THE FAMILY

10.1177/1066480704273230
Saginak, Saginak
JOURNAL:
/ EQUITY,
COUNSELING
GENDER, AND
ANDMARIT
THERAPY
AL SATISFACTION
FOR COUPLES ANDAMILIES
F / April 2005

❖ Literature Review—Research

Balancing Work and Family:

Equity, Gender, and Marital Satisfaction
Kelli A. Saginak
M. Alan Saginak
University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh

Answers as to how working couples successfully balance work and
family continue to interest social science researchers. Creating a
balance presents couples with numerous challenges that place strain
on relationships and marriages. Marital satisfaction is significantly
related to how couples negotiate their work-family demands and re-
sponsibilities. Gender often influences couples’definitions and per-
ceptions of those demands and responsibilities. This literature
review summarizes recent research on marital satisfaction as it re-
lates to couples’division of labor and perceptions of equity and fair-
ness, specifically as it relates to gender ideologies. Adaptive
strategies and practical considerations are discussed, and implica-
tions for future research are identified including cultural and
socioeconomic considerations.
Keywords: balancing; work; family; equity; gender; marital
satisfaction
T oday’s working couples represent a significant part of
the population. More than 50% of married couples with
families have both husband and wife involved in the labor
force (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996). The number of fam-
ilies with working couples today is double the number of fam-
ilies with only the male partner employed. This current trend
is in sharp contrast to the 1950s, when families with working
fathers, and mothers not in the labor force, was twice as com-
mon. Today’s family profile is also characterized by 75% of
mothers working, many full-time who have children in
school. Two thirds of working mothers have children who are
preschoolers, and many are involved in the labor force while
their child or children are still infants. At the same time,
fathers are significantly more involved in providing home
care for preschoolers when mom is working and including
Authors’ Note: Address correspondence to Kelli Saginak, Ed.D.,
Department of Counselor Education, College of Education & Hu-
man Services, 800 Algoma Blvd., University of Wisconsin–
Oshkosh, Oshkosh, WI 54901; e-mail: saginakk@uwosh.edu.
when they reach school age according to census surveys.
Indications are that fathers are contributing about one third of
child care responsibilities in the home (Coltrane, 1997).
As noted, emergence into the 21st century has brought
about an increase in working mothers and changes in what so-
ciety might consider the “traditional father.” Mothers are con-
tinuing to multi-task and juggle numerous responsibilities at
home while increasingly adding work responsibilities into
the mix. Fathers are changing more diapers, cooking more
meals, and reprioritizing the demands of work, increasingly
adding more family responsibilities to their daily activities.
As a result, working couples are faced with allocating and
dividing family and work responsibilities as a means of creat-
ing a sense of balance in their lives. How do today’s couples
balance it all?
Researchers in the social sciences continue to seek
answers to how couples create a sense of balance in the midst
of enormous family and work-related responsibilities, trade-
offs, and sacrifices. Insight into how couples successfully
create a balance between work and family is important to
counselors and dual-earner couples. As well, gaining an
understanding of how couples achieve marital satisfaction
while balancing work and family provides counselors with
effective research-based strategies for helping families
develop a “work-family” balance and, perhaps more impor-
tant, influence “social change” (Zimmerman, Haddock, Cur-
rent, & Ziemba, 2003, pp. 107-108). Recent studies focus on
the experience of both men and women balancing work and
family and the variables that contribute to couples’ experi-
ence of marital satisfaction. Researchers are deciphering
those variables that contribute to couples’ and dual-earners’
experiences of marital satisfaction while balancing work and
family.
This article reviews recent research on balancing family
and work and specifically identified variables that contribute
to marital satisfaction: division of labor and equity and how

THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES, Vol. 13 No. 2, April 2005 162-166
DOI: 10.1177/1066480704273230
© 2005 Sage Publications

162
 Saginak, Saginak / EQUITY, GENDER, AND MARITAL SATISFACTION
couple’s perceptions, particularly gender-based perceptions
of equity, influence couples’ feelings of marital satisfaction.
Concluding discussions explore implications for counselors,
specifically, how couples are successfully managing the
demands of work and home life and the adaptive strategies
they have found to support healthy, thriving families. Impli-
cations for future research are also examined, with particular
attention to cultural variables.
DIVISION OF LABOR, EQUITY,
AND MARITAL SATISFACTION
Today’s working couples strive to build strong, healthy
families, achieve career and job success, and ultimately bal-
ance a process that places tremendous strain on marriages and
relationships. Marital equity and its influence on husbands’
and wives’ perceptions of marital satisfaction appear to have
significance for couples balancing work and family (Burley,
1995; Gilbert, 1985, 1988; Guelzow, Bird, & Koball, 1991;
Shelton & John, 1996; Stevens, Kiger, & Riley, 2001;
Zimmerman et al., 2003). Questions related to “who does
what” and “how much” challenge couples in their attempts to
equally share in the division of labor. Labor most often refers
to responsibilities connected to the home—inside and out-
side, visible and invisible, meaning all the household chores,
domestic work, emotion work, and organizational responsi-
bilities that couples enter into once married (Shelton & John,
1996; Stevens et al., 2001; Zimmerman et al., 2003). Being
able to equally divide labor is a key negotiation that couples
experience as part of balancing work and family.
Couples portray division of labor and equality in a variety
of ways to support a successful balance between work and
family (Shelton & John, 1996; Stevens et al., 2001;
Zimmerman et al., 2003). Studies have demonstrated that
couples’ perceptions of fairness is a critical factor in couples’
feelings of success in this endeavor (Milkie & Peltola, 1999;
Wilkie, Ferree, & Ratcliff, 1998). Even though differences in
perceptions exist as to what is fair and unfair in divisions of
labor, research has shown that the effect of equity and fairness
on marital satisfaction exists for both men and women (Bur-
ley, 1995; Gilbert, 1985, 1988; Guelzow et al., 1991).
Zimmerman et al. (2003) examined how couples success-
fully balance work and family and achieve marital satisfac-
tion. The data summarized from a larger study (Haddock,
Zimmerman, Ziemba, & Current, 2001) specifically exam-
ined strategies couples used to create a work-family balance.
Using both quantitative and qualitative methods, 47 Colorado
couples, predominantly Caucasian, identified as working
full-time and raising children, completed an open-ended
questionnaire and approximately 90-minute conjoint inter-
views on strategies that the couples felt contributed to their
overall success at balancing work and family. Results demon-
strated that, overall, couples felt that shared responsibility for
household labor was an important aspect to successfully bal-
163
ancing work and family. Likewise, couples expressed that
achieving a sense of shared parenting also led to success and
happiness, even though wives tended to be more involved in
parenting. Shared decision making and equal access and
influence over finances were additional areas that couples
identified as contributing to marital satisfaction. Many cou-
ples demonstrated a shared sense of respect, recognition,
support, and appreciation for their spouse’s career aspirations
(Zimmerman et al., 2003).
Domestic labor and gender ideology are also critical fac-
tors in couples’ perceptions of marital satisfaction. Stevens
et al. (2001) studied the effects of domestic labor, such as
household tasks, on marital satisfaction. Couple satisfaction
with the division of labor and the effects of economic depen-
dency patterns on marital satisfaction were also examined.
Data were gathered from 156 dual-earner married or cohabit-
ing couples as part of the Work and Family Dynamics study
that surveyed a random sample of households in the Rocky
Mountain region of the United States. Two important points
emerged from their study. First, elements of domestic labor,
such as household tasks, are related to marital success. Sec-
ond, satisfaction with the division of domestic labor and the
actual labor directly affects marital satisfaction. Overall, the
study concluded that marital satisfaction is positively related
to shared household work. More important, this study pro-
vided an increased understanding of couples’ process of
negotiating fairness and the meaning of how “family work” is
defined (Stevens et al., 2001, p. 525).
GENDER-BASED PERCEPTIONS OF EQUITY
Division of labor does not stand alone in relation to the
process of how couples allocate household tasks. Gender and
couples’ gender-based perceptions appear to influence cou-
ples’ division of labor. Men and women tend to divide house-
hold and domestic labor based on what they perceive to be
gender appropriate. Gender theories suggest that couples
decide who does what as a means of “affirming and reproduc-
ing gendered selves” (Coltrane, 2000, p. 1213).
To a great extent, traditional gender-role definitions are
deeply rooted in historical perspectives that date back to the
Victorian age and have been carried forward and solidified
through generational mores. Even today, discussions about
family values often suggest that these notions of work and
family divisions are strongly grounded in present-day, tradi-
tional gender perceptions in which women are viewed as
being more naturally suited for work in the home, and men are
seen as contributing more by fulfilling the role of outside
wage earner (Coltrane, 1997).
Even with efforts toward equalizing gender work roles, a
challenge with this perception today is that, for most house-
holds in our society, it becomes almost necessary economi-
cally for both husband and wife to work and thus also to share
the work in the family home. When these changing gender-
164 THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / April 2005
role definitions that more accurately reflect today’s families
are not endorsed, progress toward fairness, equity, and shared
responsibilities becomes even more difficult (Coltrane,
1997).
As noted by Coltrane (1997), social science research in
approximately the last 30 years indicates that perceptions
regarding gender-role and family-work responsibilities will
become redefined as society at large moves forward in its per-
ceptions. This belief is grounded in various studies that reflect
the positive effect of men’s increased involvement in the
home and child care on women’s progress in the workforce.
Fathers also experience benefits through increased close
involvement in their children’s lives. Fortunately, current
research suggests that, overall, fathers seem to be contribut-
ing more toward sharing in family responsibilities than in the
past (Coltrane, 1997). Essentially, as these gender-role per-
ceptions and self-definitions continue to evolve toward more
equality and fairness between working couples, it becomes a
win-win situation for all.
Division of household labor is directly related to marital
satisfaction, according to Wilkie et al. (1998). Their study
assessed how couples’ perception of equity or fairness of the
division of labor affects marital satisfaction. Measurement of
variables, specifically division of labor and perceived equity
of the division of labor, revealed that division of labor is
gendered in that couples’ actual labor arrangements are more
consistent with husbands’ preferences than wives’, and that
both men and women are influenced by traditional gender-
based perceptions as to what is considered fair and equitable.
However, the evidence suggested that neither husbands nor
wives really questioned their traditional gender roles. Who
does what had little influence on marital satisfaction. Instead,
the findings suggested that personal preference regarding
division of labor significantly affected marital satisfaction
(Wilkie et al., 1998). Overall, the study found that “men and
women view marital satisfaction through a gendered lens”
(Wilkie et al., 1998, p. 592) and thus define family labor and
achieve marital satisfaction in different ways.
The relationship between marital success and successful
balancing of employed work and family was examined by
Milkie and Peltola (1999). Their study of more than 200
employed, married men and women examined how success-
ful couples felt they were at balancing work and family.
Results indicated that fairness in division of labor and marital
satisfaction were predictors of couples feeling successful at
balancing employed work and family. Likewise, couples’per-
ceptions of fairness increased couples’ feelings of success.
Gender differences were discovered that seemed to emerge
from gendered beliefs and expectations. Although gender
had more of an influence on sharing and sacrifices, it was not
found to be related to how successful couples felt in balancing
work and family. Overall, their study discovered that men and
women share similar feelings of success at balancing
employed work and family (Milkie & Peltola, 1999).
DISCUSSION
Couples’ feelings of marital satisfaction and overall suc-
cess at balancing work and family is related to division of
labor and how couples perceive division of labor. These stud-
ies suggest that gender is an important factor in couples’ divi-
sion of labor and perceptions of equity and fairness. How
couples allocate labor and perceive arrangements of division
of labor is influenced through gender-based ideals and expec-
tations. Gender alone is not significantly related to marital
satisfaction and how successful couples feel at balancing
work and family.
The influence of gender is more related to couples’ defini-
tions and perceptions of fairness, equity, division of labor,
and feelings of success in balancing work and family. The
gender ideologies that men and women are socialized to
believe, and through which they make decisions, have impli-
cations as to how couples allocate and perceive division of
labor. Ultimately, such a gendered belief system influences
couples’ sense of marital satisfaction and feelings of success
at balancing work and family.
Our own experience as a working couple supports these
findings. Although household tasks at times seem tradition-
ally based in gender-role perceptions, open dialogue about
division of labor, equity, and fairness has enabled a greater
sharing of responsibilities that blurs gender lines. Even
though the challenges of managing a household and raising a
family while working full-time take ongoing perseverance,
patience, and commitment from both, the outcome is a strong
sense of marital satisfaction and feelings of success in
balancing work and family.
IMPLICATIONS FOR COUPLE
AND FAMILY COUNSELORS
Couples and families are increasingly seeking counselors
for assistance in balancing the growing demands and respon-
sibilities placed on them by work and family. Case loads are
portraying a significant number of couples struggling with
issues of balancing work and family (Haddock & Bowling,
2002). The literature clearly supports the importance of
addressing equality in couples’ relationships and the critical
role that equality plays in marital satisfaction. Shared and
equal responsibilities lead to couples’ overall feelings of inti-
macy and marital satisfaction (Barnett & Rivers, 1996;
Schwartz, 1994; Steil, 1994).
Counselors are encouraged to give high priority to helping
couples create marital equality and equitable arrangements of
division of labor. For example, one study involved couples
who described themselves as successful in their efforts to
create balance between work and family. These couples
reported being equally involved in child rearing and sharing
of household maintenance and indicated a common theme of
egalitarianism and “equal partnership” between each other
 Saginak, Saginak / EQUITY, GENDER, AND MARITAL SATISFACTION
(Haddock & Rattenborg, 2003, p. 332). Results concluded
that couples’ efforts are ongoing and continuous. Despite the
evidence of “adopted gender myths,” these couples worked
toward creating a balanced and equal partnership (Zimmer-
man et al., 2003, p. 121).
Counselors working with couples should keep in mind the
importance of marital equality according to Zimmerman et al.
(2003). Their study revealed six themes derived from cou-
ples’ descriptions of shared responsibility: shared house-
work, mutual and active involvement with child care, joint
decision making, equal access to and influence over finances,
value placed on both partners’ work and life goals, and shared
emotion work. In an earlier study that focused on adaptive
strategies couples found most effective in helping them suc-
cessfully balance work and family, striving for partnership
was essential (Zimmerman et al., 2001).
Often, working couples enter counseling with the belief
that their relationship is equal and that their arranged division
of labor portrays their egalitarian ideals. These gendered ide-
als (Deutsch, 1999; Hochschild, 1989, as cited in
Zimmerman et al., 2003) could produce discrepancies
between couples’ ideals and their actual reality. Couples may
sincerely believe that they share household labor equally
without being aware of the inequalities that exist. When
assessing couples’ degree of relational equality, counselors
are urged to examine couples’ “ideological commitment to
equality,” meaning their actual ability to achieve equality in
their relationship and gender-based beliefs that could
interfere (Zimmerman et al., 2003).
As concluded in this particular study, even couples who
successfully balance work and family experience equality
challenges in some areas of their relationship. Often, gender
myths can create unequal divisions of labor in terms of orga-
nizational and emotional responsibilities, or “invisible” types
of labor. Specific questions asking how couples divide and
share their numerous household tasks could also be benefi-
cial, especially questions related to “time” and “emotional
investment” (Zimmerman et al., 2003, p. 121). Also, facilitat-
ing the exploration of examples of “invisible” labor could
provide awareness of the influence that gender myths have on
actual divisions of labor (Zimmerman et al., 2003, p. 120).
IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
For counselors to assist couples in successfully tackling
the challenges of balancing work and family, research-based
strategies are essential. The development of effective strate-
gies and interventions relies on sufficient outcome data. Stud-
ies that examine the effectiveness of strategies and interven-
tions could prove beneficial.
Studies that concentrate on how social ideologies perpetu-
ate the challenges that working couples face balancing work
and family could also prove advantageous. It is the belief of
these authors that many of the gender-based perceptions that
165
men and women bring into their intimate relationships evolve
through socialization processes. Likewise, examining the
individual effects of men and women’s economic contribu-
tions on their perceptions of egalitarianism and marital equal-
ity could provide evidence as to how couples’ creation of
equal partnerships influences marital satisfaction. Studies of
this nature could present couples and counselors with more
awareness and insights necessary to promote change within
relationships and ultimately within society.
Last, the research gives limited attention to the influence
of cultural and socioeconomic factors on marital satisfaction,
making it difficult to generalize findings. In fact, the studies
reviewed did not include culture and socioeconomic factors
in their findings. Most of the samples included predominantly
highly educated, middle-class, Caucasian couples. This lack
of consideration for diversity is a definite void in this line of
research and requires attention.
Such a deficiency makes it difficult to take a broad view of
the strategies beyond the samples studied. The fact that cou-
ples who were studied did not represent diverse sampling
leaves counselors to wonder about appropriate and ethical
strategies to employ when intervening with couples. To
assume that the strategies revealed are beneficial to couples
from diverse populations could be unethical. Studies that
examine strategies used by couples representing various eth-
nic groups and lower socioeconomic statuses could prove
beneficial in providing family counselors with more strategic
options and interventions (Zimmerman et al., 2003).
CONCLUSION
As working couples and families forge into the 21st cen-
tury, issues will continue to emerge surrounding division of
labor, perceptions of fairness and equity within those divi-
sions of labor, and gender-based ideologies that influence
couples’ division of labor. Couples’ sense of marital satisfac-
tion is at the heart of these issues. Who does what and how
those arrangements are decided will ask couples to enter into
dialogues that will challenge deep-rooted and socially
embedded gender ideologies. Conversations that address
division of labor, fairness and perceptions of equity, and how
gender-based ideologies influence couples’ beliefs about
who should do what and how much will help in negotiating a
balance between work and family. Counselors are an impor-
tant resource for assisting couples in developing effective
communication styles to confront their family-work
challenges and create more satisfying relationships.
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Kelli A. Saginak, Ed.D., is assistant professor and coordinator of
the school counseling emphasis in the Department of Counselor
Education at the University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh.
M. Alan Saginak, Ed.D., is associate professor and coordinator of
the student affairs and college counseling emphasis in the Depart-
ment of Counselor Education at the University of Wisconsin–
Oshkosh.