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Indian Architecture and Art Forms MANUJ JINDAL AIR 53
Indian Architecture and Art Forms MANUJ JINDAL AIR 53
Fine Arts
Pre-Maurya: Fortifications of Rajgir town (6th BC - 5th BC) in Bihar — made of very
rough, unadorned and simple stones piled onto of each other.
Mauryan:
Pillars
Erected all over the Mauryan empire
Top portion was generally carved with capital figures like the bull, the lion
and the elephant etc. These figures were carved on a circular or square
abacus base decorated with stylized lotuses.
Some of these capital pillars were found in Lauriya-Nandgarh, Rampurva
(bull), Sankisa, Sarnath (lion) and Basarah-Bakhira.
The Lion capital at Sarnath symbolizes the Dhammachakraparivartan
and became a symbol of the great event in the life of Buddha.
Sculptures
Yakshas and Yakshis were the major subject of monumental sculpture
building of those times.
Found in Patna, Vidisha and Matura.
Most had polished surfaces.
Famous example is Yakshi from Didarganj, Bihar
Rock-cut architecture
Lomas Rishi cave in the Barabar Hills of Bihar. An inscription proves that this
was excavated for the Ajivika sect in the time of Ashoka himself. The cave is
carved out of the living rock.
The entrance facade is decorated with semi-circular chatiya arch.
Interior hall of the cave is rectangular with a circular chamber at the
back.
This is an excellent example showing the development from earlier
shapes in timber translated into stone. The period is the 3rd century
B.C.
Stupas, Viharas and Chaityas — built by both Buddhist and Jaina patrons but
Buddhist ones are much larger in number
Bairat Stupa — Rajasthan (3rd C. BCE)
Grand stupa with circular mound and circumambulatory path.
Bharhut Stupa
Started by Mauryan king Asoka and carried on later by
other following kings and dynasties
Sanchi Stupa I
Earlier parts of Sanchi stupa started in Mauryan times.
Sisupalgarh (2nd BC - 1st BC) — These are more elaborate stone masonry
work using large blocks of stones to make a very well-made fort entrance that
could be closed with huge doors turning on hinges.
Wood continued to be a major source to build architecture until the time of Asoka.
Gradual transition, however, had begun from wood to stone.
In the subsequent century, stupas were elaborately built with certain additions like
the enclosing of the circumambulatory path with railings and sculptural decoration.
Buddha Representation:
During the early phase of Buddhism, Buddha is depicted symbolically
through footprints, stupas, lotus throne, chakra, etc
Later on, events from the life of Buddha, i.e. from the Jatakas became the
source of illustrations on Buddhist monuments, and stupa’s toranas, harmika
etc.
The main events associated with the Buddha’s life which were frequently
depicted were events related to the birth, renunciation, enlightenment,
dhammachakrapravartana, and mahaparinibbana (death).
Among the Jataka stories that are frequently depicted are
Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi
Jataka, Vessantara Jataka and Shama Jataka.
Post the Maurya kingdom, North India was occupied by a variety of kingdoms
including the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas, and the Guptas.
South and West India was occupied by: The Satavahanas, the Ikshavakus,
Abhiras, Vakataks.
Rise of Brahmanical sects such as the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas
Prominent sculpture found in: Vidisha, Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Jaggayyapeta,
Mathura, Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune, Pavani near Nagpur.
Bharhut (MP)
Tall Yaksha and Yakshi figure sculptures
General stiffness in the body due to not-so-deep carving of these sculptures
at Bharhut
Overtime, deeper carving resulted in more realistic figures and more
naturalistic representation of human and animal bodies.
Sculptures at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and
Jagayyapetta are good examples.
Narratives of many sculptures of Bharhut communicate stories effectively.
One such story is that of Queen Maya's, mother of Gautam Buddha, dream
of a descending elephant.
Another example is that of Ruru Jataka where the Bodhisattva deer is
rescuing a man on his back.
These were part of stupa decoration
One main characteristic in all the male images of first–second centuries BCE
is the knotted headgear. In many sculptures it is very consistent.
Sanchi (MP)
This is the next phase of sculpture development in stupas.
Upper and lower pradakshinapath or circumambulatory path were added
to the Stupa
Four beautifully sculpted tornados depicting various life scenes of Buddha
and Jatakas
No stiffness in the body like Bharhut
There are 24 buddhas but only the first one - Dipankar and the last 6 ones
are pictorially depicted.
Mathura School, Gandhara School and the Vengi School (Andhra Pradesh) — 1
c. AD Onwards
Emerged as important centers of art production
Buddha in the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura and Gandhara
Mathura School:
Use of red sandstone
Examples:
The best example in this regard is the stupa sculptures found at
Sanghol in the Punjab.
The Buddha image at Mathura is modelled on the lines of
earlier Yaksha images whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic
features.
These early Mathura work is less round, less fleshy and less
sensual than the later work.
Vaishnava sect's vishnu images (forms of vishnu) and Shaivite sect’s
Shiva images (lingas and mukhalingas) are also found in Mathura
school. But Buddha images are dominant.
Overtime, during the 2nd c. AD, the Matura images start becoming
more sensual, rotundity increases, they become fleshier.
Transparent quality in the robes of the Buddha images is evident. In
this period, two important schools of sculptures in northern India are
worth noting.
5th c. AD — 6th c. AD: The traditional centre, Mathura, remained the
main art production site whereas Sarnath and Kosambi also
emerged as important centres of art production.
Sarnath School (Gupta Age):
Many Buddha images in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery
covering both shoulders, and the halo around the head has
very little ornamentation whereas the Mathura Buddha
images continue to depict folds of the drapery in the Buddha
images and the halo around the head is profusely decorated.
One famous one is that of Sitting Buddha made of Chunar
Sandstone (creamy color) dating to 5th AD
Buddha is seated in padmasana. Represents
dhammachkrapravartana
Gandhara School
The sculptural tradition in Gandhara had the confluence of Bactria,
Parthia and the local Gandhara tradition.
Deeply impacted by Hellenistic art forms. The Greek and the Roman
art had deep impact on the Gandhara School.
Early Temples
Brahmanical temples and sculptures also started getting constructed
overtime, starting around 3rd C. AD
The shrines of the temples were of three kind —
(i) sandhara type (with pradikshinapatha)
(ii) nirandhara type (without pradakshinapatha), and
(iii) sarvatobhadra (which can be accessed from all sides).
Temple at Deogarh in UP is an important temple of this time. Eran, Nachna-
Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh.
These temples are simple structures consistingof a veranda, a hall and a shrine
at the rear.
Buddhist Monuments of South India
Vengi in Andhra Pradesh has many stupa sites like: Jagayyapetta,
Amravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunakonda, Goli etc.
The Amravati stupa also has a pradakshinapath, enclosed with a
vedika.
Torana of the Amravati stupa has disappeared over a period of
time.
Developed in the 1st — 2nd c. AD
Sculptural composition is more complex that at Sanchi.
Guntapalle
Rock cut cave site near Eluru
Rock cut caves and stupa have been made here
In these sites: Buddhist images of Boddhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara,
Padmapani (holding lotus), Vajrapani (holding vajra or
thunderbolt), Amitabha, and Maitreya Buddha started getting sculpted.
Cave Tradition of Western India
2nd. c. BC onwards, many Buddhist caves were excavated here.
Three architectural styles executed:
(i) Apsidal Vault Roof Chaitya Halls (Ajanta, Bhaja, and
Pitalkhora)
(ii) Apsidal Vault Roof Pillarless Hall (Thana-Nadsur)
(iii) Flat roofed quadrangle hall with a circular chamber at the
back (found at Kondivite)
Semi-circular chaitya arch at the front of the chaitya
Ellora — Buddhist, Jain, and Brahmanical caves
Kailash Temple
Sitting Buddha in the chaitya hall
Triple stories were built here — only double at Ajanta
There are twelve Buddhist caves having many images belonging
to Vajrayana Buddhism like Tara, Mahamayuri,
Akshobhya, Avalokiteshwara, Maitrya, Amitabha, etc.
Buddhist caves are big in size and are of single, double and triple
storeys
No paintings are visibly left here anymore, only at Ajanta from the 1st
AD - 5th AD are left
Shaivite themes — Gajasur Shiva, Ravana shaking Mount
Kailash, Andhakasurvadha, Kalyanasundara are profusely
depicted whereas among the Vaishnavite themes, the different avatars
of Vishnu are depicted.
Elephanta
The Elephanta Caves located near Mumbai, were originally a Buddhist
site which was later dominated by the Shaivite faith. It is contemporary
with Ellora.
Eg: Maheshmurti (three heads of Shiva) or Trimurti
Ardhnareshvara
Karnataka:
Badami (Chalukyas)
Aihole (Chalukyas)
Temple of Lad Khan
Pattadakal (Chalukyas)
Virupaksha temple
Papanath
Tamil Nadu:
Mahabalipuram (Pallavas)
Arjuna’s Penance, Descent of the Ganges
5 Pandava Rathas
Andhra Pradesh:
Vijaywada
Cave Traditions in Eastern India:
Guntapalle (Andhra Pradesh)
Structured stupas, viharas, and chaitya are excavated at one
place only
Odisha: Udaygiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar
Inscriptions of Kharavela Kings found
Caves meant for Jain monks
Mural Traditions
Dramatic development in temple styles in Nagara over the next 400 years or so. By the 10th
c. AD, elaborate and highly ornamented temples emerged in this style.
The Lakshmana temple dedicated to Vishnu is the grandest temple of Khajuraho, built in
954 by the Chandela king, Dhanga.
A nagara temple, it is placed on a high platform accessed by stairs. There are four smaller
temples in the corners, and all the towers or shikharas rise high, upward in a curved
pyramidal fashion, emphasising the temple’s vertical thrust ending in a horizontal fluted
disc called an amalak topped with a kalash or vase.
The crowning elements: amalak and kalash, are to be found on all nagara temples of this
period. The temple also has projecting balconies and verandahs, thus very different
from Deogarh.
Other notable temple is that of Khandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho
Western India
(i) a cave-like sanctum (garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’), which, in the early temples,
was a small cubicle with a single entrance and grew into a larger chamber in time.
The garbhagriha is made to house the main icon which is itself the focus of much
ritual attention;
(ii) the entrance to the temple which may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates
space for a large number of worshippers and is known as a mandapa;
(iii) from the fifth century CE onwards, freestanding temples tend to have a mountain
like spire, which can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal
tower, called a vimana, in South India;
(iv) the vahan, i.e., the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard
pillar or dhvaj is placed axially before the sanctum.
Styles
Broad types of temples in the north and the south are known as the nagara style and the
dravida style respectively.
Sometimes, Vesara style is discussed which is formed by borrowing components from both
the styles.
Ornamentation
Godess Ganga and Jamuna generally found at the entrance of the garbhagriha in a Nagara
temple, whereas, dvarapals (doorkeepers) are usually found on the gateways or gopurams
of David temples. Similarly, mithunas, navagrahas, yakshas are also placed at the gopurams.
Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls of
the sanctum.
The deities of directions, i.e., the ashtadikpalas face the eight key directions on the outer
walls of the sanctum and/or on the outer walls of a temple. Subsidiary shrines around
the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of the main deity. Finally, various
elements of ornamentation such as gavaksha, vyala/yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka, kalasha, etc.
are used in distinct ways and places in a temple
Nagara Style
Entire temple built on a platform known as the Pitha unlike the South Indian temples
Does not usually have elaborate boundary walls like the South Indian temples
Earlier temples generally had only one tower of shikhara, but later temples had many more
of these.
Types of Nagara Sikhara
Rekha-Prasada Type of Sikhara:
There are different names for the various parts of the temple in different
parts of India; however, the most common name for the simple shikhara which
is square at the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a point on top is
called the ‘latina' or the rekha-prasada type of shikara.
At the same time the Durga temple at Aihole is unique having an even
earlier style of an apsidal shrine which is reminiscent of Buddhist chaitya
halls and
Lad Khan Temple at Aihole
Inspired by wooden roofed temples of the hills, except that it is
constructed out of stone.
Hoysalas of Karnataka
With the waning of the powerful Chola and Pandyas, the Hoysalas arose to
power in Karnataka region.
They were based out of Mysore
Most important Hoysala temples:
Belur
Halebid
The Hoysaleshvara temple (Lord of the Hoysalas) at Halberd
was built in dark schist stone in 1150 AD. Dedicated to Shiva.
Chennakesava Temple at Belur
They are easily distinguishable from other medieval temples by their
highly original star-like ground-plans and a profusion of decorative
carvings.
Somnathpuram
Plan of these Hoysala temples starts looking like a Star instead of a simple
square as planned earlier. — hence known as the Stellate plan
Extremely complex, with many projecting angles, and intricately carved
sculptures.
Vijaynagara
Founded in 1336, Vijayanagara, literally ‘city of victory’, attracted a number of
international travellers such as:
the Italian, Niccolo di Conti
the Portuguese Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz and Duarte Barbosa
the Afghan Abd, al- Razzaq.
Emperors ruled from Harihara-I to Sadasiva Raya.
A large number of royal buildings were raised by Krishnadeva Raya (AD
1509-30), the greatest ruler of the dynasty.
He suppressed the rebellion of ummatur and created a new province
with Seringpatnam as the capital.
He defeated the Gajpati ruler of Odisa and conquered the whole of
Telangana
Eight eminent luminaries in literature known as “asthadiggajas” were
at his court.
Various Sanskrit and Telugu works document the vibrant literary tradition of this
kingdom.
Architecturally, Vijayanagara synthesizes the centuries-old dravida
temple architecture with Islamic styles demonstrated by the neighboring sultanates.
Large number of pillars and piers are present in a complicated manner in
Vijaynagar PILLARS
Horse was the most common animal depicted on these pillars.
They have open mandapam or open pavilion with a raised platform generally.
Their sculpture too, although fundamentally derived from, and consciously seeking
to recreate Chola ideals, occasionally shows the presence of foreigners.
Their eclectic ruins from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries preserve a
fascinating time in history, an age of wealth, exploration and cultural fusion.
Hampi:
Jaina and Hindu Temples present in the Hampi Complex
The Krishna temple, Pattabhirama temple, Hazara Ramchandra,
Chadrasekhara temple
Temples of this city are noted for their large dimensions, florid ornamentation,
bold and delicate carvings, stately pillars, magnificent pavilions and a great
wealth of iconographic and traditional depictions which include subjects from
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
PAMPAPATI The largest extant temple is that of Pampapati (now in worship) was
extensively renovated. Its magnificent entrance tower was caused by Krishnadeva
Raya.
VITTHALA The Vitthala temple is an excellent example of Vijayanagara style.
Largest Nandi in Lepakshi
The monolithic statues of Lakshmi, Narasimha and Ganesa are noted for their
massiveness and grace.
Majority of these temples were provided with widespread bazaars flanked on either
side by storeyed mandapas. Among secular edifices mention may be made of the
Zenana enclosure wherein a massive stone basement of the Queen's palace and
an ornate pavilion called 'Lotus-Mahal are only remnants of a luxurious
antahpura. The corner towers of arresting elevation, the Dhananayaka's enclosure
(treasury), the Mahanavami Dibba carrying beautifully sculptured panels, a variety
of ponds and tanks, mandapas, the elephant's stables and the row of pillared
mandapas are some of the important architectural remains of this city.
Bodhgaya
Bodhgaya is a pilgrimage site since Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here
and became Gautama Buddha.
While the bodhi tree is of immense importance, the Mahabodhi Temple
at Bodhgaya is an important reminder of the brickwork of that time.
The first shrine here, located at the base of the Bodhi tree, is said to have been
constructed by King Ashoka; the vedika around it is said to be post-Mauryan, of
about 100 BCE;
Many of the sculptures in the niches in the temple are dated to the eighth
century Pala Period
The actual Mahabodhi temple itself as it stands now is largely a Colonial
Period reconstruction of the old seventh century design.
The design of the temple is unusual. It is, strictly speaking, neither dravida or
nagara. It is narrow like a nagara temple, but it rises without curving, like
a dravida one.
Nalanda
Complex of many monasteries — mahavihara
Most information about Nalanda comes from Xuan Zeng or Hsuan Tseng which states
that the foundation of the monastery was laid by Kumargupta I in 5th c. AD.
Later monarchs continued to build it and it became a world-class university.
All three Buddhist doctrines: Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana were taught here.
Nalanda school of art developed later by 9th c. AD. due to the combination of the
Sarnath Gupta art and the Central Indian style.
Nalanda bronze sculptures form a large portion of the discovery and belong to the
Pala period.
Buddha, bodhisattvas etc. represented in these.
Jain Sites
Oldest pilgrimage sites in Bihar
Deccan: Ellora, Aihole
Central India: Deogarh, Khajuraho, Chanderi, and Gawlior — excellent Jain temples
Karnataka has a rich heritage of Jain shrines and at Sravana Belagola the famous
statue of Gomateshwara, the granite statue of Lord Bahubali which stands
eighteen metres or fifty seven feet high, is the world’s tallest monolithic free-
standing structure.
It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the General-in-Chief and Prime
Minister of the Ganga Kings of Mysore
Mount Abu
Jain temples built by Vimal Shah
Simple exterior but exuberant marble interiors, rich sculptural
decorations that gives appearance of lace like creations.
The cire-perdu or the lost-wax technique present as early as the Indus Valley
civilization and used until the present day by many artists
Bronze, the alloy of copper, zinc and tin is made to cast beautiful sculptures.
Many Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sculpture made of bronze have been discovered
dating back the 2nd c. AD until the 16th c. AD.
Images of Jain tirthankaras — remarkable representation of Adinath and
Vrishabnath, Mahavira and Parshavnath
Buddha (in abhay mudra) and bodhisattava images
Features such as the “sanghati” or the monk’s robe is wrapped to
cover the shoulders which turns over to the right arm, while other end
of the drapery is wrapped over the left arm.
Sarnath Style: Buddha image in Bronze from Sultanganj — a
monumental sculpture
Later, images of Tara became common and popular
Shiva as Nataraja is common, Vishnu images as well
Female images as Yakshinis
Bronze statue making reached high levels of refinement in the Medieval Era in
South India
Some of the most beautiful works were produced in Chola period from 10-12th c.
AD.
This art is practiced very vigorously in the area known as Kumbakonam.
Nataraja:
Two most common forms of Nataraja dance are: Lasya and Tandava.
Lasya (the gentle form of dance), associated with the creation of the world, and
the Tandava (the violent and dangerous dance), associated with the destruction of
weary worldviews – weary perspectives and lifestyles.
In essence, the Lasya and the Tandava are just two aspects of Shiva's nature; for
he destroys in order to create, tearing down to build again
Importance
1. Samkhaya
Literally means “Count”
At beginning, Samkhaya was materialist philosophy; Creation of the world is
not necessarily due to the divine
World owes its creation to nature or Prakriti than to god; In 4th AD, Purusha
(spirit) was added to Prakriti as an element in the Samkhaya system, hence it
came to be more spiritualistic now
Believed that the answer to the cause of human suffering was not divine but
nature
Knowledge of the self and of the nature OR real knowledge can lead to
attainment of moksha
This could be acquired through perception (pratyaksha), inference
(anumana), and hearing (shabda)
Scientific apporach
2. Vaishehsika
Discussion of material elements of dravya
Study of earth, fire, water, air and sky
It propounded the atom theory and said that material objects are made up of
atoms.
Marked the beginning of physics in India
However, scientific thinking was diluted by belief in heaven and God and
hence the school puts its focus on those as well
3. Nyaya
School of analysis was developed as a system of logic
Salvation could be attained by the acquisition of knowledge
Understanding of logic, inference and systematic thinking
4. Yoga
Person can attain salvation through meditation and physical application
Physical exercises called asanas are prescribed
5. Vedanta
Literally means the end of Vedas
The Brahmasutra of Badarayana forms its basic text
Shankara and Ramanuja also write commentaries on it
Shankara considered knowledge of jnana to be the chief means of salvation
however Ramanuja considers practicing devotion and faith as means to
salvation
It believes that salvation can be achieved by gaining knowledge of the self or
the atma which leads to knowledge of the brahma
Theory of karma came to be linked to Vedanta philosophy - punarjanma
came from here
6. Mimasa
Literally means the art if reasoning and interpretation
But reasoning to provide justification of various vedic rituals
Believes that Vedas contain the ultimate trusth
It was promoted by the Brahmins to gain significance in the society through
propagation of rituals and their supremacy over its conduct
Materialist Ideology
Dance
Folk Dances:
Classical Dances:
Music
Carnatic
Hindustani
Theatre Forms
Kuttiyatam — Kerela, ancient Sanskrit theatre, UNESCO intangible heritage, oldest
living theatre form in India (synthesis of Sanskrit and local traditions in Malayalam)
Mudiyettu — Kerela, folk theatre (Nov-Dec) — UNESCO intangible heritage
for purification of the community
after summer crops are harvested — a week long festival
Floor design known as kalam is drawn
Krishnattam — Kerela, 17th c. AD, 8 plays on 8 consecutive days
Dashavatara — Konkan and Goa regions, 10 incarnations of vishnu
Yakshagana — Karnataka, mahabharata based
Therukoothu — Tamil Nadu, street play
Tamaasha — Maharastra
Bhaona — Assam
Maach — MP
Raasleela
Nautanki — UP
Bhand Pather — Kashmir
Swang — Haryana
Bhavai — Gujarat
Jatra — Bengal
Puppetry
Ancient Hindu philosophers have paid the greatest tribute to puppeteers. They have
likened God Almighty to a puppeteer and the entire universe to a puppet
stage. Srimad Bhagavata, the great epic depicting the story of Lord Krishna in his
childhood says that with three strings- Satta, Raja and Tama, the God manipulates
each object in the universe as a marionette.
The earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic
‘Silappadikaaram’ written around the 1st or 2nd century B.C.
Natyashastra, the masterly treatise on dramaturgy written sometime during 2nd
century BC to 2nd century AD., does not refer to the art of puppetry but the
producer-cum-director of the human theatre has been termed
as ‘Sutradhar’ meaning the holder of strings. The word might have found its place in
theatre-terminology long before Natyashastra was written but it must come from
marionette theatre. Puppetry, therefore, must have originated in India more than 500
years before Christ.