Railway Engineering

26.03.
2020
CIVL3402
Introduction to
Transportation Engineering
Ali Sercan Kesten, PhD,
Assistant Professor,
IŞIK UNIVERSITY
FACTORS AFFECTING
TRANSPORTATION
26.03.2020 CIVL3402 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 2
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1. Overview
The success of transportation engineering
depends upon the co-ordination between the
three primary elements, namely the vehicles, the
roadways, and the road users.
Their characteristics affect the performance of the
transportation system and the transportation
engineer should have fairly good understanding
about them.
This lecture elaborated salient human, vehicle,
and road factors affecting transportation.
2. Human factors affecting transportation

 Road users can be defined as drivers, passengers, pedestrians etc. who use the streets
and highways. Together, they form the most complex element of the traffic system - the
human element - which differentiates Transportation Engineering from all other
engineering fields.
 It is said to be the most complex factor as the human performances varies from
individual to individual. Thus, the transportation engineer should deal with a variety of
road user characteristics.
 For example, a traffic signal timed to permit an average pedestrian to cross the street
safely may cause a severe hazard to an elderly person. Thus, the design considerations
should safely and efficiently accommodate the elderly persons, the children, the
handicapped, the slow and speedy , and the good and bad drivers.
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2.1 Variability
The most complex problem while dealing human characteristics is its variability . The
human characteristics like ability to react to a situation, vision and hearing, and other
physical and psychological factors vary from person to person and depends on age,
fatigue, nature of stimuli, presence of drugs/alcohol etc.
The influence of all these factors and the corresponding variability cannot be accounted
when a facility is designed. So a standardized value is often used as the design value.
The 85 th percentile value of different characteristics is taken as a standard. It
represents a characteristic that 85 per percent of the population can meet or exceed.
For example; if we say that the 85 th percentile value of walking speed is about 2 m/s, it
means that 85 per cent of people has walking speed faster than 2 m/s. The variability is
thus fixed by selecting proper 85th percentile values of the characteristics.
2.2 Critical characteristics

The road user characteristics can be of two main types, some of them are quantifiable like
reaction time, visual acuity etc. while some others are less quantifiable like the psychological
factors, physical strength, fatigue, and dexterity.
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2.3 Reaction time

The road user is subjected to a series of stimuli both expected and unexpected. The
time taken to perform an action according to the stimulus involves a series of stages
like:
 Perception: Perception is the process of perceiving the sensations received through
the sense organs, nerves and brains. It is actually the recognitions that a stimulus on
which a reaction is to happen exists.
 Intellection: Intellection involves the identification and understanding of stimuli.
 Emotion: This stage involves the judgment of the appropriate response to be made on
the stimuli like to stop, pass, move laterally etc.
 Volition: Volition is the execution of the decision which is the result of a physical
actions of the driver.
2.3 Reaction time (Cntd.)

For example., if a driver approaches an intersection where
the signal is red, the driver first sees the signal (perception),
he recognizes that is a red/STOP signal, he decides to stop
and finally applies the brake(volition).
This sequence is called the PIEV time or perception-
reaction time. But apart from the above time, the vehicle
itself traveling at initial speed would require some more
time to stop. That is, the vehicle traveling with initial speed
u will travel for a distance, d = vt where, t is the before said
PIEV time. Again, the vehicle would travel some distance
after the brake is applied.
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2.4 Visual acuity and driving

The perception-reaction time depends greatly on the effectiveness of
drivers vision in perceiving the objects and traffic control measures.
The PIEV time will be decreased if the vision is clear and accurate.
Visual acuity relates to the field of clearest vision. The most acute
vision is within a cone of 3 to 5 degrees, fairly clear vision within 10
to 12 degrees and the peripheral vision will be within 120 to 180
degrees.
This is important when traffic signs and signals are placed, but other
factors like dynamic visual acuity , depth perception etc. Should also
be considered for accurate design. Glare vision and color vision are
also equally important. Glare vision is greatly a
effected by age. Glare recovery time is the time required to recover
from the effect of glare after the light source is passed, and will be
higher for elderly persons. Color vision is important as it can come
into picture in case of sign and signal recognition.
2.5 Walking
Transportation planning and design will not be complete if the
discussion is limited to drivers and vehicular passengers. The
most prevalent of the road users are the pedestrians. Pedestrian
traffic along footpaths, sidewalks, crosswalks, safety zones,
islands, and over and under passes should be considered.
On an average, the pedestrian walking speed can be taken
between 1.5 m/sec to 2 m/sec. But the influence of physical,
mental, and emotional factors need to be considered. Parking
spaces and facilities like signals, bus stops, and over and under
passes are to be located and designed according to the
maximum distance to which a user will be willing to walk. It was
seen that in small towns 90 per cent park within 185 m of their http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6NLe4syTWgQ
destinations while only 66 percent park so close in large city .
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2.6 Other Characteristics

Hearing is required for detecting sounds, but lack of hearing acuity can be compensated
by usage of hearing aids. Lot of experiments were carried out to test the drive vigilance
which is the ability of a drive to discern environmental signs over a prolonged period.
The results showed that the drivers who did not undergo any type of fatiguing
conditions performed significantly better than those who were subjected to fatiguing
conditions.
But the mental fatigue is more dangerous than skill fatigue. The variability of attitude of
drivers with respect to age, sex, knowledge and skill in driving etc. are also important.
Two of the important constituents of transportation system are drivers and
users/passengers. Understanding of certain human characteristics like perception -
reaction time and visual acuity and their variability are to be considered by traffic
Engineer. Because of the variability in characteristics, the 85 th percentile values of the
human characteristics are fixed as standards for design of traffic facilities.
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3. Vehicle factors
 It is important to know about the
vehicle characteristics because we can
design road for any vehicle but not for an
indefinite one.
 The road should be such that it should
cater to the needs of existing and
anticipated vehicles.
 Some of the vehicle factors that affect
transportation will be presented.
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3.1 Design vehicles

Highway systems accommodate a wide variety of sizes and types of vehicles, from smallest
compact passenger cars to the largest double and triple tractor-trailer combinations. According
to the different geometric features of highways like the lane width, lane widening on curves,
minimum curb and corner radius, clearance heights etc some standard physical dimensions for
the vehicles has been recommended. Road authorities are forced to impose limits on vehicular
characteristics mainly:
 to provide practical limits for road designers to work to,
 to see that the road space and geometry is available to normal vehicles,
 to implement traffic control effectively and efficiently ,
 take care of other road users also.
Taking the above points into consideration, in general, the vehicles can be grouped into
motorized two wheeler's, motorized three wheeler's, passenger car, bus, single axle trucks, multi
axle trucks, truck trailer combinations, and slow non motorized vehicles.
3.2 Vehicle dimensions

The vehicular dimensions which can affect the road and traffic design are mainly: width, height, length,
rear overhang, and ground clearance.
The width of vehicle affects the width of lanes, shoulders and parking facility .
The capacity of the road will also decrease if the width exceeds the design values.
The height of the vehicle affects the clearance height of structures like over-bridges, under-bridges and
electric and other service lines and also placing of signs and signals.
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3.2 Vehicle dimensions (Cntd.)

Another important factor is the length of the vehicle which affects the extra width of pavement,
minimum turning radius, safe overtaking distance, capacity and the parking facility .
The rear overhang control is mainly important when the vehicle takes a right/left turn from a
stationary point.
The ground clearance of vehicle comes into picture while designing ramps and property access
and as bottoming out on a crest can stop a vehicle from moving under its own pulling power.
Max width : 2.55 m

Max length: double axle 12 m , LCVC 22 m
Max height (loading gauge height) : 4 m
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3.3 Weight, axle configuration etc.

The weight of the vehicle is a major consideration during the design of
pavements both flexible and rigid.
The weight of the vehicle is transferred to the pavement through the axles and
so the design parameters are fixed on the basis of the number of axles.
The power to weight ratio is a measure of the ease with which a vehicle can
move. It determines the operating efficiency of vehicles on the road.
The ratio is more important for heavy vehicles. The power to weight ratio is the
major criteria which determines the length to which a positive gradient can be
permitted taking into consideration the case of heavy vehicles.
3.3 Weight, axle configuration etc. (Cntd.)

Taşıt ağırlıkları üstyapı kalınlığının hesaplanması sırasında dikkate alınan bir değişkendir.
Yürürlükteki Karayolları Trafik Kanunu bu hususta aşağıdaki hükümleri içerir.
Aşağıda sıralanan boyutlara ve ağırlıklara uyulmadan trafiğe çıkılmasını zorunlu kılan hallerde
yolun durumu göz önünde tutulmak, trafik güvenliğine zarar verilmemek, gösterilen güzergahı
kullanmak ve gerekli önlemleri almak koşulu ile taşıma yapılabilir. Ancak, bunun için daha önce
KGM den Özel Yük Taşıma Belgesi’nin alınması mecburiyeti vardır.
Dingil ve dingil grubu ağırlıkları
Tahriksiz tek dingilde 10 ton
Tahrikli tek dingilde 11,5 ton
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Axle Configurations
Single Axle With Single Wheel Tandem Axle

(Legal Axle Load = 6t) (Legal Axle Load = 18t)
Single Axle With Dual Wheel

(Legal Axle Load = 10t)
Tridem Axle
(Legal Axle Load = 24t)
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Truck Configuration
2 Axle Truck – 16t

Truck Configuration
4 Axle Semi Articulated – 34t
4 Axle Articulated
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Truck Configuration
LCV
Standard Axle
Single axle with dual wheels carrying a load of 80 kN (8 tonnes) is defined as standard axle
80 kN
Standard Axle
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3.4 Turning radius and turning path

The minimum turning radius is dependent on the design
and class of the vehicle. The effective width of the vehicle
is increased on a turning.
This also important at an intersection, round about,
terminals, and parking areas.
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3.5 Visibility
The visibility of the driver is influenced by the vehicular dimensions. As
far as forward visibility is concerned, the dimension of the vehicle and
the slope and curvature of wind screens, windscreen wipers, door
pillars, etc should be such that:
visibility is clear even in bad weather conditions like fog, ice, and rain;
it should not mask the pedestrians, cyclists or other vehicles;
 during intersection maneuvers.
Equally important is the side and rear visibility when maneuvering
especially at intersections when the driver adjusts his speed in order to
merge or cross a traffic stream. Rear vision efficiency can be achieved
by properly positioning the internal or external mirrors.
4. Acceleration characteristics
The acceleration capacity of vehicle is dependent on its mass, the resistance to motion
and available power. In general, the acceleration rates are highest at low speeds,
decreases as speed increases.
Heavier vehicles have lower rates of acceleration than passenger cars. The difference in
acceleration rates becomes significant in mixed traffic streams.
For example, heavy vehicles like trucks will delay all passengers at an intersection.
Again, the gaps formed can be occupied by other smaller vehicles only if they are given
the opportunity to pass. The presence of upgrades make the problem more severe.
Trucks are forced to decelerate on grades because their power is not sufficient to
maintain their desired speed. As trucks slow down on grades, long gaps will be formed
in the traffic stream which cannot be efficiently filled by normal passing maneuvers.
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5. Braking performance
As far as highway safety is concerned, the braking performance and deceleration characteristics
of vehicles are of prime importance. The time and distance taken to stop the vehicle is very
important as far as the design of various traffic facilities are concerned. The factors on which the
braking distance depend are the type of the road and its condition, the type and condition of
tire and type of the braking system. The distance to decelerate from one speed to another is
given by:
where d is the braking distance, v and u are the initial and final speed of the vehicle, f is the
coefficient of forward rolling and skidding friction and g is the grade in decimals.
5. Braking performance (Cntd.)

The main characteristics of a traffic system influenced by braking and deceleration performance are:
Safe stopping sight distance: The minimum stopping sight distance includes both the reaction time
and the distance covered in stopping. Thus, the driver should see the obstruction in time to react to
the situation and stop the vehicle.
Clearance and change interval: The Clearance and change intervals are again related to safe stopping
distance. All vehicles at a distance further away than one stopping sight distance from the signal when
the Yellow is flashed is assumed to be able to stop safely . Such a vehicle which is at a distance equal or
greater than the stopping sight distance will have to travel a distance equal to the stopping sight
distance plus the width of the street, plus the length of the vehicle. Thus the yellow and all red times
should be calculated to accommodate the safe clearance of those vehicles.
Sign placement: The placement of signs again depends upon the stopping sight distance and reaction
time of drivers. The driver should see the sign board from a distance at least equal to or greater than
the stopping sight distance.
From the examples discussed above, it is clear that the braking and reaction distance computations are
very important as far as a transportation system is concerned. Stopping sight distance is a product of
the characteristics of the driver, the vehicle and the roadway and so this can vary with drivers and
vehicles. Here the concept of design vehicles gains importance as they assist in general design of traffic
facilities thereby enhancing the safety and performance of roadways.
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6. Road factors
1. Road surface
2. Lighting
3. Roughness
4. Pavement colors
5. Geometric aspects
6.1 Road surface

The type of pavement is determined by the volume and
composition of traffic, the availability of materials, and available
funds. Some of the factors relating to road surface like road
roughness, tire wear, tractive resistance, noise, light reflection,
electrostatic properties etc. should be given special attention in the
design, construction and maintenance of highways for their safe
and economical operation.
Unfortunately , it is impossible to build road surface which will
provide the best possible performance for all these conditions.
For heavy traffic volumes, a smooth riding surface with good all-
weather anti skid properties is desirable.
The surface should be chosen to retain these qualities so that
maintenance cost and interference to traffic operations are kept to
a minimum.
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6.2 Lighting
Illumination is used to illuminate the physical features of
the road way and to aid in the driving task. A luminaire is a
complete lighting device that distributes light into patterns
much as a garden hose nozzle distributes water.
Proper distribution of the light flux from luminaires is one
of the essential factors in efficient roadway lighting.
It is important that roadway lighting be planned on the
basis of many traffic information such as night vehicular
traffic, pedestrian volumes and accident experience.
Since most accidents occur at night because of reduced
visibility , the traffic designer must strive to improve
nighttime visibility in every way he can. An important
factor is the amount of light which is reflected by the road
surface to the drivers' eyes. Glare caused by the reflection
of oncoming vehicles is negligible on a dry pavement but is
an important factor when the pavement is wet.
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6.3 Roughness
This is one of the main factors that an
engineer should give importance during the
design, construction, and maintenance of a
highway system. Drivers tend to seek
smoother surface when given a choice.
On four-lane highways where the texture of
the surface of the inner-lane is rougher than
that of the outside lane, passing vehicles tend
to return to the outside lane after execution
of the passing maneuver.
Shoulders or even speed change lanes may be
deliberately roughened as a means of
delineation.
6.4 Pavement colors

When the pavements are light colored(for
example, cement concrete pavements)
there is better visibility during day time
whereas during night dark colored
pavements like bituminous pavements
provide more visibility .
Contrasting pavements may be used to
indicate preferential use of traffic lanes. A
driver tends to follow the same pavement
color having driven some distance on a
light or dark surface, he expects to remain
on a surface of that same color until he
arrives a major junction point.
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6.5 Geometric aspects

The roadway elements such as pavement slope, gradient, right of way etc affect transportation in
various ways. Central portion of the pavement is slightly raised and is sloped to either sides so as
to prevent the ponding of water on the road surface. This will deteriorate the riding quality since
the pavement will be subjected to many failures like potholes etc.
Minimum lane width should be provided to reduce the chances of accidents.
Also the speed of the vehicles will be reduced and time consumed to reach the destination will
also be more. Right of way width should be properly provided. If the right of way width becomes
less, future expansion will become difficult and the development of that area will be adversely
affected.
One important other road element is the gradient. It reduces the tractive effort of large vehicles.
Again the fuel consumption of the vehicles climbing a gradient is more.
The other road element that cannot be avoided are curves. Near curves, chances of accidents are
more. Speed of the vehicles is also affcted.
Summary
The performance, design and operation of a transportation system is
affected by several factors such as human factors, vehicle factors,
acceleration characteristics, braking performance etc.
These factors greatly influence the geometric design as well as design of

control facilities.
Variant nature of the driver, vehicle, and roadway characteristics should be

given importance for the smooth, safe, and efficient performance of traffic
in the road.
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Basic physical elements of a

highway and Drainage systems
1. Cross-Section Elements
The cross section of a road includes some or all of the following elements:
Traveled way (the portion of the roadway provided for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders)
Roadway (the portion of a highway, including shoulders, provided for vehicular use)
Median area (the physical or painted separation provided on divided highways between two adjacent roadways)
Bicycle and pedestrian facilities
Utility and landscape areas
Drainage channels and side slopes
Clear zone width (i.e., the distance from the edge of the traveled way to either a fixed obstacle or nontraversable
slope)
Considered as a single unit, all these crosssection elements define the highway rightofway. The rightofway can be
described generally as the publicly owned parcel of land that encompasses all the various crosssection elements.
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Typical Cross Section for Two-Lane Highways
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1.1 Travel Lanes

The number of lanes needed for a facility is usually determined during the concept stage of project development.
It is usually the number of lanes necessary to accommodate the expected traffic volumes at a level of service
determined to be appropriate for the facility. The number of lanes can only be added in integer units, i.e., a two
lane highway can be widened to three or four lanes. Each additional lane represents an increase in the traffic
carrying capability of the facility.
Knowing future projected travel demands, the designer, using the analysis procedures in the Highway Capacity
Manual, can provide input into the decision making process during project development to determine the
appropriate number of travel lanes for the level of service desired. Community input also plays a part in this
decision. A community may decide through public involvement that a lower level of service is acceptable for the
situation than the level of service normally provided for new construction projects.
In urban and suburban areas, signalized intersections are usually the predominant factor controlling the capacity
of the highway or street. There may be more latitude in determining the number of lanes for these types of
facilities. For example, a two lane facility approaching an intersection can be expanded to four lanes (one left turn
lane, two through lanes, one right turn lane) at the intersection itself and then returned to two lanes beyond the
intersection. The need to distribute traffic safely will determine the need for any expansion of the approach
roadway. The added lanes at the intersection can be in a variety of configurations to serve the travel desires of
the traffic.
1.2 Lane Width

The width of travel lanes is limited by the physical dimensions of automobiles and trucks to a
range between 2.7 and 3.6 m (9 and 12 ft). Generally, as the design speed of a highway
increases, so must the lane width to allow for the lateral movement of vehicles within the lane.
However, constricted right of way and other design restrictions can have an impact on this
decision.
Although lane widths of 3.6 m are desirable on both rural and urban facilities, there are
circumstances that necessitate the use of lanes less than 3.6 m wide. In urban areas where right
of way and existing development become stringent controls, the use of 3.3 m lanes is acceptable.
Lanes 3.0 m wide are acceptable on low speed facilities. Lanes 2.7 m wide are appropriate on low
volume roads in rural and residential areas.
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1.3 Medians
An important consideration in the design of any multilane highway is whether to provide a median and, if one is
provided, what the dimensions should be. The primary functions of highway medians are to:
•Separate opposing traffic flows
•Provide a recovery area for outofcontrol vehicles
•Allow space for speed changes and leftturning and Uturning vehicles
•Minimize headlight glare
•Provide width for future lanes (particularly in suburban areas)
•Provide a space for landscape planting that is in keeping with safety needs and improves the aesthetics of the
facility
•Provide a space for barriers.
Depending on agency practice and specific location requirements, medians may be depressed, raised, or flush
with the surface of the traveled way. Medians should have a dimension that is in balance with the other elements
of the total highway cross section. The general range of median widths is from 1.2 m (4 ft), usually in urban areas,
to 24 m (80 ft) or more, in rural areas. An offset of at least a 500 mm (1.5 ft) should be provided between any
vertical element located within the median, such as a curb or barrier, and the edge of the adjacent traveled lane.
1.4 Shoulders
Although the physical dimensions of automobiles and trucks limit the basic width of travel lanes, the
treatment of that portion of the highway to the right of the actual traveled way, that is, the "roadway
edge," provides the designer with a greater degree of flexibility. This is true in both urban and rural
areas, although different design elements are more appropriate in each location.
Shoulder widths typically vary from as little as 0.6 m (2 ft) on minor rural roads, where there is no
surfacing, to about 3.6 m (12 ft) on major highways, where the entire shoulder may be stabilized or
paved.
The treatment of shoulders is important from a number of perspectives, including safety, the capacity
of the highway section, impact on the surrounding environment, and both the initial capital outlay
and ongoing maintenance and operating costs.
The shoulder design should balance these factors. For example, a designer must consider the impact
of the shoulder width and other roadside elements on the surrounding environment and, at the same
time, how these dimensions will affect capacity. Even with a maximum lane width of 3.6 m (12 ft), the
absence of a shoulder or the presence of an obstruction at the edge of the travel lane can result in a
reduction in capacity of as much as 30 percent, compared to an area where shoulder or clear zone
exists that is a minimum 1.8 m (6 ft) wide. On the other hand, significant environmental, scenic, or
historic resources may be adversely affected by a widened shoulder.
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Gravel Paved
Concrete Grass with sidewalk
1.5 Clear Zones

An important consideration in defining the appropriate cross section for a particular highway
facility is the width of the clear zone. As defined in Chapter IV of the AASHTO Green Book, the
clear zone is "...the unobstructed, relatively flat area provided beyond the edge of the traveled
way for the recovery of errant vehicles."
The width of the clear zone is influenced by several factors, the most important of which are
traffic volume, design speed of the highway, and slope of the embankments. The AASHTO
Roadside Design Guide' is a primary reference for determining clear zone widths for freeways,
rural arterials, and highspeed rural collectors based on these factors. For lowspeed rural
collectors and rural local roads, the AASHTO Green Book suggests providing a minimum clear
zone width of 3.0 m.
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1.6 Curbs
Used primarily in urban and suburban environments, curbs can serve some or all of the following
functions:
Drainage control
Roadway edge delineation
Right of way reduction
Aesthetics
Delineation of pedestrian walkways
Reduction of maintenance operations
Assistance in roadside development.
There are basically two types of curbs: barrier and mountable. Flexibility in the use of either type is a
handy tool for a highway designer when defining the cross section of an improvement project.
Barriertype curbs are not, however, recommended for projects with design speeds above 65 km/h (40
mph). Curbs can be constructed from a variety of materials, including concrete, asphalt, and cut
stone. Figure 6.3 illustrates a variety of commonly used barrier and mountable curbs.
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1.7 Sidewalks and Pedestrian Paths

The safe and efficient accommodation of pedestrians along the traveled way is equally
important as the provisions for vehicles. Too often, pedestrians are a secondary consideration in
the design of roadways, particularly in suburban areas. Although sidewalks are an integral part
of city streets, they are much more rare in rural areas and provided only sporadically in
suburban areas, despite data that suggest that providing sidewalks along highways in rural and
suburban areas results in a reduction in pedestrian accidents.
Typically, sidewalks in residential or low density commercial areas vary in width from 1.2 to 2.4
m (4 to 8 ft). The Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines of August 1992 set the
minimum passing width on a sidewalk at 1.525 m (5 ft) at least every 61 m (200 ft). If a planted
strip is provided between the sidewalk and the curb, it should be at least 0.6 m (2 ft) wide to
allow for maintenance activities. This planted strip also provides space for street lights, fire
hydrants, street hardware, and landscaping.
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1.8 Bike Lanes

Bicycles are recognized by many as a viable mode of transportation in the United States, both for
commuting and recreation. Transportation designers should consider the needs of these users in
the design of facilities. Basically, there are five types of bicycle facilities:
Shared lane - a "standardwidth" travel lane that both bicycles and motor vehicles share
Wide outside lane - an outside travel lane with a width of at least 4.2 m (14 ft) to accommodate
both bicyclists and motorized vehicles
Bicycle lane - a portion of the roadway designated by striping, signing, and/or pavement
markings for preferential or exclusive use by bicycles and/or other nonmotorized vehicles
Shoulder - a paved portion of the roadway to the right of the traveled way designed to serve
bicyclists, pedestrians and others
Multiuse path - a facility that is physically separated from the roadway and intended for use by
bicyclists, pedestrians, and others
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1.8 Bike Lanes

Six factors are recognized by transportation planners and engineers as having the greatest effect on
bicycle use:
Traffic volume-higher traffic volumes represent greater potential risk for bicycles.
Average motor vehicle operating speed-operating speed is more important than the posted speed
limit; motor vehicle operating speed can negatively affect the bicyclist's comfort unless mitigated by
special design treatments.
Traffic mix-the presence of trucks, buses, and other large vehicles can increase risk and have a
negative impact on the comfort of bicyclists.
Onstreet parking-additional width is needed for bicycle lanes on roads that have onstreet parking.
Sight distance-this must be sufficient to allow a motor vehicle operator to either change lane position
or slow to the bicyclist's speed when overtaking the bicycle, primarily on rural highways.
Number of intersections-the number and frequency of intersections should be considered when
assessing the use of bike lanes. Intersections pose special challenges to bicycle and motor vehicle
operators and require special treatments.
Multiuse path
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1.9 Landscape Design and Selection of

Plant Material
Landscape design is an important element in the design of all highway facilities and should be
considered early in the process, so that it is in keeping with the character or theme of the
highway and its environment. The AASHTO Green Book mentions three objectives of landscape
design:
To provide vegetation that will be an aid to aesthetics and safety
To provide vegetation that will aid in lowering construction and maintenance costs
To provide vegetation that creates interest, usefulness, and beauty for the pleasure and
satisfaction of the traveling public
Landscape designs for urban highways and streets plays an additional role in mitigating the
many nuisances associated with urban traffic and can help a roadway achieve a better "fit" with
its surroundings.
Design Implications of Visual Perspective

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1.10 Trees
An important aspect of roadside landscape design is the treatment of trees. Single vehicle
collisions with trees account for nearly 25 percent of all fixed object fatal accidents annually and
result in the deaths of approximately 3,000 people each year. This problem is most apparent on
roads that have existing trees, where designers do not have direct control over placement. For
landscape projects, where the type and location of trees and other vegetation can be carefully
chosen, the potential risks can be minimized.
It is important to select the appropriate species of tree for the highway environment. In
particular, trees need to be chosen that can survive poor air quality, infertile and compacted
soils, and extreme temperature fluctuations. Remember that maintenance, particularly during
the first year after installation, is essential to the long term health and viability of trees and
other plants. Utilize the skills and knowledge of the city or town urban forester or arborist, the
local agricultural extension service, or a landscape architect to identify the plant material that
will be best suited for the location.
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1.11 Utilities
One element of crosssection design that is often overlooked is the accommodation of public
utilities. Overhead utilities typically include electric, telephone, and cable television. For new
construction in urban areas, electric, telephone, and other telecommunication lines are now
often placed underground.
Motor vehicle collisions with utility poles result in approximately 10 percent of all fixedobject
fatal crashes in the United States annually. Utility poles also have a negative affect on the
aesthetics of a roadway. It is important, therefore, whether designing in rural or urban locations,
to consider accommodating utilities early in the design process.
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1.12 Traffic Barriers

The options available to designers for traffic barriers include deciding whether or not to include
them in the design and, if they are included, deciding which type to choose. The purpose of the
barrier, as stated in the AASHTO Green Book, is to "minimize the severity of potential accidents
involving vehicles leaving the traveled way where the consequences of errant vehicles striking
a barrier are less than leaving the roadway." In addition to preventing collisions with fixed
objects along the roadside, traffic barriers are themselves obstacles and have some degree of
accident potential. The use of traffic barriers should consider these tradeoffs.
A wide variety of traffic barriers is available for installation along highways and streets, including
both longitudinal barriers and crash cushions. Longitudinal barriers (such as guardrails and
median barriers) are designed primarily to redirect errant vehicles and keep them from going
beyond the edge of the roadway. Crash cushions primarily serve to decelerate errant vehicles to
a complete stop (such as impact attenuators at freeway exit gore areas) .
1.12 Traffic Barriers

Some of the traffic barrier designs includes:
1. A threestrand cable barrier system allowing deflections on impact of up to 4.6 m (15 ft)
2. Various steel beam barriers allowing deflections on impact of up to 1.2 m (4 ft)
3. Steelbacked timber barriers that allow deflections on impact of up to 2.4 m (8 ft)
4. New Jersey shaped concrete barriers
5. Stone masonry walls consisting of a reinforced concrete core faced with stone masonry.
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New Jersey shaped concrete barriers
Resistances Against Movement and

Traction Force
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Resistances
Several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion:
◦ Air Resistance
◦ Grade Resistance
◦ Rolling Resistance
◦ Curve Resistance
◦ Resistance of Inertia
Air Resistance:
A vehicle in motion has to overcome the resistance of the air in front of it as well as the force due to the
frictional action of the air around it.
K = Air resistance coefficient

F = Cross section area of the vehicle (F=0,8.b.h)
V = Speed
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Grade Resistance:
Where a vehicle moves up a grade, a component of the weight of the vehicle
acts downward along the plane of the highway.
Q = Weight of the vehicle

s = Value of grade (per cent)
Rolling Resistance:
There are forces within the vehicle itself that offer resistance to motion. These
forces are due mainly to frictional effect on moving parts of the vehicle but also
include the frictional slip between the pavement surface and the tires.

µr = Rolling friction coefficient
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Curve Resistance:
When a vehicle is maneuvered to take a curve, external forces act on the front
wheels of the vehicle. These forces have components that have a retarding
effect on the forward motion of the vehicle.
Radius Speed Resistance
Degree of Curve (m) (km/h) (kg)
5 350 80 18,14
5 350 97 36,29
10 175 48 18,14
10 175 64 54,43
10 175 80 108,86
Resistance of Inertia:
Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to a change in its state of motion
or rest, or the tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion.

g = Gravity
dv = change in speed
dt = time interval
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Example 1:
A vehicle with a total weight of 1800 kg is cruising on a curve (R = 175 m) while
climbing a ramp of 7 % gradient with a speed of 60 km/h. Calculate the total
resistance acting on the vehicle.
Answer:
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Traction Force:
Traction force is the force that is transmitted to the tires by motor. Also may be
referred as the maximum frictional force that can be produced between surfaces
without slipping.
Example 2:
An automobile with a total weight of 1800 kg, is cruising on a curve (R=175 m)
while climbing on a road having a 7 % grade with a speed of 60 km/h. As the sight
distance is enough, the driver overtakes a car in front of him by increasing his
speed to 80 km/h in 4 seconds. Calculate the motor output of the vehicle.
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Answer:
Example 3:
A vehicle with a weight of 1800 kg has 70 HP engine power (motor output).
Calculate the maximum possible speed of this vehicle while climbing a ramp
with 7 % gradient.
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Answer:
Example 4:
A 100 HP truck, has a motor output coefficient of 0.8, width of 2.4 m and height
of 2.8m and empty weight of 5 tones is moving uphill on a 4 % grade highway
with a speed of 30 km/h. Determine the payload that can be carried by the truck
with same speed.
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Answer:
Sight Distances
Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance (SSD) for design purposes is usually taken as the
minimum sight distance required for a driver to stop a vehicle after seeing an
object in the vehicle's path without hitting that object. This distance is the
summation of the distance traveled during perception-reaction time and the
distance traveled during braking.
Passing Sight Distance

The passing sight distance is the minimum sight distance required on a 2-lane,
two-way highway that will permit a driver to complete a passing maneuver,
without colliding with an opposing vehicle and without cutting off the passed
vehicle.
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Stopping Sight Distance:

Distance traveled during perception-reaction time:
Distance traveled during braking
Stopping Sight Distance:
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Example 1:
A road maintenance operation will be performed on a road having a grade of 3%.
The speed limit on the road is 90km/hr. In order to notify the drivers, a warning
sign will be mounted on the road side. Determine the required distance between
the sign and the maintenance site to avoid any accidents.
Answer:
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Example 2:
On a 5% uphill graded road with a speed limit of 50km/h, a driver hit a
pedestrian on his way despite braking. After the accident, the brake mark on the
pavement is measured as 34,10m. It is determined that the car hit the
pedestrian at 16th meter of the brake mark (speed loss because of the crash will
be neglected). Evaluate if the driver could prevent the accident by obeying
50km/h speed limit.
Answer:
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…and the extra two point goes toooo???

The distance (li) denotes the distance between the vehicle and the pedestrian when
the driver notices the pedestrian initially.
First we know the braking distance which is 34 meters. Calculate the speed of the
vehicle. (75 km/h)
Then determine the reaction distance by using reaction time and speed (20.85 m).
Then we can calculate the li by simply adding the sliding distance (given as 16 m) to
reaction distance. So, the distance between the vehicle and the pedestrian when
the driver notices the pedestrian is known (36.85 m).
The further analysis is about the distance needed for a vehicle cruising with a speed of 50 km/h which is the legal
speed limit. The SSD50 is 29.05 m. which is smaller than the initial distance. Therefore, the accident could have been
prevented if the driver would have followed the speed limit.
Calculate the maximum possible speed of the vehicle for the no accident case. (5 mins) (extra two points)
Example 2:
A vehicle moving with a speed of 90km/h will pass another vehicle which is
moving in front of it with a speed of 50km/h. Calculate the passing time and
distance.
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Answer:
Answer:
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Answer:
References
https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/1111_nptel/553_MlHway/plain/plain.html
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/safety/09032/
http://www.engr.uky.edu/~rsouley/CE%20453/lectures/
https://webpages.uidaho.edu/ce578/Course%20Materials.htm
https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/1111_nptel/551_CapLOS/plain/plain.html#SECTION002040000000000000000
http://www.et.byu.edu/~msaito/CE562MS/Lecture_schedule.htm
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/civil-and-environmental-engineering/1-201j-introduction-to-transportation-systems-fall-
2006/lecture-notes/
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/civil-and-environmental-engineering/1-253j-transportation-policy-and-environmental-limits-
spring-2004/lecture-notes/
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/civil-and-environmental-engineering/1-201j-transportation-systems-analysis-demand-and-
economics-fall-2008/lecture-notes/
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/urban-studies-and-planning/11-540j-urban-transportation-planning-fall-2006/lecture-notes/
48

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26.03.

26.03.2020 CIVL3402 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 2

26.03.2020 CIVL3402 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 3

2. Human factors affecting transportation

26.03.2020 CIVL3402 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 4

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2.2 Critical characteristics

26.03.2020 CIVL3402 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 6

2.3 Reaction time

26.03.2020 CIVL3402 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 7

2.3 Reaction time (Cntd.)

26.03.2020 CIVL3402 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 8

2.4 Visual acuity and driving

26.03.2020 CIVL3402 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 9

26.03.2020 CIVL3402 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 10

2.6 Other Characteristics

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3.1 Design vehicles

3.2 Vehicle dimensions

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3.2 Vehicle dimensions (Cntd.)

Max width : 2.55 m

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3.3 Weight, axle configuration etc.

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3.3 Weight, axle configuration etc. (Cntd.)

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Single Axle With Single Wheel Tandem Axle

Single Axle With Dual Wheel

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2 Axle Truck – 16t

3 Axle Truck – 24t

4 Axle Semi Articulated – 34t

5 Axle Truck – 40t

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3.4 Turning radius and turning path

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5. Braking performance (Cntd.)

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6.1 Road surface

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6.4 Pavement colors

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6.5 Geometric aspects

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These factors greatly influence the geometric design as well as design of

Variant nature of the driver, vehicle, and roadway characteristics should be

26.03.2020 CIVL3402 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 40

Basic physical elements of a

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