leading to the formation of a
Supercontinent – and phases of crustal extension – periods of rifting, continental break-up,
continental drift and dispersion.
The crystalline basement of Mozambique belongs three major ‘building blocks’ or
major terranes that collided and amalgamated during the Pan-African Orogenic Cycle (Map
Explanation, Volumes 2 and 4; GTK Consortium, 2006b,d). These are provisionally called the
West, South and East Gondwana Terranes, respectively. Each terrane has been affected by a
specific and individual geodynamic development prior to the Pan-African Orogeny. The
crystalline basement of northern Mozambique, possibly with exception of the Ponta Messuli
Complex, has been traditionally attributed to the East Gondwana Terrane.

9.2. TERRANE BOUNDARIES

From a geodynamic point of view it is generally accepted that formation of the Gondwana
Supercontinent involved the consumption of the Mozambique Ocean and the collision and
amalgamation (about 640 – 550 Ma) of two crustal blocks, provisionally named West and
East Gondwana (Shackleton, 1996; Wilson et al. 1997; Kröner et al. 2001; Jacobs et al,
2006). West Gondwana comprised most of Africa and South America. East Gondwana was
composed of Arabia, the horn of Africa, Madagascar, India, Antarctica and Australia.
Unlike former reconstructions (Shackleton, 1996; Kröner et al. 2001), the
reconstruction by Jacobs et al. (2006) (Fig. 9.1) assumes extension of the East African
Orogen (EAO) (Stern, 1994) southwards, south of about 16°S, into Antarctica thereby
renaming the EAO into East Africa-Antarctica Orogen (EAAO). At the same time it was
widely argued that Zambezi Belt orogenesis occurred at 850 – 830 Ma and that the Choma-
Kaloma Block, south of the Zambezi Belt, was a continuation of the Mesoproterozoic Irumide

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Belt, north of the Zambezi Belt (Hanson et al. 1994; Stern, 1994; Shackleton, 1996; Wilson et
al. 1997). This implies little or no major tectonic displacement between the Congo and
Kalahari Cratons since the Mesoproterozoic.

Fig. 9.1. Reconstruction of Gondwana after Jacobs et al. (2006). Key: ANS = Arabian-Nubian Shield; EAAO
= East Africa-Antarctica Orogen; M = Madagascar; Da = Damara; Z = Zambezi Belt.

In alternative reconstructions (Grantham et al. 2003; Johnson & Oliver, 2004) three
continental masses are assumed prior to Pan-African collision and amalgamation (Fig. 9.4):
West Gondwana (Africa minus the proto-Kalahari Craton and South America), East
Gondwana (parts of east Africa, India, Madagascar and Arabia) and South Gondwana (proto-
Kalahari Craton, Antarctica and Australia). As argued later, this model is favoured in this
series of Map Explanations (Volumes 1, 2, 3 and 4; GTK Consortium, 2006a,b,c,d).
Where are the boundaries between these major terranes? In flat metamorphic terrains,
terrane boundaries and palaeo-sutures may be difficult to trace. The actual suture may be
overlain by low-angle thin-skin-style thrust masses of metamorphic rocks (Fig. 9.2) as argued
recently by Sommer et al. (2003), Jöns & Schenk (2004), Cutten & Johnson (2006). In
Tanzania the west-verging thrust front of thin-skinned Mozambique Belt lithologies is
generally considered as the boundary between West and East Gondwana (Coolen, 1980;
Malisa & Muhongo, 1990; Maboko, 2000). East Gondwana comprises the so-called Eastern

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Granulites (EG), composed of high-grade, continental arc-derived lithologies with Pan-

African emplacement ages between 841 and 632 Ma and ‘mixed’ model ages between 1300
and 950 Ma with εNd(T) values between –3.1 and 6.7, indicating mixing and assimilation of
juvenile mantle-derived crust with older crust (Cutten & Johnson, 2006). Three major thrust
sheets have been recognised in the EG, named (from bottom to top of stack): (1) Anorthosite
thrust sheet, (2) ‘Typical Eastern Granulite’ thrust sheet and (3) ‘Accretionary Wedge’ thrust
sheet. The first two sheets represent different structural levels of the Neoproterozoic East
Gondwana continental arc. The third one represents continental shelf meta-sediments
deposited outboard of the arc along the East Gondwana active margin (now Madagascar).
These East Gondwana thrust sheets tectonically overlie infolded granulites (including the
Mautia Hill whiteschists) derived from meta-sediments deposited on the original passive
margin (prior to closure of the Mozambique Ocean) of West Gondwana. The present-day
boundary between West and East Gondwana is a shallow east-dipping thrust plane – or
pseudo-suture – within a stack of nappes resting on top of the eastern continuation of the
Tanzanian Craton (Fig. 9.2). The real suture is located further to the east but difficult to trace
due to rapid post-orogenic collapse and drift/dispersal of Gondwana (Jöns & Schenk, 2004;
Cutten & Johnson, 2006).
Palaeo-sutures, in general, can be traced by (1) ophiolites representing relics of
oceanic crust, (2) the distribution of magmatic arcs formed in a continental margin above the
subducting oceanic plate, (3) the distribution of specific metamorphic rocks such as eclogites,
blueschists and whiteschists, all being HP-LT metamorphic rocks formed in subduction zones
and (4) the distribution of metamorphosed sandstones, pelites, carbonates and other
supracrustal rocks, believed to have been deposited in originally passive, but subsequently
active continental margins. Magmatic arcs have typically calc-alkaline affinities and are
largely composed of andesite and dacite and/or their more plutonic equivalent tonalite,
trondjhemite and granodiorite – the so-called TTG suites. Basalt and rhyolite and/or their
plutonic equivalent gabbro and granite are relatively rare.
Grantham et al. (2003) have collected data of the above nature together with all
available geochronological data, including igneous crystallisation ages, metamorphic ages and
Nd model ages (or TDM ages) and tectonic/structural information for eastern Africa. Based on
the above and own data we have attempted to trace the suture between East and West
Gondwana. Tracing the East-West Gondwana suture is based on the following data (Fig. 9.3):
• The west-verging thrust front of the Mozambique Belt in Kenya and Tanzania
(Coolen, 1980; Malisa & Muhongo, 1990; Maboko, 2000).
• The sporadic occurrence of ophiolites near the trust front, close to the eastern
margin of the Tanzania Craton (Vearncombe, 1983; Shackleton, 1986; Stern 1994).
Further southwards, the suture cuts the domain of the Palaeoproterozoic Usagaran
and Ubendian fold belts. The Ubendian Belt is a complex collision/strike-slip
orogen with eight structural blocks (McDConnell, 1950; Sutton et al. 1954; Lenoir
et al. 1994; Muhongo et al. 2002). Some of the blocks are predominantly (ultra-)
mafic but most likely of Palaeoproterozoic age. A small undated serpentinite-talc
body has been identified south of the Nyika Plateau in northeast Zambia (Page,
1973) and mapped as an ophiolite, structurally hosted by mylonite gneisses and
quartzites, by Westerhof (1976).

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Fig. 9.2. P-T-t path for Western Mobile Belt (Jöns & Schenk, 2004) and Eastern Granulites in Tanzania
(Sommer et al. 2003; Appel et al. 1998). Cartoon cross-sections illustrate the evolution of the East Africa
Orogen (EAO). A similar scenario has supposedly developed in the area north of the LTB, north of the area
covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3). The Eastern Granulites form a thin, E-dipping thrust sheet that
is tectonically imbricated with infolded lithologies of the Western Mobile Belt gneisses at the base of the
thrust sheet. Klippe, such as Mautia Hill result from subsequent uplift and erosion (compare Monapo and
Mugeba Klippen in Nampula sub-Province). Key: an = Anorthosite thrust sheet; teg = Typical Eastern
Granulite thrust sheet; aw = Accretionary wedge thrust sheet (Cutten & Johnson, 2006).

• Eclogite reflects HP-LT conditions manifesting burial at great depth (> 10kb), as in
subduction zones, and exhumed during plate margin collisional orogeny. Eclogite
may also be emplaced otherwise, e.g., during kimberlite or carbonatite magmatic
events during incipient rifting. Consequently, their geodynamic position, mode of
emplacement and age is often obscure. Rare eclogite is reported from the Pan-
African thrust front near the southeast margin of the Tanzanian Craton. Ring et al.
(1997, 1999) emphasised the role of Pan-African overprinting of Ubendian rocks in
northern Malawi. Subsequently, Ring et al. (2002) reported the presence of
eclogites in the same area manifesting maximum P,T-conditions of 17 – 18 kbar
and 660 – 780° C with a Neoproterozoic age of about 530 – 500 Ma. Eclogites are
also reported from the Zambezi Belt (Vrána et al. 1975; Dirks, 1997). Their age is
uncertain, varying between about 500 and about 1300 Ma (Johnson & Oliver,

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2000; Oliver et al. 1998). An isolated eclogite occurrence is reported from southern
Malawi.
• Juvenile about 750 Ma TTG suites have been reported from eastern Tanzania and
include the ‘Eastern Granulites’, high-grade, arc-derived lithologies with Pan-
African emplacement ages ranging between 841 Ma and 632 Ma. Two distinct
juvenile TTG suites have been identified in northern Mozambique, one having a
Mesoproterozoic (1150 – 950 Ma) and one having a Pan-African (850 – 750 Ma)
age.
• Further southwards, TTG suites with Pan-African crystallisation ages have not
been encountered and Pan-African magmatism is restricted to late- or post-Pan-
African, extension-related, 0.47 – 0.50 Ma, alkaline, ferroan granitoids, including
the Sinda Suite (SHRIMP zircon age 502±8 Ma) in the Tete-Chipata Block,
northern Tete Province (Mäkitie et al. 2006; GTK Consortium, 2006d). South of
the Sanangoè Shear Zone, 0.85 – 0.87 Ga bimodal igneous suites along the
northern and eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton are related to post-Rodinia
break-up (Dirks et al. 1998; GTK Consortium, 2006b) rather than Pan-African
subduction.
• Sedimentary basins manifest crustal extension and their metamorphic equivalents
may indicate palaeo-continental margins. Older, pre-Pan-African metamorphosed
supracrustal successions in Mozambique, including small quantities of carbonate
rocks, have been deposited in the Palaeoproterozoic (about 2.0 Ga) Gairezi and
Rushinga basins, the Mesoproterozoic Zâmbuè and Fingoè basins (1.2 – 1.3 Ga)
and Molòcué basin (about1.1 Ga)12. Significantly younger early-Pan-African
supracrustals are deposited in northern Mozambique and include the Alto Benfica
Group in the Nampula sub-Province and, north of the LTB, the Xixano, Muaquia
and Lalamo Complexes (Bingen et al. 2006; Bjerkgård et al. 2006). Carbonate
sequences (about 775 Ma) have also been described from the Damara Fold Belt,
Namibia (Trompette, 1994).

Summarising and evaluating the above data, the suture between East and West
Gondwana can be mapped as a shallowly dipping thrust plane or pseudo-suture east of the
Tanzania Craton (Sommer et al. 2003; Jöns & Schenk, 2004; Cutten & Johnson, 2006).
Further southwards, west-verging thrusting of the Mozambique belt onto the
Palaeoproterozoic Usagaran and Ubendian fold belts resulted in a complex structural and
metamorphic intercalation of all three orogenic belts and the suture is difficult to trace. Still
further to the south it is assumed that the suture crosses the northern part of Lake Malawi
(Lake Niassa) at or near the 1.95 Ga Ponta Messuli Complex, which forms an extension of the
Palaeoproterozoic Usangaran Belt of Tanzania (Key et al. 2006) and, consequently, belongs
to West Gondwana. Available whole-rock Sm-Nd isotopic data from the Ponta Messuli
Complex yield Archaean depleted mantle model ages (TDM) ranging from 3.01 to 2.64 Ga
(Saranga, 2004). Still further southwards the suture is straddling the Malawi/Zambia
international border and is possibly offset by the Mwembeshi Dislocation. Finally, in the Tête

12
The Umkondo Group has an uncertain age, either about 1.1 Ga or > 1.79 Ga (GTK Consortium 2006a,b).
Metasediments of the Báruè Complex have not been dated; inherited zircons have ages of about 1.83 Ga, 2.03
Ga and 2.50 Ga.

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area, the boundary between East and West Gondwana is formed by the shallowly dipping
contact between the NNW-SSE trending Angonia Complex and a crystalline domain with
predominantly WSW-ENE ‘Irumide’ trends. The latter is part of the Tete-Chipata Block, a
stacked assemblage of micro-terranes comprising ocean floor, island arc, continental arc and
‘suspect terranes’ of unknown derivation, amalgamated with the West Gondwana Terrane
during the Grenville Orogenic Cycle (Map Explanation, Volume 4, GTK Consortium, 2006d).
The equally NNW-SSE trending Furancungo Suite represents in this context the footwall of
the Angonia overtrust.

Fig. 9.3. Gondwana reconstruction after Lawver et al. (1998). The Mesoproterozoic crystalline basement of
northern Mozambique (with extension into southern Tanzania) can be divided into a northern block composed
of the Unango and Marrupa Complexes and a number of Pan-African thrust sheets or nappes. The Lúrio Thrust
Belt separates the northern block from the southern Nampula sub-Province with the Monapo and Mugeba
Klippen. The latter, together with a number of other Middle to Late Proterozoic granulite bodies supposedly
are relicts of a large Pan-African nappe. The Ponte Messuli Complex is attributed to the Palaeoproterozoic
Ubendian-Usagaran Fold Belt (Courtesy Paul Macey, 2006).

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9.3. GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION

Following Pinna et al. (1993) it is convenient to divide the crystalline basement of northern
Mozambique into a sub-Province north of the WSW-ESE trending, 600-km long Lúrio Thrust
Belt (LTB), the LTB itself and a sub-Province south of the LTB. The latter tectono-
stratigraphic domain is underlain by the Nampula sub-Province (Macey et al. 2006b), which
comprises a variety of crystalline rocks assembled in the Nampula Supergroup, tectonically
overlain by a number of Pan-African Klippen, including the Manapo and Mugeba Complexes.
For a detailed discussion on the geodynamic evolution of the crystalline basement of
Mozambique, in particular the part located within the East Gondwana Terrane, the reader is
referred to Bingen et al. (2006), Bjerkgård et al. (2006), Hollick et al. (2006), Grantham et al.
(2006), Macey et al. (2006a,b).
Major geodynamic events affecting the area covered by this Map Explanation
(Volume 3) are Mesoproterozoic Kibaran/Irumide/Grenvillian collision/amalgamation and the
formation of the Rodinia Supercontinent (about 1.1 – 1.0 Ga), Rodinia break-up and
dispersion (0.90 – 0.75 Ga) followed by the Neoproterozoic Pan-African Orogeny and re-
assembly of the crustal plates in the Gondwana Supercontinent. Post-Pan-African extension is
expressed by a phase of aborted Karoo rifting, followed by a post-Early Cretaceous phase of
rift/drift/dispersal of Gondwana, and coeval development of the still active East African Rift
System.

9.3.1. Mesoproterozoic Pre-Kibaran Extension

Pre-Kibaran extension is well expressed in the West Gondwana Terrane by the development
of the intracratonic Kibaran trough as manifested by rhyodacitic intercalations dated at
1353±46 Ma in the sedimentary sequence of the Burundi Supergroup and the emplacement of
bi-modal magmatic rocks (Klerkx et al. 1987). This includes early- to pre-Kibaran S-type
granitoids with ages between 1330 and 1250 Ma and A-type alkaline granitoids with an age of
1249 Ma. The oldest mafic sills yield ages between 1379 and 1340 Ma; a younger generation
yields ages of about 1282 Ma. Layered ultramafic intrusives have been dated at about 1275
Ma (Tack et al. 1994; Deblond & Tack, 1999).
In the Irumide trough (eastern Zambia), also in the West Gondwana Terrane, pre-
Kibaran extension is exemplified by emplacement of the ultra-potassic Mivula Hill nepheline-
sodalite syenite and Nyika-type granitoids, yielding ages of about 1360 and 1329 Ma,
respectively. In the Tete-Chipata Block (Map Explanation, Volume 4; GTK Consortium
2006d) detrital zircon in the supracrustal Zâmbuè Supergroup indicates a maximum age of
1.20 – 1.30 Ga, while volcanic rocks of the Fingoè Supergroup yield an age of 1327±16 Ma.
Pre-Kibaran crustal extension in the South Gondwana Terrane is only expressed by
juvenile oceanic crust encountered in the Chewore Inliers, a group of isolated metamorphosed
basement inliers located in the Zambezi Rift Valley of northern Zimbabwe (Johnson &
Oliver, 2004). Different litho-tectonic terranes have been recognised, including the Ophiolite
Terranes or Chewore Ophiolite, dated at 1393±22 Ma.
In the East Gondwana Terrane of northern Mozambique pre-Kibaran extension
remains undated. Kibaran subduction is dated by the juvenile Mocuba TTG calc-alkaline
volcanic-arc granitoids and associated volcanic rocks (about 1125 Ma). A calc-silicate from

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associated metamorphosed supracrustals assembled in the Molócuè Complex yielded detrital

zircons with Mocuba ages suggesting the Mocuba Complex represents the basement to the
meta-supracrustal unit.

9.3.2. Mesoproterozoic Grenville Orogenic Cycle – Rodinia Supercontinent

The Grenville Orogenic Cycle (GOC), at about 1.1 – 1.0 Ga, is a worldwide orogenic system
responsible for the formation of the Rodinia Supercontinent (Fig. 9.4). On the African
continent the GOC is expressed by the Kibaran Belt, the Sinclair Province and Namaqua-
Natal Belt along the western and southern margin of the Kalahari Craton. The Choma-Kalamo
Block and the Irumide Belt are exposed north of the Zimbabwe Craton in Zambia (Fig. 5.2).

Fig. 9.4. Reconstruction of Rodinia after Li et al. (1995), Dalziel (1997) and Hoffman (1999) showing
mountain belts formed during the Grenville Orogenic Cycle and the formation of juvenile crust (1.35 – 0.9
Ga). Key: M = Madagascar, S = Sri Lanka, KAL = Kalahari Craton, N = Natal, A = Areachap and associated
terrains, Fk = Falkland Islands, H = Haag Nunatacks. L = Lúrio Thrust Belt, K = Kibaran Belt and NET =
northeast Tanzania.

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The bulk of the crystalline basement in Mozambique has been deformed and
metamorphosed during the GOC. This includes the crystalline basement of the Tête-Chipata
Block (Map Explanation, Volume 4; GTK Consortium, 2006d) and crystalline rocks exposed
along the eastern and northern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton (Map Explanation, Volume 2;
GTK Consortium, 2006b). These rocks can be attributed to the Mozambique and Zambezi
Belts and, as shown by Pinna et al. (1993), they have about 1100 Ma metamorphic and
crystallisation ages and about 550 Ma overprints.
S1 in the Mocuba TTG Suite supposedly manifests the Grenville M1/D1 dynamo-
thermal event in the Nampula sub-Province. This deformation apparently affected the
Mocuba Suite soon after its magmatic emplacement at about 1125 Ma. The absence of D1
deformation features in the 1095 – 1975 Ma Mamala, Rapale and Culicui gneisses and
granitoids constrains the Grenville M1/D1 dynamo-thermal event to about 1117 – 1095 Ma.

9.3.3. Post-Rodinia Break-Up (Neoproterozoic)

The GOC was followed by a phase of extension and the formation of the Mozambique and
other early Neoproterozoic oceanic basins. Extension is diachronous and starts in Antarctica
between about 900 to 1000 Ma (Manhiça et al. 2001). In eastern and southern Africa the
emplacement of alkaline complexes, dolerite dykes and bi-modal magmatic suites and
intracratonic basins demonstrate post-Rodinia extension. Post-Rodinia basins include the
Congo, Malagarasi/Bukoban, Kundulungu and Nama Basins and the platform sediments
topping the Bengweulu Block (north Zambia). In east Africa (Tanzania and Burundi)
deposition of the Malagarasi Supergroup was initiated at about 850 Ma. The Kalolo-Lusaka
alkaline complex has an age of 877±23 Ma. Bukoban dolerite dykes have K-Ar ages of 794±3
Ma and 795±7. Gagwe volcanics of the Malagarasi Supergroup have K-Ar ages of 813±21
Ma and 822±30 Ma. Emplacement of granitoids such as the Kwamanga granite (842±80 Ma)
and Kalunduru granite (724±6 Ma) manifests remobilisation of Ubende Belt (Boven et al.
1999).
Emplacement of bi-modal magmatic suites assembled in a number of tectonic thrust
masses or nappes, comprising the Zambezi Allochthonous Terrane (ZAT) and Marginal
Gneiss Terrane (MaGT) are expressions of post-Rodinia extension (Dirks et al. 1998; GTK
Consortium, 2006b). Imprecise Rb-Sr ages of the Masoso Metamorphic Suite yield ages
between about 823 and about 605 Ma (Barton et al. 1991). Mariga et al. (1998) reported a U-
Pb zircon crystallisation age of 849±2 Ma for one of the small metagabbro bodies that
truncate so-called DZM1 tectonic fabric in the Masoso Metamorphic Suite. Isoclinal folding
and a variably developed mylonitic foliation and fabric mark the ‘DZM1’ deformation. The
dating result indicates that the DZM1 phase and the accompanying high-pressure granulite-
facies metamorphism are older than about 850 Ma. Ma. Vinyu et al. (1999) consider a
207
Pb/206Pb age of 869.5±1.0 Ma as the best estimate for leucocratic migmatite, either
representing its crystallisation age or the timing of the DZM1 retrogradation and
migmatisation. Three samples of the Guro Suite yield crystallisation ages between about 867
and 852 Ma (GTK Consortium, 2006b). In one sample three ages can be recognised: (1) 867 ±
15 Ma for magmatic zircons, (2) 850 – 830 Ma for metamorphic zircon domains and (3) 512
±4 Ma for a younger phase of metamorphism. These ages can be attributed tentatively to (1)
the magmatic emplacement of the rocks of the Guro Suite, (2) to extensional detachment

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faulting and (3) to Pan-African metamorphic overprinting, respectively. The Monte Atchiza
layered (ultra-)mafic massif, located north of the Sanangoè Shear Zone in the Tête-Chipata
Block (Map Explanation, Volume 4; GTK Consortium, 2006d), has an Sm-Nd age of 864±30
and is considered to represent the mafic member of the bimodal suites.
The above bimodal suites are also coeval with supracrustals with basal metarhyolites
north of Zambezi Belt in the Tête-Chipata Block of southern Zambia (Wilson et al. 1993;
Hanson et al. 1994). The sequence is supposedly deposited in a continental rift to oceanic
setting along the present day southern margin of the Congo Craton (Johnson et al. 2006).
Around Lusaka, the sequence includes the Kafue Rhyolite Formation, a 2500 m thick
sequence of folded, variably metamorphosed rhyodacitic flows and tuffs with subordinate
rhyolite and other epicrustals, including thin mafic horizons. The Kafue Rhyolite Formation
grades into the Nazingwe Formation, a narrow succession of tuffaceous meta-pelites and acid
volcanic horizons. SHRIMP dating confirms a previously unpublished TIMS age of 879±19
Ma (Wardlaw, in: Wilson et al. 1993). Whole rock εNd(T) values between –4 and –2 with TDM
model ages between 1.5 and 2.1 Ga are consistent with a generation by mixing and
assimilation of juvenile mantle material and older continental crust in a continental
extensional setting (Johnson et al. 2006).
Post-Rodinia juvenile rocks with an age around about 850 Ma have not been found in
northern Mozambique in general and in the Nampula sub-Province in particular. A magmatic
belt, stretching from Tanzania to Madagascar over a distance of 450 km and dated between
804 Ma and 776 Ma (Maboko, 2001; Handke et al. 1999) may represent the closest
equivalent. Granulite-facies metamorphic rocks of diverse compositions, but with ages from
735 – 550 Ma (peaks at 640 and 590 Ma), occur as several discrete Klippen overlying lower-
grade amphibolite-facies Mesoproterozic rocks in northern Moçambique (Aquater 1983,
Cadoppi et al. 1987, Pinna et al. 1993, Kröner et al. 1997; Sacchi et al. 1984, 2001; Roberts
et al. 2005; Bingen et al. 2006; Viola et al. 2006; Macey et al. 2006a,b) and supposedly also
represent magmatic arc rocks related to subduction of the Mozambique Ocean. Within the
Nampula sub-Province remnants of these granulitic rocks are preserved in the Lúrio Belt, the
Mugeba and Plantação Santos terranes and the Monapo Terrane.

9.3.4. Pan-African Orogenic System (Neoproterozoic – Ordovician)

Consumption of the Mozambique Ocean took place between 841 and 632 Ma (Cutten &
Johnson, 2006) and was followed by a prolonged period of Pan-African collision and
amalgamation of East and West Gondwana (Fig. 9.1). Stern (1994) placed collision between
east and west Gondwana in Tanzania, Kenya, Malawi and Mozambique into the period 750–
650 Ma whereas others argue that the ubiquitous 550 – 480 Ma ages found throughout the belt
reflect the amalgamation (Powell et al. 1993; Stern, 1994; Ring et al. 2002). Granulite
metamorphism in the Xixano Terrane have been dated at about 735 Ma (Bingen et al. 2006),
whereas the Lúrio Thrust Belt (LTB) sensu stricto yielded ages of 547±38 Ma (eastern part)
and 555±5 Ma (western part)(Grantham et al. unpublished data). Two Klippen in the Nampula
sub-Province, attributed to the Monapo and Mugeba Terranes, have been dated and show
significant differences in age. The Monapo Terrane has been dated at 634±8 Ma and 579±11
Ma (Grantham et al. unpublished data). The Mugeba Terrane yielded an age of 556±11 Ma
(Grantham et al. unpublished data) and 615 ± 7 Ma (Kröner et al. 1997).

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According to Macey et al. (2006b), the younger ages of about 550 Ma represent the
maximum age of the termination of principal Pan-Africa D2/M2 collisional tectono-
metamorphic event. This is confirmed by the age of metamorphic overgrowths on zircon
grains from pre-D2 rocks, reflecting peak metamorphism in the Nampula sub-Province. Five
Culicui and Rapale granitoid orthogneiss samples provided metamorphic rim ages of 513±10
Ma, 525±20 Ma, 538±8 Ma and 505±10 Ma (Macey & Armstrong 1995; Grantham,
unpublished data). Supracrustal rocks of the Molócuè Complex and Mamala Gneiss yielded
metamorphic rim ages of 555±12, 502±80 and 527±18 Ma. A weakly deformed porphyritic
Murrupula quartz monzonite with aligned twinned K-feldspar phenocrysts yielded a precise
U-Pb Concordia crystallisation age of 532±5 Ma (Macey & Armstrong 2005), which provides
another constraint on a waning D2 stress field. A moderately deformed pegmatite that was
refolded together with the S2 during the last coaxial D2 deformation phase was dated at 501±5
Ma (Roberts et al. unpublished data).
A leucosome taken from an S3 shear band in the Namama mega-shear gave a mean
207 206
Pb/ Pb age of 490±8 Ma, which can be considered the best estimate for the D3
transtensional tectonics (Macey & Armstrong, 2005). Late to post-Pan-African collapse is
reflected by a granite sample dated at 492±2 Ma (Grantham et al. unpublished data, in Macey
et al. 2006b) and pegmatites at 430 – 480 Ma (Cronwright & Roberts unpublished CHIME
data) indicating that the Pan-African thermal episode continued well into the Phanerozoic.
The latter ages correspond with the 0.47 – 0.50 Ga ages of the Sinda Suite granites in the Tête
area (Mäkitie et al. 2006; GTK Consortium, 2006d).
Can the above scenario of Pan-African subduction, collision and amalgamation of
West and East Gondwana be extended southwards? In the about 1100 Ma Proterozoic fold
belts along the eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton, the Pan-African Orogenic Cycle
(PAOC) is expressed by thermal reactivation and metamorphic overprinting followed by
cooling through the about 350° C at about 553 Ma (west) and about 468 Ma (east). The Pan-
African ages are confined to a N-S directed zone of strong shear that coincides with the
eastern border of exposed Archaean rocks of the Zimbabwe Craton. In the model by Jacobs et
al. (2006) this zone of maximum shear can be viewed as suture between East and West
Gondwana (Fig. 9.1). Manhiça et al. (2001) emphasise, however, the absence of Pan-African
ophiolites and, in particular, calc-alkaline TTG suites that can be related to a magmatic arc
above a subduction zone having an age of about 850 – 750 Ma. Consequently, these authors
conclude that accretion of the Mozambique Belt to the Kalahari Craton and amalgamation
with Antarctica during the Grenville Orogenic Cycle (GOC) was maintained after the break-
up of Rodinia but suffered repeated deformation and reactivation during the PAOC at about
550 Ma and 470 Ma. The latter event involved the formation of a N-S directed foliation with
neosomes, rehydration, retromorphism and migmatisation of the older rocks.
This means that the Zambezi-Lufilian-Damara mobile belt represents, in fact, a major
Neoproterozoic suture (Burke et al. 1977; Oliver et al. 1998; Porada & Berhorst, 2000; John
et al. 2003; Johnson & Oliver, 2000, 2004) as demonstrated by isotopically discordant zircon
rims in whiteschists (kyanite + talc + yoderite) in the Chewore Ophiolite that provide a
maximum age of < 580 Ma for a high-pressure (> 13 kbar), subduction-related amphibolite
facies event. This linear tectonic weakness zone was most likely reactivated during Mesozoic
rifting to form the Zambezi Karoo graben. Post-tectonic cooling to about 350° C had occurred
by about 480 Ma (Goscombe et al. 2002).

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Summarising all available geochronological, structural and petrological data Grantham

et al. (2002) outline a picture of the PAOC with three terranes (Fig. 9.5):
• A northern province dominated by Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic crust,
represented by the Congo-Tanzania (or Central Africa) Craton in the west (West
Gondwana Terrane) and the Madagascar-India-Enderby Craton in the east (East
Gondwana Terrane). These cratons are separated by the N-S about 710 – 800 Ma
Mozambique Ocean. The Mozambique Ocean continues into northern
Mozambique, possibly till the LTB.
• A southern province comprising the Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic Kalahari (or
Southern Africa) Craton and marginal metamorphic belts. A northern belt includes
the Zambezi/Lufilian/Damara Belt. An eastern belt extends southwards through
southern Mozambique into Maud province, Antarctica, and into Natal in southern
Africa. Crystallisation ages are predominantly of Grenvillian age (900- 1100 Ma)
with TDM model ages of < 1.7 Ga.
• Continued eastward subduction of the floor of the Mozambique Ocean resulted in
the collision between parts of West Gondwana (Congo-Tanzania-Saharan Cratons)
and parts of East Gondwana (India, Madagascar and other cratons) and the
formation of the East African Orogen (EAO) between about 690 and 580 Ma in a
N-S belt stretching from the Arabian-Nubian Shield to northern Mozambique.
• This was followed by collision and amalgamation of North Gondwana (formed by
amalgamation of West and East Gondwana) and South Gondwana (Kalahari
Craton, Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica). This formed the Kuunga Orogeny
at about 580 – 480 Ma.
• Docking of South and North Gondwana resulted in N-S sinistral shearing along the
eastern margins of the Kalahari Craton (Manhiça et al. 2001; GTK Consortium,
2006b), transtensional sinistral shearing along the Namama shear zone in the
Nampula sub-Province (Macey et al. 2006) and further a field in east Antarctica,
Sri Lanka and southern India. This phase of brittle/ductile shearing post-dates an
older phase of sinistral shearing supposedly related to the oblique collision of West
and East Gondwana as manifested by sinistral shearing along the Pan-African
thrust front in Tanzania, in Madagascar and the Aswa fault as far north as Uganda.
Other major late Pan-African shear zones such as the Mwembeshi Dislocation and
Sanangoè Shear Zone are interpreted as ‘escape tectonic’ features.

Macey et al. (2006b) refer to the Lúrio Thrust Belt (LTB) as a linear tectonic mélange
consisting of strongly flattened granulitic gneisses with a variety of protolith rock types and
ages that probably represents a major tectonic boundary between several tectono-stratigraphic
blocks of northern Mozambique (Pinna et al. 1993; Sacchi et al. 1997; Kröner et al. 2001;
Macey et al. 2005, 2006; Grantham et al. 2003, 2006). Thomas et al. (2005, 2006) and
Bingen et al. (2006) report that the granulite assemblages do not appear to form a convenient
solid belt of ‘allochthonous mylonites’ sensu Pinna & Marteau (1987) and that the structural
intensity of the belt fades towards the southwest. A well-defined NNW to NW plunging
stretching lineation indicates the SE transport direction. Amphibolite- to granulite-facies
metamorphism and deformation in the LTB is dated at between 578±10 Ma and 545±6 Ma
(Bingen et al. 2006).

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Fig. 9.5. Gondwana reconstruction after Lawver et al. (1998). Ages and locations of various major
structural/tectonic features (e.g., major thrust belts, shear zones) showing direction of tectonic transport and
shear sense. Key: PC = Palgat-Cauvery Shear Zone; RC = Rayner Complex; A = Achankovil Shear zone; GC
= Grunehogna cratonic fragment; H = Heimefrontflella; RF = Ranotsara Shear Zone; U = Urfjell; N =
Namama Shear Belt; O = Orvinfjella Shear Zone; M = Manica Shear Zone (adapted from Grantham et al.
2003).

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According to Henderson et al. (2006) steep sinistral and dextral shear zones frequently
cut through and deform the older blastomylonitic fabric in the LTB and contribute to a new
transposing blastomylonitic foliation. In response to even further flattening, this
blastomylonitic foliation was then itself extended and flattened, leading to a second
generation of extensional shear bands and asymmetric drag folds, indicating the ‘stretching
fault’ characteristics of these shear zones. The authors stress that it are these structures,
resulting from late Pan-African SE-NW directed compression, that define the currently
attenuated geometry of the LTB. Monazite in extensional shear bands has been dated at 531±6
Ma (Bingen et al. 2006).
Bingen et al. (2006) regard the LTB as a zone of preferential strain partition but not as
a major 580 – 540 Ma Pan-African suture zone. They consider the pre-Pan-African restoration
of the Nampula sub-Province as ‘still problematic’ suggesting the possibility that this tectonic
block was only emplaced into its current position during the Pan-African Orogeny. In the
above scenario (Fig. 9.5) the Pan-African Zambezi/Lufilian/ Damara suture (and superposed
Sanangoè fault) between the Central Africa and Kalahari Cratons is continued eastwards
through the ENE-WSW trending Lúrio Thrust Belt (LTB) and Sri Lanka (Fig. 9.5). This
would imply that the Nampula sub-Province belongs to the South Gondwana Terrane, with
the crystalline basement north of the LTB belonging to the East Gondwana Terrane.

9.3.5. Karoo Rift Phase

Basin development was initiated during the Karoo Rift Event (late Carboniferous to early
Jurassic; about 300 Ma to about 180 Ma). During the Gondwana stage (late Carboniferous to
Triassic; about 300 Ma to about 205 Ma) extended rift structures developed and gave rise to a
broad platform depression between Africa and Madagascar, which was exploited by the
palaeo-Tethys transgression creating a marine seaway that filled with thick sequences of
terrigenous and carbonate successions (Salman & Abdula, 1995). The final part of the Karoo
Event, reflecting an aborted fragmentation phase of Gondwana, is reflected by the formation
of a vast regional depression with platform volcanism and flood basalt extrusions in the Afro-
Antarctic domain (Salman & Abdula, 1995): the Karoo Large Igneous Province (KLIP). In
Mozambique (and neighbouring countries), huge amounts of volcanic rocks in the Lebombo
and Nuanetsi-Sabi monoclines were emplaced, together with the major Okavango dyke
swarm in Botswana, and oceanic basalt plateaus in the Indian Ocean (Explora Wedge,
Andenes Escarpment) during Early Jurassic times (195 – 178 Ma), peaking around 183 Ma
(Duncan et al. 1997) although others (e.g., Fitch & Miller, 1984) assume two major periods of
flood basalt emplacement at 193±5 Ma and 178±5 Ma, respectively. Volcanics of the
Angoche Group, emplaced in the coastal zone of northern Mozambique, just outside the area
covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 3) belong to this late Karoo Province. These
volcanic rocks are younger than the amygdaloidal basalts of the Chueza Formation* (Upper
Karoo, north-western part of SDS 1735). The lower Zambezi valley and delta region is a
Karoo rift structure, crosscut by the younger Inhaminga tectonic system.

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9.3.6. Neo-Tethys Drift and Dispersal/ East Africa Rift System

The areas underlain by Cretaceous and younger rocks represent the northern extension of the
Mozambique Basin, which is characterised by unconstrained spreading with major basin
development that commenced in the late Jurassic(?)/ Early Cretaceous and involved the
dispersal of Gondwana and the creation of the Indian and South Atlantic oceanic basins. A
thermal sag basin developed in the Tertiary. From deep wells five major depositional
sequences, separated from each other by angular unconformities and periods of non-
deposition or erosion, have been recognised and incorporated in a basin-wide stratigraphic
framework (Coster et al. 1989; GTK Consortium, 2006a).
Renewed rifting in the late Jurassic to early Cretaceous is manifested by potassic
volcanism in the Lupata trough (about 140 Ma; Vail, 1963,1964,1965) and kimberlite dykes
(and less common pipes) in extensional Riedel fractures of marginal rift structures of the
Maniamba Graben, dated at 138±9 Ma (Key et al. 2006). Rift development continued in the
NW–SE trending lower Zambezi Graben with an E–W extension south of the Quelimane
region, probably constrained the alignment of the present coastline (Salman & Abdula, 1995).
Widespread basin sedimentation occurred since the Lower Cretaceous marine transgression
over the eastern margin of the newly created African continent (Flores, 1973). The subsequent
development of the East African Rift System (EARS) in the late Cretaceous and early Tertiary
left a structural overprint (Coster et al. 1989). The southern segment of the EARS (western
arm), including Lake Malawi and Urema Graben, formed only in the Neogene (12 – 8 Ma).
The entire period was characterised by major deltaic build out and continual depression
beneath the distal reaches of the proto-Zambezi River.

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CHAPTER 10

MINERAL RESOURCES

10.1. INTRODUCTION
10.1.1. General

Mozambique has large, diverse and underexploited mineral resources. Despite its mineral
wealth, commercial mining has played only a minor role in the development of the country’s
economy. The situation is changing now mainly due to production of natural gas and the
development of world-class coal and ‘black sand’ deposits. The planned production of gold,
rare earth minerals and industrial minerals will further increase the contribution from the
extractive industry to the national economy.
The main reasons for the under-exploitation of the country’s mineral resources have
been, amongst others, an incomplete geological database and weak infrastructure – lack of
transport and energy supply – which hampers exploitation of resources. Lack of internal and
external venture capital has further contributed to a slow development of an industry-scale
national mineral sector.
Irrespective the above, artisanal miners and prospectors have played an important role
in the local economy, especially at the village level. Their activities resulted in identification
and exploitation of deposits of gold, gemstones and construction materials. Gold in
greenstone belts east of Lake Malawi/Niassa in northern Mozambique was first found and
panned by local prospectors. Local artisanal miners mine the majority of gemstones in the
Alto Ligonha pegmatite field.
In order to increase the exploitation of the nation’s mineral wealth, the National
Directorate of Geology (DNG), with support of private mining companies and bilateral and
multilateral missions has carried out significant exploration work during the past decades.
This has led to the discovery of important deposits of coal, heavy mineral sands, gold,
tantalum-niobium, phosphates and dimension stone as well as aggregate, clay and gravel.
Several of these deposits are currently in a development stage. Mineral resource development,
in a manner that is mutually attractive and beneficial for the foreign investor and for the
Government and people of Mozambique, has been made a national economic priority.
As a consequence of increased geological knowledge, facilitated by the activities of
the Mineral Resources Management Capacity Building Project (see Foreword), investments in
Mozambique’s mineral potential by leading international and regional mining companies is
already increasing. Global mining houses are expected to invest in exploration for energy
minerals (hydrocarbons, coal and uranium), for titanium and zirconium in heavy mineral
sands, for gold, diamonds and other gemstones, for agro-minerals lime and phosphate and for
tantalum, fluorite and other industrial minerals. Production of construction material could
benefit from local investments and enterprises.

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The Archaean Mutare-Manica Greenstone Belt has a high potential for gold, copper,
nickel, asbestos and iron resources. Lode and placer gold deposits have been mined for
decades in this region. Small industrial-grade bauxite deposits are mined at Moriangane near
Manica. Other areas with bauxite occurrences are Monte Salambidua in Tete Province and
Monte Mauze in Zambézia Province.
Metasediments of the Proterozoic Gairezi and Umkondo Groups along the frontier
with Zimbabwe host showings of iron, copper and limestone. Graphite is found in Proterozoic
gneisses and schists, often as small disseminations or as narrow veins and small lenses in the
proximity of marble. The Proterozoic sequences in the Zambézia and Nampula Provinces in
Alto Ligonha area contain pegmatites with rare earth minerals and semiprecious gemstones,
beryl group minerals (aquamarine), mica, feldspar, quartz and kaolin. Tantalum and niobium
with subordinate columbium, antimony and bismuth, as well as lithium minerals, are the most
important with immediate mining potential.
World-class coal deposits occur in the lower part of the Karoo Supergroup. The
Brazilian CVRD is involved in a major steam coal and coking coal project near Moatize,
expected to start production in 2009. These deposits are among the biggest and most
important mineral resources of Mozambique in addition to world class heavy mineral ‘black
sand’ deposits along the coast in dunes and beach sands.
Fluorite occurs in Mesozoic fractures in association with the Karoo and/or Cretaceous
rift evolution and in carbonatite intrusions, e.g. Monte Muambe, southeast of Tete. Indications
of hydrocarbons are encountered in the Rovuma Basin in the north and the Mozambique
Basin in the south. This includes gas production from the Cretaceous Grudja Formation*.
Potential for oil has been reported from the offshore Mozambique Basin. The Eocene
Cheringoma and the Miocene Jofane Formations* contain large resources of limestone, halite
and gypsum.
Resources of thermal water are abundant along the rift faults of the mountain ridges in
the western border area with South Africa and Zimbabwe. Demand for good quality mineral
water is steadily growing both for local consumption and for export. The southernmost
indications of coal in Karoo strata are in Espungabera (SDS 2032), close to the Zimbabwe
Border in Manica Province. Alluvial, micro-sized diamonds have been found in the Limpopo
and Singédzi Rivers in Gaza Province, probably transported by the rivers from the South
African Kaapvaal or Congo Craton (Moore & Larkin, 2001; Stankiewicz & de Wit, 2006).
Sedimentary deposits of phosphorite (0.7 – 3.1% P2O5) are located near Magude, 85 km
NNW from Maputo in calcarenites of the Jofane Formation*(TeJco). According to Manhiça
(1991) the deposits are 25 – 50 m thick and have a glauconite content of 50%. In addition
there are reserves of bat guano in the Buzi area estimated at 132,700 tonnes with 3.3% NO3,
3.9% P2O5 and 1.5% K2O (Lächelt, 1985).

Mineral Occurrences in the Area covered by this Map Explanation

In the area of this Map Explanation (Volume 3), which is covered by crystalline basement, the
number of known mineral occurrences is limited. The crystalline rocks are quarried for
aggregates in Nacaia and in Longose, Zambézia Province. The part of the Map Explanation
covered by sedimentary rocks of Karoo and younger age, are quarried for sand, gravel and
sandy, lacustrine limestones along the extensive coastal basins between the continent and the
ocean. The occurrences are listed based on primary commodity and size (App. 2). The

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mapped area has various commodities such as heavy minerals along the coast, marble and
carbonatite rocks for lime production, quartz for refractory and insulation industry, thermal
springs for medical purposes, clay for ceramic industry, and granitic rocks for aggregates and
sands for construction. Indications of hydrocarbons, including oil, have been reported from
the Rovuma Basin. A list of mineral occurrences within the area of this Map Explanation
(Volume 3) has been extracted from the Mineral Occurrence Data Base compiled by the GTK
Consortium.

10.2. INDUSTRIAL MINERALS

World-class black sand deposits are currently under development in the area covered by this
Map Explanation (Volume 3). The pegmatites of the Alto Ligonha pegmatite Province
contain, apart from metallic minerals such as columbo-tantalite (‘coltan’) and microlite, non-
metallic minerals such as beryl, spodumene, lepidolite, amblygonite, petalite and pollucite
and, finally, semi-precious stones such as gem beryl (morganite), spodumene (kunzite and
hiddenite) and tourmaline (Pedro, 1986). Most pegmatite bodies are located, however, outside
the Map Explanation area. For more information, the reader is referred to Macey et al.
(2006b).

10.2.1. Ilmenite, Rutile and Zircon in ‘Black Sand Deposits’

The most important mineral concentrations with significant economic potential are the heavy
mineral sands along the coast from Zalala (north of Quelimane, SDS 1736, 301326/8026534)
to Pebane-Moebase (SDS 1738/1739). The Moebase zone is the most important within this
Explanation area and well studied by international mining companies. Other identified heavy
mineral occurrences between the Zambezi delta and Quelimane are Micaúne (SDS 1836;
92936E/7968926N) and Deia (SDS 1836; 01984E/7979828N). Occurrences between
Quelimane and Moebase, in the northernmost part of SDS 1738, include Zalala, Macuse,
Raraga, Gorai, Idugo, Pebane and Melai (Lächelt, 2004).

Moebase
Beach sands at Moebase near Pebane contain between 4.6% and 5.3% heavy minerals,
including ilmenite, rutile, zircon, magnetite and monazite. From the total of heavy minerals
66 – 68% is ilmenite which contains 53 – 56% TiO2. Resources in the Moabase area (SDS
1738, 420235E/8101968N) have been estimated at some 72 Mt of ilmenite (Mining Journal,
February 2000, Special Issue).
Billiton plc. completed its feasibility study (Phase 1) for the TiGen Project in 1998
defining a significant heavy mineral resource of 31 Mt of TiO2 at Moebase. The study
included the required metallurgical processing to exploit the resource and how to mitigate the
radioactivity levels of the concentrate. According to BHP-Billiton the Moebase resource is
one of the world’s major heavy mineral sand deposits, comparable in size to Richards Bay13
14
. M’Bendi reports in May 2006, that the Company continues its work at Moebase15.

13
BHP Billiton (2002). Annual Report, www.bhpbilliton.com.
14
BHP Billiton (2005). Production Report for the quarter ended 31 December 2004, Press Release 27.01.2005,
www.bhpbilliton.com.

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Other black sand deposits

Large deposits of heavy mineral sands, of which Moma (operated by Kenmare) is closest to
production with 1 000 Mt at 3.6% heavy minerals, occur further to the north along the coast,
outside this Map Explanation area16. Main economic minerals are again ilmenite, rutile and
zircon. Kenmare Moma Mining Ltd is constructing a treatment plant with a planned
production of 710 000 tpa of ilmenite of three different grades along with 60 000 tpa of zircon
and 17 000 tpa of rutile, commissioned in late 2006 (Kenmare Resources plc, 2005).
Additional mineral resources (58 Mt of ilmenite, Mining Journal, February 2000, Special
Issue) are known in Congolone, located just to the north from Moma. The planned dredging
of the HMS resources along the coast will require upgrading of essential infrastructure such as
power lines, roads, airstrip and jetty for ship loading. This includes high quality construction
material in Nampula Province.

10.2.2. Semi-precious stones

Gemstones can be found, in general, in pegmatites, with beryl, tourmaline and various
feldspars in Zambézia, Nampula and Tete Provinces. Most gemstones are produced by
artisanal miners and are not registered properly.
An interesting pegmatite body was mapped in the northwest corner of SDS 1735, close
to the Malawi border, a few kilometres north of the Chulo settlement (Fig. 10.1). It is a blue
beryl- and biotite-bearing K-feldspar pegmatite type, named Nhaphale, which was illegally
exploited for aquamarine during the late 1980’s, showing parts of the quartz core as preserved
fragments within the feldspathic mass. Close to this deposit, eluvial garnets have been
recovered in panned concentrates, as well as blue corundum, some of them of gem quality
(oral comm. from the local chief of Chulo settlement). The gemstones were illegally exported
to Malawi.

15
BHP Billiton (2006). Production Report for the quarter ended 31 December 2005, Press Release 24.01.2006,
www.bhpbilliton.com.
16
Kenmare Resources plc (2005). Annual Report 2004, Dublin, Ireland, www.kenmareresources.com.

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Fig. 10.1. Old pit of a Pan-African

mineralised pegmatite occurring in
the northwest part of SDS 1735
(720838/ 8110140).

10.2.3. Thermal springs

Two thermal springs are found in this Map Explanation area. One, called Águas Quentes
(SDS 1735) is located some 20 km west of Morrumbala town at the foot of the eastern slope
of Serra da Morrumbala (Fig. 10.2) and its curative properties are known from the year 1898.
The other one is the Nhafuba spring (SDS 1736) situated about 35 km northwest of Nicoadala
town. Both springs emit high-sulphur gases and hot water with a temperature above 70° C.
The Nhafuba spring is also precipitating carbonates, silica, and salts, which form typical
hydrothermal sinter deposits with fine banded or laminated structures, white to beige in colour
(Fig. 10.3).

Fig. 10.2. Águas Quentes thermal

spring (SDS 1735, 750266/8073339).

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Fig. 10.3. Sinter deposits at Nhafuba

thermal spring (SDS 1736, 242548
/8079459).

These thermal springs are probably related to Mesozoic-Cenozoic mantle plume

activity and rifting of Gondwana. However, as it is located at the margins of the Zambezi
River valley, a relation with Cenozoic-Quaternary rifting along the East African Rift System
is more likely.
The above thermal springs have potential for curative purposes and together with the
nearby Serra da Morrumbala also tourist potential. Trails to the Serra da Morrumbala top, to
the natural springs and to waterfalls offer attractive trekking itineraries with eco/geotouristic
emphasis.

10.3. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Crystalline rocks are quarried for aggregate in Nacaia and Longose in Zambézia Province
(SDS 1735, 777500/8037390). The southern sections of SDS 1735-1739 are covered by
sedimentary rocks of Tertiary and Quaternary age. These consist of sand, gravel, and
lacustrine limestone along the extensive coastal plains. Sand from riverbeds in Nicoadala and
Licuari is utilised for mortar and concrete. Tertiary limestone has been quarried for some
years back the Inhaminga district (SDS 1835, 714755/7960669) for cement production in
Dondo. Large deposits of Eocene limestone occur along the Cheringoma Plateau, south of
Inhaminga. According to Afonso & Marques (1998), estimated limestone reserves are about
30 Mt, and could be as high as 210 Mt if probable reserves are also included. The
Cheringoma Formation* is a glauconitic limestone with fossil fish teeth beds, indicating that
there is potential for finding phosphorite resources, for agricultural needs17. Clay has been
quarried for brick making in areas around Quelimane.

17
Van Straaten, P. (2002). Rocks for Crops. Agrominerals for sub-Saharan Africa. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya,
338 pp.

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10.3.1. Aggregates

Granitic rocks are mainly quarried for aggregate material for road pavement, as well as for
construction and dimension stone. Different gneisses have potential for ornamental stone such
as some charnockitic granitoids, located in SDS 1735. Two granite quarries are currently in
operation: Lungozi (797509/8048195) and another, unnamed one between Nicoadala and
Morrumbala townships (196806/8073896) (Fig. 10.4). Some very small, artisanal rock pits in
gneisses are used for local construction purposes at some villages and settlements.
About 80 km north of Quelimane, in the Namacurra district along the EN1 highway,
an abandoned group of aggregate quarries from the 1960’s occurs in coarse, porphyritic
granite. The current license holder is Sopeza-Pedreira da Zambézia. On the 160 ha license
area (SDS 1737, 932128/ 8079700) there are three separate operators: 1) Pedreira de Nacaia
which produces about 15 m3 of stone aggregate per day. The product is sold mainly in the
Namacurra-Mocuba area, 2) Tamega Company, which has recently commenced a large-scale
quarrying operation for road construction aggregate and 3) a team of artisanal aggregate
producers, whose principal tool for rock breaking is traditional fire and water.

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Two quarries exploit opposite slopes of a small Inselberg close to Mocuba town (along
highway EN1). Quarry faces are about 10 m high and the location is fortunate, being close to
the highway. None of the quarries is in operation, but the owners are awaiting major
construction works, scheduled to get started soon. Currently, some ‘garimpeiros’ are crushing
the brittle, coarse-grained porphyritic granite by hammer.

Fig. 10.4. Aggregate quarry in

granite between Nicoadala and
Morrumbala towns (SDS 1736,
196806/ 8073896).

10.3.2. Sand and Gravel

Gravel and sand are excavated in some places at Maganja da Costa. One quarry (SDS 1737,
334050/8088986) is in granitic rock, which is deeply weathered and elutriated to form a thick
cover of residual siliceous sand. Other sand quarries are located at 789629/7983622 and
788608/7988895.
Good quality, well-graded sand (Ø < 10 mm) for various construction purposes is
found in the Rio Lugela, just outside Mocuba town. Finer sand, if needed, is available on the
floodplain of the same river. In the suburbs of the town sand has been extracted from several
shallow pits, 2 – 3 m deep. The sand is light grey, rich in quartz, with a grain size < 2 mm.
These artisanal sand operations are not licensed and uncontrolled, which seems to be common
throughout the country.
Close to Nicoadala, about 50 km north of Quelimane, two licensed sand operations
occur: Nicoadala (SDS 1736, 903919/8053778) and Licuari (892098/ 8052904). At Licuari
fine-grained (< 1 mm) flood plain sand of Rio Licuari is excavated. The material is best suited
for fillings and mortar. In Nicoadala typical, well-graded river bottom sand is extracted which
is suitable for concrete and other less demanding purposes.
Sand and gravel are exploited in small artisanal open pits (Fig. 10.5) in the Zambezi
River valley, which is an active, fluvial depositional site, with its meandering tributaries.

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Fig. 10.5. Sand quarry between

Nicoadala and Morrumbala (SDS
1736, 258517/ 8062294).

10.3.3. Brick Clay

In Quelimane town as well as in the whole Zambézia Province, the state of industrial brick
manufacturing is unsatisfactory. The only brick works, the large Ceramica Montegiro, 20 km
north of Quelimane, has been in standstill since the civil war. The abandoned clay pits are
close to the plant. The alluvial clay deposit of the ‘Monteiro e Giro’ factory used to produce
very good quality bricks and ceramic tiles. The abandoned clay pits are located close to the
plant (SDS 1736, 912295/8036975). The volume of the clay resource should be investigated
prior to a possible restart of the works. Currently, the closest brick works are in Beira, a
distance of 450 km, resulting in exorbitant transport cost. Consequently, concrete blocks or
artisanal solid bricks are widely used as an alternative for hollow bricks, certainly not the best
solution for house construction in a hot climate.

10.3.4. Limestone/Marble

Limestones with a high carbonate content occur in the Cheringoma Formation* in two areas:
west of Beira along the Buzi River and in the type-locality north of Beira on the Cheringoma
Plateau along an escarpment bordering the eastern margin of the Urema Trough, extending for
about 100 km in NNE-SSW direction from Muanza in the south to north of Inhaminga.
The Cheringoma Formation* was only partially known from outcrops of limestone
occurring over a distance of more than 50 km just east of the confluence of the Buzi and
Revue Rivers. Recent drilling for oil and gas in the Sofala Province has revealed the basic
stratigraphy of Tertiary formations. At the type locality, in quarries on the Cheringoma
Plateau near Muanza, the Cheringoma Formation* is about 70 m thick and rests discordantly
on the underlying Grudja Formation*. The limestone is pure to sandy, whitish in colour with
an abundance of fossils. The whole Cheringoma Plateau is a typical karst area with deep
sinkholes, extensive caves, steep canyons and subterranean rivers. The area has been explored
in 1950’s (Dias, 1952) by boreholes in the Urema Trough escarpment to delineate the best
limestone deposits for the cement factory at Dondo near Beira. Limestone deposits south of
the Muanza-Urema road were not suitable for cement production, but good quality limestone
was identified north of the Muanza-Urema road in the localities Codzo, Nhangatua, Condue,

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Massiquidze, Muanza and Mueredzi (from north to south). The three last mentioned deposits
are the best, with a stable thickness and quality, while from other deposits limestone of the
best quality has partially been removed by erosion. All these deposits are about 25 km west
of the Sena railway line and at 80 – 100 km distance from the cement factory at Dondo.
The southernmost deposit on the Mueredzi River is best investigated of these three.
The regular development of the limestone beds, in terms of composition and continuity, is
extraordinary. The Mueredzi River has worn a canyon, 16 m deep and over 600 m long, in
carbonate with a CaCO3 content of over 85%. In the whole area, there may be possible
reserves of several hundred million tons of limestone (Cilek, 1989).
Massinquize, the northernmost of the three deposits, outcropping over 7 km,
comprises white fossiliferous limestone with a high CaCO3 content. The development of the
Cheringoma Formation* within the whole area is best demonstrated in a stratigraphical
section in Dias (1952).
Layers of crystalline marble can be found as lenses within the high-grade gneisses of
the Precambrian Metolola Group. The main marble occurrence is situated at the mouth of the
Túngoè River, south of Serra da Morrumbala, about 50 m southwest of Morrumbala town.
Another marble occurrence within the gneisses is located at about 5 km ENE of Morrumbala
town. Both occurrences were exploited in the past for local lime production. These rocks have
MgO contents suitable for cement manufactory.

10.4. HYDROCARBONS
10.4.1. Introduction

The delineation of sedimentary rocks in terms of oil and gas reservoirs is of major importance
for Mozambique, since hydrocarbons potentially generate large revenues in an energy-hungry
world, particularly since double digits economic growth in China and India. The changing
physical (infrastructure and novel deep-water technology) and political environment (a
welcoming Government) and high oil prices presently create favourable conditions for
exploration. With just 72 wells (ECL Ltd. & ENH, 2000), Mozambique is an immature
petroleum exploration region.

10.4.2. Natural Gas

Economic quantities of natural gas have been discovered in the central part of the
Mozambique Basin from several horizons in the Lower Grudja Formation* (e.g. Pande,
Temane and Buzi), where the reservoirs constitute shallow water shoals and bars (chenier)
(Salman & Abdula, 1995; Map Explanation, Volume 1; GTK Consortium, 2006a).

10.4.3. Oil

To date, Mozambique is not a crude oil producer. Det Norske Oljeselskap (DNO) of Norway
and Petronas of Malaysia have carried out (2002 – 2003) offshore exploration in Sofala
Province for petroleum (Yager, 2004). Exploration for oil is also ongoing in the Rovuma
Basin (Cabo Delgado), further north, close to Tanzania border. Preliminary results are
encouraging (Pilskog et al. 2006).

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10.4.4. Current Developments

Hydrocarbon exploration in central and northern Mozambique is focused on the Rovuma

sedimentary basin (Cabo Delgado), together with the offshore Zambezi deltaic complex and
the entire offshore, including the deep offshore of the Mozambique Basin (Fig. 10.6). Multi-
petroleum systems combined with mega-anticlinal structures endow this vast area with
exploration potential. These exploration targets have come within reach due to a strongly
increased oil (and gas) price, together with novel deep-water technologies, which have
improved very quickly during the past few years.

Fig. 10.6. Hydrocarbon development in Mozambique. Principal licence areas for exploration and production in
southern and central Mozambique (screendump from EAPC 2005, Jebco).

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The highly prospective Rovuma Basin (Lainchburg & Edwards, 1999) in the extreme
northeast of Mozambique measures some 30 000 km2 of which half is offshore. The basin, for
which a bidding-round for exploration licenses just closed in January 2006, is, like the
Mozambique Basin, a passive, syn-drift Mesozoic-Tertiary basin. The only well drilled so far
– Mocimboa-1 – dating back to 1986, has strong gas shows in sand horizons within interval
3291-3409, with 5 – 10 % porosity, Sw 40 to 60 %, RFT only recovered filtrate. Oil traces
have also been found in thinly bedded limestones below 1715 m. Basin modeling indicated
that the Cenomanian is late mature (wet gas) and that the younger Cretaceous is in the oil
window. Earliest oil maturity was attained during the Lower Tertiary. Recently, oil-presence
has been firmly established in offshore Tanzania in Lower Cretaceous Neocomian sandstones.
Here, light oil that matches oil of surface seeps, was extracted from cuttings at 3600 m
of depth. A widespread source rock is suspected in the Jurassic part of the succession18.
These findings are of importance for Mozambique because oil seeps are also known to exist
in the Rovuma Basin, located just a bit more to the south.
Structural and/or stratigraphic prospects and leads have been identified in the larger
offshore Zambezi delta-complex. These are hosted by Palaeogene turbidite-fan and channel
deposits over Cheringoma rafts. Additionally, similar leads may exist in Miocene turbidites.
The Lower Domo and Lupata marine shales provide source rocks. Drilling a deep
stratigraphic key well in the near future is planned.
Basin (temperature) modeling of the Mozambique Basin has been carried out using
information from some 20 wells. The majority of source rock samples recovered is of the gas-
prone kerogen type III. The Maputo Formation* and the Lower Domo shale Formation* (Map
Explanation, Volume 1; GTK Consortium, 2006a) contain the best source rocks. From burial-
diagrammes it can be concluded that several wells have been subjected to kilometre-scale
uplift. Stratigraphically, this is confirmed by a multiple-unconformity dominated stratigraphic
sequence. Supposedly, hydrocarbon deposits have been generated and, subsequently,
destroyed by erosion during uplift.
The vast coastal and offshore area between Mozambique, southern Tanzania,
Madagascar and the Comoros Islands is a highly unexplored region, 1½-times the size of the
North Sea basin (Fig. 10.7). This frontier area of the Mozambique Channel incorporates nine
sub-basins with sedimentary series, ranging from 6000 to 11 000 m in thickness, so far only
reconnoitered by some 22 exploration wells19. Along its periphery, oil and gas have been
discovered in two offshore gas fields in southern Tanzania, the Mozambique Pande-Temane
gas fields, the Bemolanga tar sands in Madagascar.

18
Nyuni well results provides first hint of East African oil fairway. J. Beckman, Offshore, April 2005, pp. 36-39.
19
Rusk, Bertagne & Associates and TGS-NOPEC (2005): The Petroleum Geology and Geophysics of the
Mozambique Channel. Announcement Brochure.

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Fig. 10.7. Hydrocarbon

development in Mozambique.
Map shows (in yellow) the
Mozambique Channel, a frontier
area for hydrocarbon exploration
(Rusk, Bertagne & Associates and
TGS-NOPEC, 2005).

To date, 31 000 line-km of single and multi-channel 2D seismic data, including 2000
km of 98 fold CDP seismic data, was acquired during 2001 (Fig. 10.8). Analysis of these data
shows various structural leads and several petroleum systems are know to exists in the area.
Maturation/expulsion and migration of hydrocarbons into relation with the integrity of
potential traps/seals is probably the most uncertain issue at the moment. For key reports and
hydrocarbon database the reader is referred to the Instituto Nacional de Petroleo and Empresa
Nacional de Hidrocarbonetos de Moçambique (ENH):
• 27 seismic surveys retained in ENH archives;
• 73 wells drilled since 1952 of which 20 wells in the Mozambique Basin;
• 3 biostratigraphic data reports 1986, 1994 and 1997;
• Aeromagnetic data (>1km), 19 surveys, undersampled;
• Gravity data , 5 surveys onshore (south of Beira) and 6 surveys offshore;
• Geochemical data Ro %, TAI, OI, HI, Tmax, S1, S2 & S3, OM1, OM2;
• 72 well summary sheets (no log), just stratigraphy;
• Synopsis exploration wells;
• Field data summaries (most contained in ECL Ltd. & ENH, 2000).

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Fig. 10.8. Overview of onshore and offshore seismic surveys in the Mozambique Basin (source: Mamad,
2005).

10.5. MINERAL POTENTIAL

In general, metallogenetic modelling, which is used in evaluation of ore potential in a certain
area, is based on the assumption that geodynamics and processes forming economically
interesting mineral concentrations are intimately related. In other words, by analysing the
geodynamic evolution of a certain area, one can predict the deposit types that have formed in
the process. The formation of a metallic mineral deposit depends on four fundamental factors:
(1) a source of the metal(s), (2) mobilisation and transport of these metal(s), (3) re-
concentration of these metal(s) to ‘ore grade’ and (4) modification and preservation of the
deposit.

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In Chapter 9 the geodynamic evolution of the area covered by this Map Explanation
has been outlined. In its simplest form it can be described as a succession of orogenic phases
(crustal compression) followed by phases of crustal extension. The following major phases
can be distinguished in the area of this description (Map Explanation, Volume 3):
• Pre-Grenville magmatic arc development (1.13 Ga).
• Grenville Orogenic Cycle (1.10 – 1.00 Ga), emplacement of TTG suites; crustal
thickening with late-kinematic, anatectic granitoids;
• Post-Rodinia break-up (0.90 – 0.80 Ga), emplacement of bi-modal magmatic
suites;
• Pan-African Orogenic Cycle (750 – 450 Ma), emplacement of TTG suites and late-
kinematic, anatectic granitoids and pegmatites;
• Karoo rifting (late Carboniferous–Early Jurassic), deposition of a thick sequence of
clastic sediments and emplacement of associated alkaline and bi-modal volcanic
rocks in the Lebombos and Nuanetsi-Sabi Monoclines;
• Development East Africa Rift System (Cretaceous–Recent), emplacement of
alkaline magmatic rocks.
• Large coastal areas, in particular the Zambezi delta, are covered by Recent,
Neogene, Palaeogene and Cretaceous terrestrial and marine sediments.

The tectonic ‘block’ forming the Nampula sub-Province is represented by juvenile

Mesoproterozoic TTG suites in a magmatic arc setting (i.e., Mocuba Formation*). Typical
deposits forming in such environments include porphyry copper, Kuroko-type Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide (MVT) and epithermal gold deposits. These deposits all form in a
structurally high part of the magmatic arc. The chance that they survive a phase of uplift and
exhumation is remote. At places, however, blocks of the magmatic arc may be preserved by
early down faulting due to orogenic collapse or development of a back-arc basin.
Post- magmatic arc extension gave rise to deposition of the Molócuè sediments and
granitoids of the Culicuí Suite. These could host sediment-hosted and granophyle mineral
deposits.
Subsequent Pan-African deformation and metamorphism supposedly affected older
mineral deposits in both beneficial and detrimental ways. Extreme flattening or stretching of
existing mineral bodies may have rendered these sub-economic. Alternatively, concentration
of economic sulphides or other ore minerals in low-pressure zones (e.g., hinge zones) may
improve the quality of deposits (e.g., Broken Hill, Australia). Late Pan-African pegmatites of
the Alto Ligonha pegmatite Province are mineralised in columbo-tantalite, thorium, uranium,
beryl, Li-minerals and semi-precious stones. A comprehensive inventory of the minerals
found in these pegmatites can be found in Dias & Wilson (2000). A number of small gold
deposits and occurrences occur and have only been exploited on an artisanal scale. The gold
occurs in a variety of geological settings.
The Majele gold project/prospect, which is situated north of SDS 1637/1638, was
recently re-appraised by African Eagle Resources. Gold in pan concentrates has highlighted a
number of targets for further investigation (http://www.africaneagle.co.uk/news-102.html).
The group's reconnaissance heavy mineral and geochemistry studies and a study by the
British Geological Survey of gold grains panned from the streams concluded that the gold is
primary in origin and close to its source. Geological and geochemical studies have narrowed

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down the area of the gold source to a region between two large thrust faults
(http://www.africaneagle.co.uk/projects-majele.html). African Eagle Resources holds
reconnaissance licenses for the southern Namama Thrust Belt area (Macey et al. 2006b).
Sub-outcropping Karoo rocks in the lower Zambezi rift and delta could be a source of
secondary gas fields by degassing of Karoo coal seams due to episodic burial. Karoo and
younger rifting also produce potassic igneous rocks (e.g., with potential for phosphates,
REE’s and fluorite.

10.6. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EXPLORATION

Based on the ideas presented above and the overview of mineral occurrences in the area
covered by this Map Explanation, the following recommendations for future exploration are
forwarded:
• Gold as yet is relatively untested as a major economic mineral potential, but it
forms important local mineral resource. Gold occurs in rare-metal pegmatites, in
structurally-hosted quartz(-sulphide) veins in biotite and amphibolite gneisses and
schists and more rarely sericitic schists (Hunting, 1985). Alluvial gold is another
option.
• The potential for world-class black sand deposits is evident. The TiGen heavy
mineral project in Moebase just to the north of the coastal town of Pebane (SDS
1738) holds large ilmenite resource potential, which BHP Billiton is likely to
explore further. Towards southwest along the coast Zalala zone (SDS 1737) shows
some unexplored potential. The HMS potential of the Zambezi River estuary area
should be tested.
• The sedimentary basin south of Quelimane is in theory connected with
hydrocarbon potential, which has not yet given positive indications, although
Petronas of Malaysia holds an offshore exploration block near the Zambezi delta.
Further exploration is justified.
• Limestone occurrences in Inhaminga (SDS 1835) could provide source of raw
material to the cement plant at Dondo, especially now when a feasibility study on
restarting the clinker production line has commenced (Cimentos de Portugal,
SGPS, SA, 2006). The location and extensions of limestone of suitable quality
should be studied. Exploration for marketable quality and volume of limestone in
the Eocene Cheringoma Formation is recommended close to the Beira development
corridor roads and the rehabilitated Sena railway line.
• The availability and quality of various construction materials (aggregates,
dimension stone and limestone) as well as clays in the Zambezi River valley close
to development centres and infrastructure corridors should be evaluated. Especially
rock aggregate in Beira and Quelimane areas is important and an evaluation of
quality and volumes of suitable rocks (granites and gneisses) should be made. The
construction of a bridge over the Zambezi River at Caia will utilise local raw
materials (cement, gravel, sand, aggregates, blocks etc.).

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• Pegmatites with semi precious stones occur in areas to the north of Quelimane and
stretching as far up as to Pemba. Feasible mining of semi-precious stones in
industrial scale from irregular pegmatites is technically difficult, especially in areas
with undeveloped infrastructure. The pegmatite occurrences are maybe better
suitable for small scale or artisanal mining, but the production and working
conditions should be controlled by MIREM.

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 APPENDIX 1

DEFINITIONS OF LITHO-STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS

Bed: A bed (or beds) is the smallest litho-stratigraphic unit of sedimentary rocks. The
designation of a bed or a unit of beds as a formally-named litho-stratigraphic unit generally
should be limited to certain distinctive beds whose recognition is particularly useful (e.g.,
marker beds, guide horizons or a coal seam).

Member: A litho-stratigraphic unit of subordinate rank, comprising some specially developed

part of a Formation. It may be formally defined and named, informally named, or unnamed.
It is not necessarily mappable and a named member may extent from one Formation into
another. Laterally equivalent parts of a Formation that differ recognisably may be considered
members, e.g., the gravel and sand member of the ‘A’ Formation. A member combines a
lithologic name followed by the word ‘member’. It is higher in rank than a bed.

Formation: A mappable body of rock identified by lithologic characteristics and stratigraphic

position. Formation is the fundamental unit in litho-stratigraphic classification. It may
represent a short or a long time interval, may be composed of material of different sources,
and may include breaks in deposition. A Formation should possess some degree of internal
lithologic homogeneity or distinctive lithic features such as chemical or mineralogical
composition, texture, fossils (viewed as rock-forming fragments), or other organic contents
such as coal or oil shale. A Formation must be amenable to being mapped at the scale of
geological mapping practiced in the region when the Formation is proposed. Thickness is not
a determining factor. A Formation name normally consists of a geographic name followed by
a descriptive geologic term (usually the dominant rock type) or by the word ‘Formation’ in
case the lithology is so variable that no single term is appropriate.

Group: A litho-stratigraphic unit consisting partly or entirely of named formations. A group

name combines a geographic name with the term ‘group’, and no lithic designation is
included, e.g., Umkondo Group.

Supergroup: A formal assemblage of related or superimposed groups, or of groups and

Formations, e.g., Karoo Supergroup. The term should not be misused for ‘Series’.

Complex: A large-scale field association or assemblage of different rocks of any age or

origin, having structural relations so intricately involved or otherwise complicated that the
rocks cannot be readily differentiated in mapping, e.g., a volcanic complex, an igneous
complex, a metamorphic complex or a basement complex (see also ‘Ophiolite Complex).
Alternatively, complex is defined as a lithodemic unit that consist of a mixture of rocks of
two or more genetic classes, i.e., igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic, with or without
highly complicated structures.

Suite: A suite comprises (1) two or more related, named intrusive igneous rock units or
metamorphic units that have significant lithological features in common, or (2) an igneous or
metamorphic unit that consists of several (related) rock types and which cannot therefore be
satisfactorily named using a single lithological designation. Suites should only be used to
group together rock bodies closely associated in space, time and origin. In igneous bodies
showing systematic and rhythmic layering, the term ‘Igneous Suite’ is to be preferred over
‘Igneous Complex’.

In the legend pertaining to the geological maps produced by the Consortium, litho-
stratigraphic units are grouped in four ranks, i.e., member, formation, group and supergroup.
‘Complex’ and ‘Suite’ have for practical reasons given the same position as ‘Supergroup’.
 APPENDIX 2

MINERAL OCCURRENCES

MAP EXPLANATION, VOLUME 3

Map Explanation GTK Consortium VOLUME 3 App.2.

Number ID_No REF_No Deposit_Name Easting Northing Map_250k Province Deposit_class Genetic_class mary_ComSubsid_1 Subsid_2 Size_categorySize_class Status Mining_methM
o ap_symbol
1 656 386 Quelimane 910316 8040639 1736 Zambézia Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CS CS Medium 2 prospect 121
2 654 373 Marramiza 907959 8080419 1736 Zambézia Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CS Small 1 closed mine 121
3 1126 Montegiro clay pits 275835 8039905 1736 Zambézia Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Cy Medium 2 Closed mine 121
5 406 400 Inhaminga 714755 7960669 1835 Sofala Industrial mineral Chemical sediment Ls Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 121
6 655 382 Majaua 744943 8050730 1735 Zambézia Industrial mineral Chemical sediment Ls Occurrence 0 showing 121
7 1125 Licuari sand 255087 8055109 1736 Zambézia Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB Small 1 Prospect 145
8 1124 Nicoadala sand 266928 8056368 1736 Zambézia Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QG Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 145
10 413 388 Longose 777503 8037390 1735 Zambezia Industrial mineral Volcanic St M Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 141
9 1123 Naciaia Pedreira de 294275 8083087 1737 Zambézia Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic St M Medium 2 Active mine 141
11 389 Moebase 474285 8113168 1738 Zambezia Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Ti HM Zr Large 3 Dev .Prosp. 124
12 546 391 Zalala 295192 8019013 1737 Zambézia Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr RE Medium 2 prospect 124
13 498 397 Deia 901984 7979828 1836 Zambézia Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 prospect 124
14 500 399 Micaúne 892936 7968926 1836 Zambézia Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 prospect 124
4 723 393 Muio 252467 7972168 1836 Zambézia Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Ti Zr Rt Small 1 Prospect 145
15 496 395.1 Ilha Olinda I 909012 7999086 1836 Zambézia Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Unknown 0 showing 124
16 497 395.2 Ilha Olinda II 273929 7986491 1836 Zambézia Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Unknown 0 showing 124