3

Understanding the Individual:

Non-testing Techniques

Effective guidance is dependent upon accurate and comprehensive information about the individual.
Psychological tests are considered useful devices for providing objective psychological informa
tion about the individuals characteristics such as intelligence, aptitude, interest and personality etc.
Therefore, a Psychological test is essentially an objective and standardized measure of a sample
of behaviour.
From Psychological tests we observed more than once that they are not infallible. They are not
goals in themselves until they supplement other information that is available concerning the client;
it is then we used non-testing techniques.
Non-testing techniques have been found to give useful and detailed information, but they suf-
fer from subjective errors.
Clinical and counselling Psychologists used a wide variety of tests but the use of tests by samples
of
clinical and counselling Psychologists differ in their theoretical orientations and work setting
Psychological tests are used for diagnosis and interpretation ourpose. It can also be used in
selection of subjects in schools and colleges, promotion in school, entrance to college, to enter in
part-time or full-time job and counselling for several purpose.
Hence to understand an individual's behaviour, it is important to understand the difference
between testing and non-testing techniques.

Differen e Between Testing and Non-testing Techniques

(a) Tesi ng techniques are impartial and objective whereas non-testing techniques are subjective.
(b) Thr ugh testing
techniques, information is gathered in a form that can be used by guid-
anc expert to derive the same meaning The information derived through non-testing
tect niques may not
convey the same meaning to every guidance expert.
 48 Guldance and Counselling

time than through ion-testuny

Gathering information through testing techniques takes less
techniques.
(a racts a out personality or behaviour can be directly ascertained througi testing eC
becalse npre
esvhile it is not directly ascertained through non tosting, technieques
vides d tailed information.
(e) Evalua ion is difficult through non-testing techniques.
) Testing techniques also help in identifying students needing, special help.
g e e ng techniques are much more useful, these have some inherent drawbacks alst

Drawbacks of Testing Techniques

aestin techniques do not providecomprehensive evaluation.
() At tim s, these tests are used for purposes other than for which they have been desig
n
(Testing techniques help to gauge a student's capability of doing but these cannot goals
themselves.
(a) lesting techniques are a component of guidance programme but these techniques do n o

constitute its whole.

(e) Testing techniques do te!l us what a student might achieve in case of a test but cannot tell
us what he might do in other situations.
Intormal information can also help the counsellor to know more about an individual. In the
Process of guidance, any incomplete information can create one or the other problem for the indi-
Vidual. As such, information from people with whom the individual remains more in contact should
be that an individual chooses and befriends persons of his own
collated. It believed
To
is
about a student, contact should be established with his teachers,
kind.
get information classmates
one should employ the knowledge of
Playmates and peer group. In
non-standardized techniques, order provide guidance,
to
apart from the standardized test techniques.
Some non-standard
techniques
are as follows.

(a) Anecdotal record

(b) Autobiography
(c) Observation
(d) Rating scales
(e) Questionnaire
(f) Interview
(g) Cumulative record information so culled from all above tecthniques, helps in understand-
ing the individual.

Anecdotal Record
Anecdotal m thod is frequently used in schools. In this method, a student's work, behaviour
or an import. nt event of his lifeis mentioned. This method is more useful for teachers because
being overw rked they forget about a student's special behaviour. Hence, whenever a teacher
finds an even or behaviour of a student to be of special significance, he must note it down in the
anecdotal rec ord.
Different psychologists have defined anecdotal record in the following terms.
According to Jones, 'It may be defined as "on the spot" description of some incident, episode
or occurrence that is observed and recorded as being of possible significance. When these reports
 Understanding the Individual: Non- tosting Techniques
49
are collated
they are known as anecdotal record'. Strang has defined it a s follows. 'Anecdotal
record is a specialized form of incidental observation. It is a
description of the child's conduct
and personality in terms of frequent, brief, concrete observation of the pupil made and recorded
by the teacher'.
According to Brown and Martin's (1938), 'Anecdotes are descriptive accounts of episodes or
occurrences in the daily life of students'. According to Rath: 'An anecdotal record is a
report of a
significant episode in the life of a student'.

Types of Anecdotal Records

Anecdotal records are used for guiding a student. The most
among different types of records are as follows.
important types of anecdotal records

(a) The first type of record contains only the objective account of a student's behaviour. In this
type of record, there are no comments.
(b) In the second type of record,
noted down.
brief comments along with the subject's behaviour account ar
(c) In the third type of record, problems related to his/her behaviour are noted
down.
(d) In the fourth type of record, student's behaviour along with his
suggestions for improvement are mentioned. good and bad qualities, and

Steps in Anecdotal Record

The main steps in the anecdotal record are as follows.
(a) G tting Cooperation: Cooperation
is the first step that is scught. It is needed to collate
n ation about the student whose anecdotal record is being compiled, so that the teacher can
infor
d cument his behaviour judiciously.
(6) L ngth of Detail: In the second step, care is taken to see that the teacher records only the
r levant information of a student which is necessary. This means the teacher would con-
C ntrate only on the limited points, and hence the account would be clear and useful.
(C) P eparing the Circular: The third step involves preparation of a form by the teacher to enter
datails of the anecdotal record. There are four columns in this form. In the first column,
ti e teacher enters the date, in the second column: the place, in the third one: the event
a d in the last column: the comments. On the top of the form, the name and the class of
tle student are mentioned. At the end of the columns, space is provided for the examiner
o the teacher to sign.
Anecdotal record has the following format:
ANECDOTAL RECORD
Stud. nt's name
Clas
Date Place Event Commen1Bs
Examiner.
in the class-
(d) ocuring the Main Narrative: Quite a few things happen in the course of study
r o m which form the material suitable for writing an anecdote. The teacher,
however, can-
would be
not disturb teaching to record those events. If the teacher does so, continuity
disturbed and the students' attention distracted. In such a situation, the teacher should
 Guldan andCnnollin

nake use of certain symbols no that afler the clans in ove, oeeing, tlu" nymbeol I vei
recalled and recorded in the form
is

(o) Main l'ile: It is essential to file each stucdent's anecdotal narratves no that whenever requirel
they can be easily retrieved and roferred to. These narrativen ihonuld be kept in the (onue
lor's oftice.
( ) H 1 ry: Once a month, each student's narratives should be summarized. The antHial
NUmmary should be prepared by the counelor
only.
Advantages of Good Anecdotal Records
Educational gnificance an anecdotal record
of is ovident from its bnefits
(a) Ane otal record generates a toacher's interest in
betwi en the teacher and the
a student, leading a healthy rapport
taught.
O n tl e basis of anecdotal record, a teacher can form an accurate opinion about a stucdents
personality
and also find out how the student is
(e) New teachers can get full knowledge about each forming
student up.
by going, through thesw records,
(d) With the help of anecdotal records, a teacher can, keeping in view the interests and needs
of st
dents, suitably modify and change the
syllabus.
(e) With the help of anecdotal records, a counsellor can have advance knowledge of a students
prob ems, and when a student comes for the interview, the counsellor finds it easier to do
his job because of the advance knowledge.
()These narratives help in
rationalizing various actions of a student in different situations.
This helps
the counsellor in
providing guidance.
Afte studying these anecdotal
(g) records, a teacher is tempted to take interest in
dent development rather than providing mere bookish knowledge to them
s stu- more a

(h) Thes narratives are helpful in problem solving.

(i) Whi standardized tests evaluate
e

in et aluation.
personality, anecdotal records play corroborative rol a

Limitations of Anecdotal Records

However, ar ecdotal records suffer from certain limitations. These limitations
are as follows.
(a) Subj ctivity: Anecdotal records are subjective type. It is totally dependent on the teacher's
vers on. Thus, chances of the narrative being tax are higher. While
reco d, the event must be watched very writing the anecdotal

tive, impartial and brief.

carefully so that the
description vivid, objec- is

(b) Writing these records is a difficult task because of the

spiralling number of students in
schools. Even if narratives are prepared for all the students, then preserving them becomes
a difficult task.
(c) The main account should be kept secret as they are confidential.
have acess to it. There is no need to
Only the counsellor should
keep the summary secret because it does not have
an account of any particular event. The main account of a student's behaviour should be
accessed only by the counsellor. The summary, however, is open to all as there is no direct
reference to any incident.
d) These accounts are available for either brilliant students or those
who are at the lower end
of the ladder. Teachers
hardly pay any attention to the average level students.
e) These narratives by mentioning either good
or bad deeds do not
of studente's activities.
a balanced accountgive
 Understanding the Individual: Non-testing
Techniques
Autobigraphy
Biograph popular is a
method. An
51

by himse
of different
f. It is a
subjective method.
In an
autobiography means somebody's account of life written
moments and events in his
life, autobiography, individual writes his
an
the
present. In an starting from his past, that experiences
autobiography,
wishes, e ents, reactions, an
individual mentions his
is, from his childhood to
etc. interests, objectives, achievements,

Types of Autobiography
An autobi
ography is generally of three types.
(a) D rected
st ident is
Autobiography: In this type of
autobiography, individual
in formation he
given
clear directions as to in what
an
context he has to write
is not
fully free. A
has to give. He is and what type of
given an
a tobiography accordingly. A directed outline or a
questionnaire, and he writes his
autobiography is somewhat like
this:
OFamily
Family's financial condition and
Religion intra-family relations
Social environment
i Places where you have lived
earlier
(i) Place where you are
(iv) School experiences living present
at

Early days in the school

Experiences of primary school
Different schools in which a student has
Friend circle in the school studied
Co-curricular activities in the school and hobbies
Teachers
Subjects of interest
(v) Personal views, interests and
aptitudes
(vi) Involvement in national problems
(b) Non-directed Autobiography: In non-directed
autobiography,
type on the individual. An individual can write
there is no restr.ction of any
own wishes. But this method is
freely anything in any way
according to his
on what to write and how to
organized
not as no directions are
given the individual
to
write non-directed
autobiography.
(c) Mixed Autobiography: It is a mix of both the directed and the non-directed
Directions are given to obtain specific information. autobiographies.
his experiences the way he likes to write.
Beyord that the student is free to write

Advantages of Autobiography
Information gathered from the student in the autobiography method helps the counsellor in pro-
viding guidance to the student. He writes down many useful things in his autobiography that he
might not tell the counsellor when asked by the counsellor.
 Guidance and Counselling
52
the usefulness of autobiography deserve mention as follows.
The fo lowing things about
allows a fair peep into individual's life, thoughts and views.
an
(a) Ar autobiography bolsters his power of expression.
((b) The method of autobiography
Ar individual can give free expression to his suppressed emotions by writing an autobiog
from his tensions.
to relieve
ra hy. It helps him
(d) Th smethod saves both money and time because students can be made to write their auto-
bi graphy sitting in a group.
(e) The teacher gets to know about a student's creative abilities, vocabulary, spellings and the
style of writing.

For making the method of autobiography more useful, students should be encouraged to read
the autobiographies of great men. This would help them understand the significance ofwriting an
autobiography.
According to Wright Stone, Justman and Ravins, "The value of autobiography also depends on
the conditions under which it has been written'.
An autobiography has relevance only when a student is himself prepared to write and knows
its results. The gentleman who commissions the
writing of autobiography should enjoy the confi-
dence of the student, and the student should be assured that the information given by him would
be kept confidential.

Limitations of an Autobiography
(a) Many a time a student exaggerates his qualities.
(b) He sometimes writes unnecessary details.
(c) Sometimes he cannot put forward his point of view
properly for want of expression.
Observation
It is a very
important tool for collecting information about an individual. The method of observa-
tion is an age-old
technique. Even when psychology had not developed as a subject, an individu-
al's behaviour was studied
through observation. It is a very exhe ustive method because it is used
extensively in every sphere of activity, be it medicare, education, astrology or even
The cornerstone of
studying
human behaviour is observation.
guidance.
different Through this method, data on
t pes of human behaviour and activities gathered.
are Cbservation is also basically a sub-
jective me hod but to be useful it has to be made objective and reliable.
Carter V. Good and Skates have written about the
technique of observation. It is as follows.
(a) 'C oservation is specific-It is not haphazard
looking around for general impressions'.
(b) 'S ientific observation of behaviour is systematic-It is not chance
ticn apportunistically'. dropping in on a situa-
(c) Observation is quantitative-By recording the number of
io ir are noted'. instances, certain types of behav-
(d) 'C servation is recorded
fr m memory',
immediately-Notes are made promptly rather than drawing
(e) "Observation is an expert job-Being done by someone trained to
(f) 'Observational results can be checked and substantiated to ascertaindo such job'.
reliability and vaiy
Good has defined observation as 'Observation deals with the n
appropria e situations'.
overt behaviour or Pe
 icrstaioding ti iyidus); o n testing, Jchniqu%
Types of Observation
Observation is done according to the situations. f lence, the
to assess the situation define deciding upon the peron providing guidance will have
type of observation needed. Observaticn can be
categorized as controlled and uncontrolled observations, Starndardized and natural
are also described below. observation
Controlled observation: Controlled observation is done in some
specific conditions. In
type of observation, time, place, conditions and observation units are
this
pre-determined
Uncontrolled obscrvation: In uncontrolled observation, the observer is
himself decides upon the circumstances and the given freedorn. Ife
of
type behaviour is to be observed
Standardized observation: Under standardized observat on, an individual's
behaviur is
observed when he is examined. This examination techn m
number of his attributes.
w throw
que helps light on a

atural observalion: In natural observation, an individual is generally watched

stuation.
in a
real

Steps oj Observation
(a) S lection of Various Aspects of Behaviour for Observation: The biggest problem in observation
ethod is
deciding upon the aspects of behaviour that should be observed. While observ-
ir g activities of an individual in a
S metimes even
particular situation some activities may get left out.
significant things get omitted. Therefore, for the purpose of observation
s me selected aspects of an individual's behaviour should be pre-determined so that the
o server concentrates on those aspects only.
(b) Making Clear the Meaning of Selected Behaviour: The meaning of determined behaviour
should be made clear so that if two different observers are
watching
an individual's
behav-
ir ir there is
consistency and reliability in their conclusions.
(c) Ti aining of Observers: It is important to train observers. If the observers are not trained the
marks awarded by them shall not reflect the real position. To minimize the margin of error
ir their conclusions they are made to undergo practice.
(d) Q antifying Observation: It is necessary to substantiate the observed behaviour. This sub.
st.intiation is in terms of numbers. Keeping count of the number of times a student repeats
th same behaviour is substantiating the observation.
(e) Report Writing or Data Recording: It is necessary to immediately record an observed fact. It
is ideal to use code words for different types of behaviour. Apart from this, tape-recording
re:ording on CD or floppy and photography are appropriate recording techniques. But the
pe rson under observation should not know this fact, otherwise he will not behave naturally

Principles tobe Followed in Observation

(a) Observe the Whole Situation: While observing, the teacher should not only limit his attentionto
the behaviour of the student but should also limit the conditions under which he is working
(b) Observe Students in their Routine Activities: Students should be observed through their daily
classroom, in the
activities, for instance, how does a student behave while studying in the
playfield or while moving from one classroom to the other classrooms. over a
(c) Observation Over a Long Period: Students' behaviour should be observed long period.
This helps the observer to arrive at any definite conclusion.
 54 Guidance and Counselling

Benefits of Observation
(a) Observation is useful both in individual and group situations.
is reliable and objective.
(Observation reveals an individual'soriginal behaviour. Hence, it
more

(C) Everybody can use observation method. is limited

(a atObservation is more useful for studying young children because their vocabulary
this age. Therefore, study of their behaviour is possible only through their emotiona
reactions and other activities
(e) Observation can be done not only in special situations but should also be done in normal
situations.
(1) This method is also econonmical because this method is independent of a lab or any tools.
Information gathered through this method is more reliable.

Limitations oj Observation
(a) Many a time observation is not impartial because students can influence the teachers
through their conduct and personality. Hence, while observing the students, the teacher
looks at their good points only and overlooks the seamy side. Teacher's conclusions are
therefor clouded-this has been described by the Psychologists as the 'halo effect'.
(b) Observa ion varies from individual to individual. Therefore, accounts given by different
observers do not tally with each other.
(c) Observa ion fails to study the unconscious behaviour and the inner working of an indi-
vidual's mind. Only the external behaviour can be studied through it.
(d) The phy ical and mental state of the observer's influences the observation.
(e) Sometimes an individual adopts artificial behaviour, leading to faulted observation.

Rating Scales
Rating scale has been devised to measure the personality of an individual. It is also
curing objective information through classification. In the field of education, a teacherhelpless of pro-
his teaching th1 ough classification. He can
affect modification in the
can
improve
requirement of he students and also bring about necessary administrative syllabus according to the
school level. In ndustrial
organizations, this method is used while
improvements at the
ments to their giving promotions and incre-
einployees.
a specific objecti ve.
Through this method, we can also
systematize expression of opinion on
According to Wright Stone, 'Rating scale is a selected list of words,
graphs followirz which an observer records a value or phrases, sentences or para-
values'. In the w ords of A.S. Barr and his rating based upon some objective scale of
colleagues:
ing some situati on, object or character. Opinions are Rating is a term applied or
judgement regard-
usually
techniques are devices by which such judgements may be expressed
on a scale of values. Rating
As per Ruth quantified.
Strang, Rating is, in essence, directed observation'.
Rating scale is nothing but quantifying the essence of facts
evaluated through classification.
Types of Rating Scales
Rating scales are of different types. The main ones are as
follows.
(a) Graphic Scale: This method is widely used. A
parts. In each part, a number of straight line is drawn and divided into many
adjectives are written. The evaluator has to mark any o e
 Understanding the Individual: Non-testing I chniques 55

ol hese. Graphic scale isalso known as Behavioural Statement Scale. Millford has evolved
th following principles for making a graphic scale mentioned as follows.
(iLength of the line should be about 5 inches.
(i) The line should not be cut into pieces.
(ii ) Three to five adjectives should be used: Two superior one neutral and two inferior.
(iv) Average or neutral words should be in the middle.
( Divisions on the line should be equidistant.
The use of graphic scale is as follorws.

(i) Being simple it be easily understood.

can
(ii) It can be filled in quickly.
(ii) The judge gets the chance to ask for minute distinctions.
(iv In this method, there is the choice of making a comparativejudgment.
(b) N merical Scale: In this method, marks are associated with certain indicators. Students get
m rks on the basis of abilities, for example, three-point scale, five-point scale, seven-point
sc. le. If it is a three-point scale then in this scale each statement will have three answers.
Th e student ticks (V) one out of these three answers with which he agrees.
In this method, ranks are mentioned in the
(c) Rank Order Scale: It is a statistical technique.
to their ability or
de scending order. Students are ranked by the evaluator according
a student help in this work. Rank steps
performance. Different teachers who teach
student are totalled. The average of all the steps is
given by different teachers to each
th final rank.
each person is compared with others in the group
(d) Pa red-Comparison Scale: In this method, the scale
the individuals arranged on
Thereafter, thefindings are statistically analyzed and
according to their comparative qualitative standing. illustrated compara-
observed that in the descriptive and
(e) Forced Choice Scale: It has been with any degree of
determination the evaluator cannot vouch for his finding
tive order method, the
this shortcoming, forced choice scale is used. In this
certainty. To o v e r c o m e
of two alternatives each.
This method helps in
evaluator has to select one pair among pairs
a person's view
with certainty.
knowing

the Construction of Rating Scales

Suggestions for the gradations a r e few,
the
for a scale. If
the number of gradations number of gradations
(a) The first task is fixing make fine distinctions. But if the
the chance to them. iccording to
evaluator does not get will not be able to use all of
the evaluator
is increased then probably should be s e v e n . the chance to
the number of gradations evaluator should get
Symonds, defined. The
used should be
objectively situations.
(b) The s t a t e m e n t s individual in
different
of the be clear.
observe the qualities scales should
Instructions for the u s e of rating
(c) and intelligent.
evaluator should
be trained
(d) The

Scales
Demerits of Rating scales. They a r e as
follows.
evaluated
drawbacks of rating individuals being
There a r e certain with the
evaluator is acquainted
If the
(a) The Error of Leniency:
in judgment.
there c a n be leniency
 Guidance and Counselling
56 that
influe ced by someone the d
a person gets
to this effect,
once
Halo Ef According
ct:
(b)
impres on persists. performance
of two young
between the
evaluator finds similarity be impartial.
I r r o r ; When a n evaluation cannot there
O8cal grading. This type of natural that
he gives them the
s a m e
Evaluators: It is
sters,
Between the Quality Judgment of Two Different
of evaluators.
Because

(d) Difftereme done by two different d ifferent

evaluations bound to be
difference between the
would be individuals their
evaluation capabilities a r e
be g two different
they
from ea h other.
These r.tings are subjective, hence are not fully reliable
(e)

Advantages of Rating Scales

This thod acquaints the teacher with a student's working about their
child's abili-
(a) me
parents to know
student's progress report, it helps
(b) By c o m iling a be mentioned.
ties. Fu ther o n its bases, a
student's rank in the class c a n becomes a w a r e
of his
this method, a student
the conclusions drawn by
(c) On the basis of to o v e r c o m e from them.
shortco nings and is inspired decisions in
administration in taking appropriate
on this method help
(d) Conclu ions based promotions, etc.
transfers,
matter of appointments,
also helps selecting
children for admission.
(e) This me thod

Questionnaire information concerning an individual. A

is widely used for gathering information about

In psychology, juestionnaire selected questions compiled for collating
of s o m e
questionnaire is a n inventory
refers toa
an individual's personality. as follows:
"The word questionnaire
defined questionnaire himself'.
Goode and Hatt have a form which
the respondent fills in
questions to by using of questions
device for securing a n s w e r s is a systematic compilation
to Barr, Davis and Johnson, 'Questionnaire is desired'.
According
of population from which information
that aresubmitted to a sampling

Types of Questionnaire follows.

mentioned as
a r e most important
but among them two 'no', or by ticking (V)
Questionnaire is of many types, a r e given in yes'
or
In this, a n s w e r s to the questions below:
Closed Questionnaire:
Some illustrative questions are given
a number of given
responses.
a choice among
Yes/No
(a) Do you like gossiping? Yes/No
m o r e friends?
(b) Do you want to have mcthod are

on his own. The benefits of this

an examinee
writes nothing
In this questionnaire,
as follows.
a n s w e r s is simple.
(a) Giving
(b) Takes less time.
(c) It is objective.
is easy. instead of answer
(d) Listing and explanation the examinee
Questionnaire: In this technique,
The Open Ended or Unrestricted
instance,
in 'Yes o r No' writes
the full a n s w e r . For
ing relations?
What a r e views on Indo-Pak
your
(a)
 Understanding the Individual: Non-testingTechniques

(b) 1 e impact of earthquake in Gujarat and how has it affected the

people psychologically
V hat are your views in this regard?

The erson giving the answers is free to express his views. But this method is time
consuming.
Charact eristics of a Good Questionnaire
(a) Cuestions included in the questionnaire should be clear, appropriate and in keeping with
it :objectives.
(b) 1 e order of the questions should be appropriate- starting with general and simple, and
leading to specific and tough.
(c) Directions in the questionnaire should be clear and comprehensive.
(d) Each question should represent only one view at a time.
(e) The language should be simple and unambiguous, so that answers can be written without
any confusion.
(f) Questions should be objectives and the number of questions far
be limited.
as as possible should
(8) Marking explanation should be simple and intelligible.
(h) Questionnaire should be attractive enough in its format and
design.
Interview
Interview is important and widely prevalent technique of gathering informaticn in the field
an
ofguidance and
counselling. It is a necessary component of guidance and lies at the heart of any
counselling programme. In every sphere, an individual comes across various problems. For
under
standing these problems and helping the individual in their resolution, interview comes in as a
handy tool. It is a
subjective technique.

Meaning of Interview
The technique of interview is used in different fields. Interview has been described as a conversa-
tion with a definite
purpose. In the words of Goode and Hatt, "The interview is in a sense the foun-
dation upon which all other elements rest, for it is the data
In this technique, the interviewer and the interviewee gathering phase.
convei se in a friendly atmosphere sitting
before each other and the
necessary information is gathered. Inter view is also believed to be the piv-
otal poin of counselling. Pauline
Young has defined interview as 'a systematic method by which a
person e ers more or less imaginatively into the life of a comparative stranger'. In the opinion of John
G. Darle 'Interview is a situation in which the client can
gain bel ter understanding of himself.
Fron the study and the analysis of the above definitions of interview the follow
ing facts
emerge:
(a) Lt an interview, two different persons interact facing each other.
(b) hterview is also a means of establishing contact with each other.
() The interviewer has a prior knowledge of the objectives of interview.
(d) I uring the brief span of interview, apart from gathering information about an individual
tie interviewer gets a peep into the interviewee's personality from his demeanour and
ehaviour which is not the case with other techniques.
(e) Interview is the most widely used technique. It can be used for people coming from diverse
backgrounds and under all conditions.
 Gudance and Counselling

() Professional peopleare needed to conduct an interview, who canskim out desirabet

nation from the candidate by putting relevant questions without causing any embarrass
ment.
(&) The process of Interview is an much dependent on the interviewee as on the interviewer

Types of Interview
Interviews are of many types, some of which are descrihed below.
(a) mloyment Interview: For a new appointment in any office, suitable candidate have to be
Nelected. The purpose of this interview is to determine the suitability of a candidate for the
post in question. Job-related questions are asked from the candidate.
(b) uformative Interviewr: In this type of interview, a candidat's achievements and
explana
tions about marks obtained by him in different exams are asked. Providing information
to youngsters
various vocations, professional opporturities, educational and training
on
institutes, also described as an informative interview.
etc. is
() Counselling nterview: Interview is
supposed to be the mainstay of the his problems
ling. The objective is to develop in the youngster the ability to solveprocess of counsel-
and
realize his potential.
(d) Rese irch Interview: In this interview, questions regarding res earch are asked from a number
of p ople. Therefore, facts are
gathered.
(e) Dias 1ostic Interview: Diagnostic interview is one where que itions are asked to ascertain the
cau: es for a
person's problems. Gathering facts is an important part of diagnosis.
() Groi p Intervietw: In this type of interview, 10-12 persons wilh similar problems are made
to
sit in a group. In this interview, everybody's equal participation should be ensured so that
eacl one of them comes to realize that the problem under discussion is not only his but is
also common to all those in the
group.
(8) Fact finding nterview: In this
type of interview, facts are collated by meeting people indi
vid ally or in groups. Teachers and
guidance also facts
experts gather regarding students
byI sing this technique. It has three main objectives which are as follows.

(i) Through this technique, psychologists gather certain facts which they otherwise can-
not through
other lechniques.
(i) To corroborate the available information, fact gathering interviews are held.
(iii) The third objective of this type of interview is to observe physical defects. Such defects
cannot be found through
psychological tests. During this interview, the interviewer
also observes a person's movements, demeanour, appearance, mannerisms, etc.

(h) Cli ical or Treatnment Interview: Clinical interview is done after diagnostic interview. Its
obj ctive is to treat an individual. In this interview, a person is engaged in conversation
in uch a way that he gets rid of his worries. By giving vent to his suppressed desires and
em tions he unburdens his mind.

Purpose f Interview
An intervi w has the following objectives.
(a) The main objective of an interview is to gather differernt types of information and particu:
lars from an individual.
 Understanding the lndividual: Non-testing Techniques 59
(b) Helping an individual to solve his educational, vocational, iocial and
and djustment. personal problems,
(c) It heips in choosing suitable candidates for various posts.
(d) Can idates are admitted into various courses through interview.
(e) Cert in physical defects in individuals, that cannot be found through
canl e ascertained through interview.
psychological tests,
() Inter view elicits information on an individual's mannerisms, aptitudes and views.
(g) Psycho-analytical interview helps in curing mentally sick individuals.
(h) Interview helps in removing probable causes of various problems.
) Helrs in finding the psycho-social impact of media on individuals.

Steps or Cumponents of an Interview

Success of an interview depends on the ability of the interviewer. But a good interviewer adopts
certain specified steps to conduct a successful and effective interview. These steps are calied
essential com.ponents of an interview. The nature of an interview depends on these steps. These
steps are as follows.

(a) Pre ration or Start of an lnterviewr: Before starting an interview it is necessary to make suit-
able preparation keeping in view its objectives. The following preparatory steps are neces
sary for interview.
(1) During the interview, the first interviewer should establish a friendly rapport with the
candidate, element of intimacy in this rapport helps a candidate in answering ques
tions without hesitation and fear.
For striking a friendly rapport, Davison and Robinson have made the following
suggestions:

Compassion: For generating a friendly atmosphere you must show compassion

that the interviewer is his well
towards the candidate so that he has the confidence
wisher. Hence, the
the interviewer with various
to hopes.
Confidence: A candidate comes
confidence in him.
interviewer should inspire candidate or approves his actions.
The interviewer either agrees with the
Approval: the candidate to express his feelings
unhesitat-
This approval is given to encourage
inglybeore the interviewer.
to create a tension-free atmosphere.
Humour: Humour is necessary
instances of his
should
the interviewer give
Personal reference: To clarify his points,
(ii)
personal experience.
interviewer should ask questions in
To inspire the candidate the
information he carries.
Asking Questions: comes out with
maximum
the candidate of the dangers of pre-
such a way that warn the candidate
interviewer may
Sometimes the
Threat:
s e n t i n g d u b i o u s information. so
interviewer should also express
surprise
time of interview, the the interviewer
Surprise: At the that his intormat
on is influencing
candidate gets the feeling statement or
behaviour.
that the candidate to correct his
This helps the aside the formal working
document.
by his views. Interview should begin by putting interview.
Informal Start: main purpose of the
to the
without referring
It should be spontaneous,
 Guidance and Counselling
60 conversation,
allows a free flow of
interviewer
erissiveness:
It means that the
This helps to case the cana
statements.
judgment on his
wthout passing any
date's tension. and the interviewee
interviewer
interview both the
LgualTmie for Conversation: In an

the purposcfulness of the interview

WIn D e

talk, otherwise
should get equal time to
Compromised.

the interview is very important because

lt i
(b) B dy of the Interviru: The middle part of
The
To make the middle part more usefui,
only I ere that the desired information is gathered.
attent on should be paid to the following suggestions:
in the interview Dy
(i) se Motivating Questions: Motivating questions should be asked
ie interviewer so that the candidate feels comfortable in answering them. Questions
to get
having monosyllabic answers should not be asked. Otherwise it will be difficuit
relevant information from the candidate.
WVhile
i) Proper Use of Silence: Silence should be understoodin its correct perspective.
answering, if a candidate becomes silent it should not be misconstrued as his 1gno

rance or arrogance.
(ii) Limited Information: The interviewer should not attempt to gather too much informa
tion in one sitting due to time boundation.
candidate's
(iv) Understanding Candidate's Attitude: The interviewer should understand the
emotions, his negative and positive reactions, and respond clearly by saying 'good',
OK, 'yes', etc.
(v) Controi Over Intervieu: The candidate should be free to express his views. However, if
the interviewer does not conduct the interview in a controlled manner he might fail to
obtain necessary information. After the initial liberal approach, the interviewer should
draw the candidate into discussion on the main subject by putting direct questions.

(c) Closing the Interriew: Sometimes an interviewer, propelled by his own interest, drags on
the interview to such a length that the candidate starts feeling bored. Hence, during an
interview care must be taken to ensure as to how to end the interview. It a process is
brought to an end judiciously it leaves a healthy effect on its results. Interview can end
in two ways:

(i) Round-off the interview in a way that the candidate goes back satisfied;
(ii) Or end the interview in a way that it does not take much time to start the next interview.
Ifa candidate is to be called again, then at the end of the interview he must be politely
informed that the current interview is being ended and that he may come again when con-
venint for further
discussion.
:is necessary for the interviewer to learn the art of interview. Bingham has given the
foll ving suggestions for a successful interview.
(i) Objective of the interview should be precisely determined before the interview.
(ii) Whatever facts are to be gathered during an interview their checklist should be pre
pared in advance.
(i) The interviewer should ensure that the place, time and date of interview are fixed in
advance according to mutual convenience.
(iv) There should be no partiality at the time of interview.
(v) The interviewer should prepare, in advance, a cumulative record card for recording
relevant information regarding a candidate.
 61
lndividual: Non-testing Techniques
Understanding the
Only
interview. after a
of secrecy during an

(vi) It is essential to follow the principle forward with clear and exact
that he will c o m e
candidate has been assured secrecy
facts.

Suggestions for Interviewing

interview successful the following suggestions
should be kept in mind:
For making an
interview. During the interview, the inter-
be in full control of the
interviewer should
(a) The interviewee about the object of the interview so that his
viewer should keep reminding the
answers are suited to meet
the objective which they are looking for.
interviewee's confidence. This confi
It is important element of the process to gain the
(b) an
interest and trust in him.
dence can be induced in the interviewee by showing
and with patience to all that the candidate says.
(c) The interviewer should listen intently
ensured that the interviewee feels at home and is comfort-
(d) While interviewing, it should be
be hurt.
ably seated. His emotions should not
(e) During the interview, the interviewer and the candidate should cooperate with each other
and the interviewer should exhibit goodwill towards the candidate.

(f) To make the interview successful adequate time should be given to the interview.

Qualities of a Good Interviewer

For achie ing success in an interview, the interviewer should have the following qualities men-
tioned be' ow.

(a) Fi mkness: For making an interview successful, the interviewer should place all the
fa ts clearly before the candidate. Indirect talk makes the candidate feel unsure and
ne rvous.
(b) H.amour: To make the atmosphere tension free, the interviewer must look cheerful and
w tty.
(c) Li nited Information: During the interview, talk should be on pre-determined lines and
st ictly objective-oriented.
(d) N Dominance:.The candidate should be given equal opportunity to speak. Further, the
an
erviewer should not arrogate to himself all the right to speak. In other words, the inter
viewer should not interrupt the candidate while expressing his opinion.
(e) Grod Listener: The interviewer should listen to the candidate candidly and with patience
(f) N Exclamatory Gestures: The interviewer should not make any exclamatory gestures or
ex press disapproval of any of the candidate's shortcomings or drawbacks. He should listen
to the interviewee patiently.
(g) E hibiting Confidence: A successful interviewer manages to retain an element of confidence
ar d trust till the end. Secrecy of the interview should in no case be violated.
(h) E otional Maturity: An interviewer should be emotionally mature and a person of bal-
anced views, otherwise he will not be able to impress the candidate with his personality.
A cording to Ruth Strang, "The success of interview depends upon the personality of the
inerviewer'.
A suc essful interviewer, apart from having the above attributes, should be well-read, well
trained, a lequately experienced, friendly, intelligent, and with the ability to solve problems and
take quick decisions.
 Guidance and Counselling
62
Advantages of Interviews
interview. It is widely used in individual, social,
guidance is also incomplete without
P'rocess of
educational and vocational spheres of guidance.
The method of interview has the following uses
(a) This method is more focused on problems and attainment of objec.ives.
(b) It is ea y to use.
(c) It help in promoting introspection in a candidate.
(d) Intervi w helps in comprehensive understanding of the candidate, studying his instinctive
behavi ur, emotions and views.
(e) It canl e used on any individual.
() Intervi w also helps in obtaining detailed information about past happenings
(8) The nme thod of interview can be made flexible to suit different conditions aud situations.
(h) During an interview, the interviewer and the interviewee get an opportunity to exchange
their v ws.

Limitations f Interview
This method has certain limitations also which are as follows.
(a) It is a subjective method.
(b) At tim sit becomes difficult to elaborate the outcome of interview.
(c) Somet mes, because of differences of social background, beliefs and views, the inter-
viewe fails to properly comprehend the information shared and views expressed by
the cai didate.
(d) Qualif ed specialists are needed to conduct an interview.
(e) Being usceptible to influence by personal views and considerations, this method suffers
from l ck of reliability and validity.

Cumulative Record
For providing suitable guidance and counselling to youngsters, it is essential to
ticulars about hem. The form in which this procure full par
information is stored is called the 'cumulative
This cumulative record is the record
prime requisite for the study of a student or an individual. Without
this documentation, no
guide
or teacher will have adequate information about a student or an
individual's personality, behavioural pattern, his aptitudes and abilities. The term 'cumulative
his
record' or
'compilation' was first used in 1930.
Meaning of Cumulative Record Card
The term cumulative record is used
to denote all those formal
reliable information about the student documents that contain useful and
that may enable providing educational, vocational
and
scio-personal guidance and assistance to the student during the period of his stay in the school.
Scholars have defined cumulative record
In the words of Thomas variously.
Moore: 'A cumulative record is defined as information
dents for
longer period of time'. According to Jones: 'A cumulative record is a gathered stu
of a student which
is kept up to date permanent record
about his school by the school. It is his educational history with intormation
achievements, attendance, health, test scores and similar pertinent data
M Allen has defined the cumulative record as, 'a record of information concer'leu wi th
appraisal ot the individual
pupil-usually kept
on a card-kept
in oine plaee
 Understaning; th Itiveduai Nonttin le hiique

Accordir to Jane Warters: Periodc ally the Ignifr ant informaton yathered on students,
through thet se of various techniques-test inntentotis, ftnen,tieatinrsr vatiem, interview, tas
study and th like should be assembled in cumulative receord'
From the above definitions, it becomes clear that informatinm concening a student's life, such as
physical, mer tal, social, psychological, his charar ter, etc, is written in the rumulative rerord Immerdi
atelyafter ac ild is admitted tothe primary school his umulative record gets maintairied. fus reeoi
speaksabout his progress, abilities, weaknesses and ar hiyenents starting frorn the initial stage

Types of Cumulative Record

Cumulative records are of three types mentio ned as follows
(a) Single-Card Record: It is a9" 1 1 " singleshect infomation recorded on both sides. This rard
cannot hold the enough information. For more information, another card has to be appended.
(b) Pocket-Folder Record: It is a folder with a number of pockets pasted inside. Different informa-
tion can be kept in different pockets. It is casy to retrieve information from a pocket folder.
(c) Cumulative Folder: It has a number of pages on both sides of which facts are recorded in
ruled boxes. There is provision for writing detailed information as well on the pages. This
folder can keep maximum information.

Characteristics of Cumulative Record

Guidance is provided to students on the basis of accumulated information only. In other words
these cumulative records are extremely useful in providing signific ant information abo it students
tlence, it is necessary that they should have the following characteristics.

(a) Simple and Complete information: A good cumulative record should contain complete infor
mation about a student's progress as incomplete information does not give a clear picture
for proper guidance. Hence, to present a clear picture about a student, there should be a
brief account of all the various situations of his student life written in simple language.
(b) Factual Information: To ensure the validity of a cumulative record, it is essential that it should
contain factual information only. Hence, only the observed facts should be recorded.
(c) Secrecy: It is essential to maintain secrecy of information contained in the cumulative
records. New information should not be influenced by pre vious information.
(d) Re-valuation: It is essential to carry out timely evaluation of the cumulative record. On the
ba
sof re-evaluations, necessary changes can be made and new information can be incor-

po ated in the records.

(e) Co tinuity: Continuity is of prime importance in an ideal cumulative record, so that it is
e ay for anybody to peruse it. Continuity means updating information regularly.
(f) Gr up-based Evaluation: In order to make cumulative record more reliable and valid, facts
should be entered after evaluation or verification by a nunber of different teachers.
(g) Us fulness: Information contained in the cumulative record should lend itself to easy
retrieval and interpretation for more meaningful and extensive use.

Objectiv s of Cumulative Record

While cumulative records are useful for guidance and counselling, they also help in achieving cer-
tain specific objectives which are as tollows.
(a) jective Record: The main objective of a cumulative record is to make available to the
te cher or the counsellor accurate and useful information about a child. However, only a
 64 Guidanr and Counellin

Before teachmng o r counselng

person canmakr proper use of this information.
rancd child's abilities,
achievements
aid

the teacher or a counsellor obtains information about a

weak areas by perusing his cumulative record.
( ) mlunt lnfornnntinn: A teaheran get insfant mlomation abouta Iew chi

(C)Cild's Problems: Cumulative record gives the teacher or the

counsellor inforimatron abou

()
a child's different problems.
Gdance: Proper guidance can be given after understanding the problems on the basis o

information gleaned from the cumulative record.

for an
(e) Bettrr Lrvaluation: Cumulative record is also useful in evaluating a child. It supplies data
obfective evaluation. This evaluation is more reliable than a teacher's subjective observation.
()Progress: Evaluation, done on the basis of cumulative record, helps the counsellor in chart

ing a better course for the child's rapid progress.

ot
(g) ldentification: Identification information includes child's name, sex, date of birtth, place
section,
birth, community, place of residence, admission number, date of admission, class,
permanent address, etc.
(h) amil Family information includes Father's name, birthplce, educational background,
brothers and
occup tion, dead or alive, economic and social status of farily, number of
sister: mother tongue, religion, caste, father's income
) Health Health includes height, weight, physical defects, ernotional balance, eyes, nose,
ears, hest, family tradition or any disease. There should be a record of periodic medical
check ups also.
)Psych logical Data: Information of various types is collected under psychological data like
mental level, general mental ability, special mental ability, interests, aptitude, personality
traits, emotional and social adjustment, adaptability, attitude, etc.
(k) Persor al Qualities: Five-point scale should be used to measure personal qualities like hon:
emotional
esty, hard work, courtesy, self-confidence, sociability, cooperativeness, initiative,
stability, leadership and sense of responsibility.
Educational Data: The following details are included in the educational data.
(1)
(i) T evious School Record: Achievements in the field of study, marks obtained in different
asses, attendance record.
(ii) urrent Academic Record: Marks obtained in different subjects, interest in studies, place
i the class, particulars of failures, learning ability, crafts, skills, etc.
in various
(ii) tudent's Attitude Towards Teachers: Cooperative or otherwise, participation
vents.
(iv) ocational Planning: What are the child's educational and vocational plans.
Co-curricular Activities: Student's participation in sports, literary, cultural and social
(v)
service activities.
(vi) rincipal's View: At the end of the year, the principal gives his comments on the stu
ent's progress. Ifneeded, he takes the teachers' help.
Student' cumulative record can be prepared in the following ways.
be kept in mind.
While preparing cumulative record card, the following points should
of mirroring student's
(a) Cumulative record card should be simple and compact, capable a

gradual progress. of the school.

(b) Cumulative record card should be designed keeping in view the objectives
and take con
(c) For designing the cumulative record cards, the class teacher should consult,
sent and assistance from other subject teachers as well.
 Understanding the Individual: Non-testing Techniques

(d) Cumulative record card should be flexible so that new it ms can be incorporated in it, i
and when required, and changes effected.
(e) Cu nulative record card should be kept at a secure place to er able the teacher to easily access it.
() Th 're should be a set of rules for filling in the card and making use of the cumulative
re ord card.
(8) Cumulative record card can betuseful only when the information contained in it is reliable
an t relevant.
(h) Information written in the cumulative record card should be kept secret in deference to the
confidence placed by the parents and students at the time of giving information
(i) Te chers should know lhow to use the cumulative record-it being a difficult task

Uses of the Cumulative Record Card

Cumulative record card can be made of both in educational and
use
professional areas. Its main
uses are a: follows.
(a) He pful in Students' Classification: Children should be imparted education according to their
m ntal development. Information given in the cumulative record can help in classifying
stu dents.
(b) He pful in Getting Introduced to a New Class: When a teacher takes up a new class of students
wih whom he/she is not acquainted, then in that case cumulative record cards help him in
understanding different students. Whena student leaves the school and joins a new school,
he musttake the cumulativerecord with him to enable the new teachers to haveadequate
information about his past and guide him accordingly.
(c) He'pful in Making Certificates: Cumulative record helps the principal in issuing character
be 1aviour and sports certificates to students.
(d) He p in Problem Solving: Different problems can be solved with the help of cumulative recor
card.Itgives information about achild's intelligence quotient. Ifa student's intelligence quo
tient isbelow average, the teacher modifies his instruction method to suit his level so that the
student derives proper benefit from teaching. Certain students have behavioural problems
and are difficult to handle, and cumulative record card helps in their proper handling.it
also helps in understanding genuine problems of students and finding suitable solutions to
them.
(e) Helpful in Preparing Progress Report: Cumulative record card helps in compiling a student's
progress report about his educational and co-curricular activities.
(f) Giving Information to Child Courts: Cumulative record helps in sending juvenile criminals to
child courts and providing past information about the students to therm.
(g) Helpful in Employment Exchanges: Youth employment and counselling services have been
initiated in employment exchanges. These services can be fruitful only if they have intor-
mation about the youth's potential. This information can be obtained from cumulative
records.
Educational, Vocational and Personal Guidance: On the basis of information collated
in
(h) Helpful in
the cumulative record, students can be provided proper educational and vocational guidance.
card helps a stu-
(i) Helpful in Self-assessment: Information contained in the cumulative record
dent in evaluating his potentials and drawbacks. By acqu ring knowledge of his shortcom-
ings, a student can make suitable amendments to secure his future progress.
Reliable
G) Personalized Attention bya Teacher: A teacher himself prepares cumulative record.
information about students can be entered into a cumulative record only
if the teacher
 Guidanceand Counselling

pays personal attention to each student and takes genuine int rest In this way, cumulauve
recorc, card helps a teacher in taking personal interest in children.
Accordiny to A. E. Traxler, the tollowing are the uses of cumulative record card.
(a)
Cumu ative record card
proble ms of a student. helps
teachers and counsellors in understanding the needs ana

()Cunmiilative record enalbles teachers and counsellors to understand the potential of eacn
child and
respond to him
(C)Cumilative record helpsaccordingly.
the teacher in periodic evaluation of the trend
physi al, mental, social and emotional of a
student s
(d)Cumi lative record makes teacher
development.
of a cl ild.
a or a counsellor aware of adjustment-related probleni
(e) Cumu lative record card
ance of a child. helps in the
process of educational, vocational and
(f) Cum1 lative record card also personal guiad
for gi ring directions helps when a teacher plans to constitute a
with a view to group of students
(8) Cum1u lative record card ensuring more
personalized instruction.
cussi g his progress withhelps
the teacher in
his the preparing a child's progress report and
parents. dis
Accordin; to Thorndike and Hagen: "The
them but wh. t is
gotten out of them'. important thing about records is not what is
This way we see that put into
cumulative
cumulative record should start as record card has wide
card should go with the soon as the child is applications. As such maintenance of
admitted to the school.
child when he Cumulative record
another. But the main goes from one class to the
other, and
card for the tudents. question
is as to who should be from one school to
Scholars believe that this responsible for making and
maintaining the
only because it is the class teacher
who spends the responsibility should rest with the
can observe
them from various maximum time with the studentsclass teacher
tions in a
diary and points view. He or she can note down
of and as such
other subject teachersperiodically update the cumulative record. But
his
should also be consulted.
day-to-day observa-
before compiling
information
Popularizing the Concept of Cumulative Record
Despite its usefulness and
significance,
popular in India. The number the
of students inpractice maintaining a cumulative record is
of
ng too being only 36 hours per week, the a class being huge in India and time allotted not very
with rapport each teacher is not in a to teach-
student. Hence, it is
Refresher courses, talks and
position to establish
treated as adequate personal
and benefits of workshops
should
something
be
apart from
teaching.
nificance of the
cumulative record. The school organized for acquainting teachers to the uses
practice of maintaining management should realize the
teachers and initiate cumulative
steps in this direction. Teachers record. It is the management that can importance
and sig-
management ir
that making of consultation with the principal. The
shall certainly follow motivate
the directives issued
cumulative record should bea Board of
Secondary by the
Education has
of
part the suggested
syllabus in teacher training institutes.
Summary
The cornerstone of
all methods of study of
vidual, the guide human behaviour is
gathers information by different observation. For studying an indi-
means and collates
it. The form in which this