Dynamics of a Floating Spar in Regular Waves

By

David, Ogaga Stefan

Supervised by

Dr K. R. Drake

A thesis submitted for the degree of

MSc Mechanical Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON

TORRINGTON PLACE, LONDON WC1E 7JE

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON

September 2010

1
ABSTRACT

This project is simply the theoretical investigation of the two degrees of freedom motion
of a uniform spar and a non uniform (realistic classic spar) in regular waves. The
uniform spar and the realistic classic spar were modelled as two degrees of freedom
vertical circular cylinders in regular waves. Diffraction theory and radiation condition
were applied to the fixed vertical circular cylinder and the moving vertical circular
cylinder (articulated cylinder) respectively. The total horizontal force and the
overturning moment as a result of the influence of the regular waves on the fixed
vertical circular cylinder were obtained by means of MATLAB programme. Also the
responses, surge and pitch, were obtained by MATLAB in the case of the moving
cylinder. Hydrodynamic added mass and damping matrix was developed, and it was
then coupled with the responses and the total horizontal force and the overturning
moment. Hence the general equation for the computation of drift force for the fixed
cylinder and the moving cylinder was obtained. A realistic classic spar with defined
draught and diameter was subsequently modelled and analysed. The general equation of
motion was modified by the inclusion of restoring stiffness and the radius of gyration
for the realistic classic spar. Similar trends as for the case of the uniform spar was
observed but with higher magnitude of drift force for the realistic spar. Various changes
were made on the radius of gyration, the centre of gravity and the draught; the results
showed that these parameters have great influence on the response and the drift force on
the spar. There was observed to be huge difference between the drift force for the fixed
cylinder and the moving spar.

2
DEDICATION

I dedicate this project to God Almighty, who has made it possible for me to accomplish
this great task.

3
ACKNOWNLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, my special thanks go to the Petroleum Technology Development

Fund (PTDF) for her wonderful sponsorship of my MSc Programme.

I also very thankful to my great supervisor, Dr Kevin R Drake, who has been more, like
a father to me throughout the period of this work. His immense contributions and
assistance paved way for the success of this project.

I am also thankful to my parents, Mr and Mrs David Atete for their moral support and
care. To my siblings and friends who have been making calls to ensure that I complete
this great task; I love you all.

Finally, my undying gratitude to the members of staff of the department of mechanical

engineering and the library of the University College London (UCL) for various
contributions they provided in their own way.

4
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................... 2
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................. 3
ACKNOWNLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................. 4
NOMENCLATURE........................................................................................................................... 6
ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................................... 11
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................ 12
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................... 13
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 14
1.1 Review of different types of spar ................................................................................ 15
1.2 Review of different works on spar .............................................................................. 18
1.3 Project scope and objectives ...................................................................................... 20
2 Theoretical Background ...................................................................................................... 23
2.1 Some aspects of regular wave propagation ............................................................... 24
2.2 Fixed vertical circular cylinder in regular waves ......................................................... 29
2.2.1 Total force and overturning moment ................................................................. 32
2.2.2 Expressions for force and moment for infinite water depth .............................. 34
2.2.3 Discussion of theoretical results ......................................................................... 36
3 Moving vertical circular cylinder in regular waves ............................................................. 37
3.1 Large diameter articulated column in regular waves ................................................. 37
3.2 Oscillating vertical circular cylinder in regular waves ................................................. 37
3.3 Hydrodynamic loading on articulated column............................................................ 39
3.4 Governing equation of motion ................................................................................... 41
3.5 Drift force on vertical circular cylinder ....................................................................... 44
3.5.1 Results for fixed and moving cylinder ................................................................. 46
4 Distribution of Weight ........................................................................................................ 48
4.1 Relationship between structural weight and buoyancy ............................................. 51
4.2 Coupled equation for restoring stiffness, pitch and surge ......................................... 54
4.3 Discussion of results.................................................................................................... 56
5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 61
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 63
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................ 66
APPENDIX A: Radiation Potential for an Oscillating Cylinder ................................................ 66
APPENDIX B: Determination of particulars of the realistic classic spar .................................. 68

5
NOMENCLATURE
Symbol Definition

Radius of spar

Radius of gyration of realistic spar

Radius of gyration of uniform spar

Horizontal acceleration

Vertical acceleration

Amplitude of wave

Wave making coefficient

Non-progressive coefficient

Buoyancy

Hydrodynamic added damping

Non-dimensional added damping

Added damping in first row first column

Added damping in first row second column

Added damping in second row first column

Added damping in second row second column

Inertial coefficient

Draught of spar

Total horizontal force

Force per unit

Generalized loading

Sectional force

Time frequency dependent force

6
 Time frequency dependent overturning moment

Amplitude of total horizontal force

Amplitude of overturning moment

Non-dimensional time frequency force

Non-dimensional time frequency moment

Drift force

Acceleration due to gravity

Wave height

Separation between CG and CB

Hankel function of first kind of order m

Mass moment of inertia of lower section

Mass moment of inertia of middle section

Mass moment of inertia of upper section

Mass moment of inertia of deck

Bessel function of first kind of order m

First order modified Bessel function of second

kind

Wave number

Wave number for transcendental equation

Length of lower section

Length of middle section

Length of lower section

Total overturning moment

Added mass in first row first column

7
Added mass in first row second column

Added mass in second row first column

Added mass in second row second column

Mass of spar structure

First moment of inertia about base

First moment of inertia about base

Second moment of inertia about base

Column mass of lower section

Column mass of middle section

Column mass of upper section

Total mass of realistic spar

Mass of fixed ballast

Mass of deck

Overturning moment about origin

Non-dimensional structural mass

Non-dimensional added mass

Structural mass

Hydrodynamic added mass

Dynamic pressure

Static pressure

Total pressure

Diffraction column matrix

Arbitrary radius of cylinder

Outer radius of top section

8
Inner radius of top section

Damping matrix

Time

Period

Tension

Horizontal component of velocity

Total velocity vector

Deflection of cross section of cylinder

Vertical component of velocity

Weight of realistic spar

Piecewise function

Drake’s efficiency factor

Pitch

Pitch amplitude

Time frequency dependent pitch

Pitch in rth mode

Non-dimensional pitch

Surge response amplitude

Non-dimensional surge response

Time frequency dependent surge

Velocity potential

Diffracted velocity potential

Incident velocity potential

Radiation velocity potential

9
Scattered velocity potential

Wave frequency

Structural frequency

10
ABBREVIATIONS
CB Centre of Buoyancy

CG Centre of Gravity

DD Deep Draught

DOF Degree of Freedom

FPS Floating Production System

FPSO Floating Production Storage and Offloading

FPU Floating Production Unit

GOF Gulf of Mexico

HF High frequency

LF Low Frequency

SS Semi-submersibles

TLP Tension Leg Platform

VIM Vortex Induced Motion

WF Wave Frequency

11
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Spar projects………………………………………. 4

Table 1.2 Wave parameters…………………………………………...15

Table 3.1 Non dimensional forms of leading parameters……………. 30

Table 4.1 Principle dimensions of spar………………………………..38

Table 4.2 Inertia properties of classic spar……………………………39

12
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Spar as compared to TLPs and semi submersibles…………...2

Figure 1.2 Spar progression…………………………………………… 3

Figure 1.3 Heave motion of different offshore structures…………... 8

Figure 1.4 Schematic diagram showing analysis sequence…………….9

Figure 2.1 2-dimensional wave train…………………………………….12

Figure 2.2 Regular wave profile (H = wave height, A = amplitude)….12

Figure 2.3 Fixed cylinder in the vicinity of regular propagating wave….16

Figure 2.4 Section of vertical circular cylinder …………………………19

Figure 2.5 Side view of vertical circular cylinder……………………….20

Figure 2.6 Total force on fixed vertical circular cylinder against ka…….21

Figure 2.7 Plot of M/F against ka for fixed vertical circular cylinder…..23

Figure 3.1 Radiation plot for Moving cylinder………………………….27

Figure 3.2 Combined surge and pith response…………………………..30

Figure3.3 Surge response……………………………………….31

Figure 3.4 Plot of drift force for fixed cylinder and moving spar………33

Figure 4.1 Inboard section of realistic classic spar…………………….. 35

Figure 4.2 Approximated spar showing main sections………………….36

Figure 4.3 Upper section of spar showing centrewell and void section...36

Figure 4.4 Drift force on realistic classic spar and fixed cylinder………43

Figure 4.5 Effects of variation of radius of gyration on drift force……..43

Figure 4.6 Effects of variation of CG on drift force…………………….44

Figure 4.7 Drift force for different radius-to-depth ratios………………44

Figure 4.8 Drift force for different depth-to-radius ratios………………46

13
1 Introduction

The quest for the development of more reliable and economic floating production units (FPUs)
in deep and ultra deep waters has lead to the development of spar platforms. Spars are
considered to be very important in deep and deeper waters offshore operations because they
present reliable capability and performance in these fields. A Spar platform has a good stability
condition because of its deep draught which gives rise to a large distance between its centre of
buoyancy and centre of gravity. Hence, 90% of the length of a spar is under water or forms its
draught [1]. This gives it (spar) a desirable stability condition that offers it excellent motion
characteristics even in hostile sea conditions [2]. A number of other desirable features are
associated with installation of spar in deep and ultra-deep waters. Among these features are low
construction cost, ease of installation and relocation, insensitivity to water depth, higher riser
protection and early cash flow [3]. Other advantages of installing spar platform in deep and
ultra deep waters are its: dry tree capability, low heave motion, catenary or taut leg moorings,
and low sensitivity to topsides weight [4]. Thus taking consideration of all these favourable
features and advantages associated with spar, it is then comfortably applied as a means of
supporting oil and gas drilling, production facilities in deep and very deep waters. Spar as an
offshore supporting structure is also capable of supporting topside facilities such as oil rig,
helipad, living quarters and personnel. It is a recent development; but, it has made great
progress in terms of its installation in offshore environments. The first spar was used in 1996 as
a production facility; however, in previous years it was used as a storage facility. Thus spar falls
into the class of offshore structures called floating production system (FPS). This class of
offshore structures float near the water surface. It includes tension leg platforms (TLPs), semi
submersibles, floating, production, storage and offloading (FPSO) and spar. Compared to other
offshore support structures, spar has attained a distinct position in its application in offshore
environment. More and more offshore structure installations are being made with the
application of spar platforms. Thus spar has taken the lead in the installation of offshore
structures in deep and ultra deep waters, and industry efforts have shown that spar can be
installed up to 10000 ft (3048 m) of water depth. The figure 1.1 below shows late application of
spars in offshore environments and the great progression it has made in deep and deeper waters
application within a short period of time. Also in the figure, comparison is also made about its
application with other offshore structures like TLPs and semi-submersibles (SSs).

14
Figure 1.1: Spar as compared to TLPs and semi-submersibles [5]

1.1 Review of different types of spar

There are three basic designs for spars. These include classic spar, truss spar and cell
spar. They are briefly explained as shown below [6]:

1.1.1 Classic spar is the world’s first production spar, Neptune, which was
installed in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) in 1996 at a water depth of 580
m. Hence it is the ‘pioneer’ spar. Classic spar is basically a cylinder
which has three main sections: upper section, centrewell and keel
section. The upper section is compartmentalized and full of air which
provides the spar with considerable buoyancy. The centrewell is usually
flooded with sea water. While the keel section is also compartmentalized
to aid in transportation and carries fixed ballast.
1.1.2 Truss spars were used by Kerr-McGee in 2001 during the period Nansen
was installed in the Gulf of Mexico. The truss spar configuration is made
up of three main components: hard tank, truss section and keel tank. The
hard tank significantly provides the in-place buoyancy for the spar. The
truss section supports the heave plates and provides separation between

15
 the keel tank and hard tank. The keel tank contains the fixed ballast and
provides natural hang-off location for export pipelines and flowlines.
1.1.3 The cell spar was also designed by Kerr-McGee and it was installed in
the Gulf of Mexico (Red Hawk project) and it became operational in
2004. This class of spar is an improvement to the classic spar and
presents an advantage in terms of fabrication. It is easier to fabricate
small diameter spar than large diameter. There are other several design
features which include: hard tank made up of six tubes surrounded by a
seventh tube; each tube has reduced diameter with variable ballast;
greater rigidity as a result of tubes connection etc.

Each type of spar is an improvement on the design of the older one. For example,
the classic spar has a major problem with the ambient deep current. Thus the truss spar
was designed to eliminate this problem. Better advantages are obtained from the
development of the cell spar; which include lower cost and ease of fabrication. The
different types of spar structures, their respective length and diameter, and depth of
installation are shown in figure1.2 below.

Figure 1.2: Spar progression [7]

16
 Water
Year Hull Diameter Depth
Company Platform Type Installed length(m) (m) (m)
Kerr-McGee Neptune Classic 1996 215 22 590
ChevronTexaco Genesis Classic 1998 215 38 790
Hoover
ExxonMobil Diana Classic 2000 215 38 1448
Kerr-McGee Nansen Truss 2001 166 28 1122
Murphy Medusa Truss 2002 179 29 671
Kerr-McGee Boomvang Truss 2002 166 28 1052
Horn
Bp Mountain Truss 2002 170 33 1646
Bp Holstein Truss 2003 228 45 1325
Kerr-McGee Gunnison Truss 2004 168 30 952
Kerr-McGee Red Hawk Cell 2004 171 20 1616
Bp Mad Dog Truss 2005 170 40 1372
Shell Perdido Truss 2008 170 36 2435
Table 1.1: spar projects

The table 1.1 above also shows some major Gulf of Mexico spar projects. It can be
seen that spars application has gone from deep waters to ultra deep waters. This justifies
spar capability which is independent of water depth. Much need not to be done to spars
in terms of altering hull length and diameter in order to be able to be installed in deeper
waters. These dimensions do not count much on its capability and performance. For
example, the Neptune spar which was installed in a water depth of 590 m and with the
following particulars: diameter 22 m and hull length 215 m. The hull length is just about
36% of the water depth. The present Perdido spar which is the world’s greatest success
in ultra deep waters has a hull length of 170 m and installed in water depth of about
2435 m. In this case the hull length to water depth ratio is 1:14; that is, hull length is just
6% of the water depth. Thus there is great economic advantage in employing spars in
deep and ultra deep waters. Its stability does not depend on water depth but on its deep
draught - which is about 90% of the hull length. The influence of draught on its
stability will be clearly understood as will it will be discussed later sections of this
project. Also, sufficient buoyancy is produced as a result of this deep-draught (DD)

17
design and hence it’s excellent performance in deeper waters. The diameter on the other
hand does not have much place or effect in this regard. However it is important in
determining the amount of sea water displaced by the entire structure and hence the
buoyancy. Large diameter has considerable influence on the response and thus the drift
force of the spar. This will be shown later when analysing influence of radius of
gyration on response and drift force.

1.2 Review of different works on spar

Some many works have been done on spars; majority of them are papers that carry
out experimental, numerical or theoretical investigations on this deep water floating
structure. For example, Kurian et al [8], in their paper, they carried out numerical
hydrodynamic analysis and the comparison of the motion response of a classic spar
platform in regular waves using Morison equation and the diffraction technique. They
first applied the linear wave theory together with Morison equation in evaluating the
wave-induced force on the classic spar. Three classic spars of different draughts and
hull lengths were used in the analysis. They then went further in establishing mass,
damping and stiffness matrices and evaluated them and thereafter developed the
equations of motion. Their results showed that the Morison responses were quite
different from the diffraction responses with regard to each degree of freedom, i.e.,
surge, pitch and heave. These occurred at lower frequency. But the heave, pitch and
surge responses were the same at higher frequency, thus the diffraction method is very
suitable for analysing the wave- induced forced on a large structure like spar platform.
Bhatta [9] developed the added mass and damping coefficients of a vertical floating
cylinder due to surge in still water of finite depth. The method involved consideration of
two regions (internal and external) for the cylinder with velocity potentials and these
velocity potentials were obtained by the method of separation of variables. These
velocity potentials are used in the evaluation of the added mass and damping
coefficients. Results for various depth-to-radius and draught-to-radius ratios are then
presented in figures. At a fixed water depth, numerical results showed that
nondimensional added mass and damping coefficients decrease with the draught. While
at a given draught with the same cylinder, these coefficients decrease with increase in
water depth. Das et al [10] determined the roll motion for a floating body in regular
waves. In this paper, the hydrodynamic forces were computed using the strip theory.
18
Hsiao & Lin [11] investigated the wave-loading of a large structure in the presence of
current. Numerical method of analysis was used for this study and the results were
compared with those of Matsui et al. The observation and analysis indicated close
agreements between the two methods. Ran et al [12] investigated the responses of a
spar platform in random waves and currents. This investigation was done by
experiments and numerical methods. Also, Ran & Kim [13] investigated the nonlinear
response of a tethered spar platform in regular and irregular waves. The estimation of
hydrodynamic loads on a fixed or floating body of revolution was done by Taylor &
Dolla [14]. Diffraction method was used to determine the generalised loads, added mass
and damping coefficients. Wave-structure interaction on a truncated vertical cylinder
was investigated by Garriga & Falzarano [15]. In their paper analysis was carried out on
an oscillating water column; the analytical and model results for the oscillating column
structure gave reasonable results. Linearized and non-linear methods are used to analyse
the motion response of floating structures in regular waves, is investigated by Natvig &
Pendered [16]. The study involves the computation of displacement, velocity and
acceleration of surge and heave responses. Drake in his PhD thesis investigated the
dynamics of large diameter articulated columns in waves [17]. The results from
experiment and theoretical analysis show high acceptability. The thesis forms a useful
basis for the evaluation of the radiation velocity potential of regular waves. In another
study, the motions of spar in random seas were carried out [18]. A comparison study
was made on the analytical results and the experimental or model test results. In all of
the tests, the main root main square (rms) contribution comes from the resonating
effects of surge and pitch modes. The results studied include extreme conditions in the
Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea. Dynamic response of a spar in waves and current
was investigated by four different authors in one of Malaysia prestigious university
[19]. Two distinct spars with mooring systems were used for the study – a classic spar
and a truss spar. From the results they obtained they observed that truss spar show better
response in waves and ambient current than classic spar. A close approximation to this
thesis is the work done by three authors. It is experimental and analytical investigation
of classic spar responses [20]. In the study, the results of model tests of a classic spar
which was studied in a university laboratory were analysed and compared with
numerical results obtained using Morison equation and linear diffraction method. There
was close agreement between the experimental and analytical responses. The drift force
of an articulated cylinder in regular waves was carried out by Drake et al [21]. The

19
formulations presented in this paper provide a vital means for the evaluation of the
mean surge drift force on a realistic classic spar. Far field and near field formulations
are used to determine the drift force on the articulated cylinder. The results obtained
from theoretical analysis were compared with those obtained from experiments and
there were reasonable agreements for the drift forces over a range of frequencies and
two wave heights. The dynamics of a flexible articulated column in waves was also
considered by Drake et al [22]. This paper is useful in evaluating the far field velocity
potential of a vertical circular cylinder, and the results obtained show the importance of
parameters like: column slenderness, and mass in the design of large diameter offshore
structures.

1.3 Project scope and objectives

This study involves the theoretical investigation of the wave drift forces exerted on
floating spars. The spar will be modelled as two degrees of freedom (DOF) rigid body.
These two degrees of freedom motion are surge and pitch. The forces exerted on the
mooring lines will not be considered. Actually, the spar derives no stability from the
mooring system, so it does not fall when completely or partially disconnected from it. In
reality, the mooring lines are only responsible for keeping the spar within a fixed or
general position in space in the surrounding sea environment and thus they are not
responsible for restraining its motion. Studies have shown that spar is not subjected to
large dynamic forces in the mooring lines due to low wave frequency (WF) motions
[23]. Putting all these facts together it is theoretically sound to carry out analysis on the
spar structure without the consideration of the mooring forces. Hence, a realistic spar
structure geometry including all the component parts will be completely modelled and
the diffraction method will be applied in the calculation of the wave-induced forces. In
the course of this study, the following objectives will be achieved:

 To understand mean force on fixed vertical cylinder in regular waves;

 To formulate and compute the surge and pitch response of a spar;
 To formulate and compute the mean drift force on a spar moving in regular
waves.

Thus the above objectives will only be based on the two degrees of freedom
movement of the fixed vertical circular cylinder and the spar – which are surge and

20
pitch. In deep water, that is, water depth greater than 500 m, spars are observed to have
considerable surge and pitch responses but low heave response. Figure 1.3 below shows
the heave motion of different offshore structures. As can be seen spar has very low
heave motion and thus consideration of only one translational motion along the
direction of the propagating wave or in the horizontal direction is a valid approach.
Neglecting the heave motion is still due to the fact that wave energy attenuates from the
sea surface down into the sea, and thus wave activity is dominant at the sea surface and
diminishes with increasing water depth. Spar also exhibits such behaviour in ultra deep
water. It can now be said that spar platform is insensitive to water depth and as such it is
a good option for the selection of offshore structure for the exploration of oil and gas
resources in deep and deeper waters. It is thus of utmost benefit to present an explicit
study of its dynamics in these environmental conditions.

The responses, surge and pitch, the drift force for the uniform spar will be determined
by means of the MATLAB Programme. Ultimately, the drift force for the realistic
classic spar will also be solved by MATLAB and the results presented as plots for
different water depths.

Figure1.3: Heave motion of different offshore structures

21
 The thesis is only limited to the study of the wave forces imposed on the spar
platform and how it responds to these forces. It is not going to consider the study of the
following:

 The stresses exerted on the spar platform by the water waves and the structural
response or structural deformation;
 The impact environmental loads such as winds, currents and earth quake on the
spar; wave loads dominate other environmental loads in offshore environments;
 The effect of Vortex Induced Motion (VIM) on the spar; since a realistic spar
consists of strake which prevents this type of motion;
 The mooring and risers dynamic responses;
 The interaction of the spar platform with seabed and seabed conditions;
 Material integrity and economics of the spar platform.

The schematic diagram showing the sequence of analysis is simply shown below.

DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS
( Fixed Cylinder)

RADIATION ANALYSIS
( Moving Cylinder)

DRIFT FORCE DETERMINATION

( Uniform Spar)

MASS DISTRIBUTION
(Realistic Classic Spar)

DRIFT FORCE DETERMINATION

(Realistic Classic Spar)

Figure 1.4: Schematic diagram showing analysis sequence

22
2 Theoretical Background

Potential flow theory in combination with Bernoulli equation for an unsteady flow
forms the basis for the evaluation of the induced wave force on the spar. Basically,
velocity potential function gives the key to the determination of wave excitation on
offshore structures. The gradient of velocity potential function in a given direction in
the flow field gives the velocity field in that direction. The velocity potential function is
the solution of the Laplace equation which is a second order differential equation. Thus
the harmonic velocity potential function satisfies the Laplace equation provided the
following simplified assumptions are applied. The flow is assumed to be irrotational and
inviscid. No changes in the density of water are also assumed. A motion in a nonviscous
fluid which is irrotational at any given point in time is always irrotational. These
conditions therefore pave way for the application of the linear wave theory with greater
emphasis on small amplitude wave. The associated nonlinear terms which are obtained
from the Fourier series expansion of the trigonometric term of the harmonic potential
function are employed in the evaluation of the second order forces.

Below are the fundamental equations describing the flow field and they can be
written as follows. The velocity vector is a function of the velocity potential and it
is written in the Cartesian coordinate system as:

i,j and k are unit vectors in the x-,y- and z-axes respectively.

For incompressible flow, the equation below is satisfied

Substituting the components of the velocity vector into (2) the Laplace equation results

The Bernoulli’s equation for unsteady flow gives a useful way of evaluating the
pressure term

23
The partial differential term with respect to time of the velocity potential arises from the
‘local acceleration’ in the x-, y- and z-axes respectively and it represents the dynamic
pressure.

2.1 Some aspects of regular wave propagation

The development of wave theories is dated back to the 19th century. One of the wave
theories that are very useful to engineers is the linear wave theory or alternatively called
the small amplitude theory or Airy’s theory. The major assumption of this theory is that
the wave height is small compared to the water depth or wavelength. This theory was
developed by Airy and Laplace in 1845 and 1816 respectively [24]. It is a highly
significant theory in describing the properties of regular waves. Estimation of the wave
forces on offshore structures and provision of background for the probabilistic study of
failure of offshore structures are made possible by the linear wave theory. The linear
theory implies that the velocity potential is proportional to the wave amplitude and the
wave amplitude in turn is small compared to the characteristic wavelength and body
dimension. Small amplitude wave implies that the wave height is much smaller than the
wavelength and water depth. This assumption enables the simplification of the 2-
dimensional wave equation and results in linearization of the higher order or nonlinear
terms in the expression for the boundary condition. The small amplitude simplification
is also applicable to the perturbation expansion and represents the first approximation.
A number of simplifying assumptions, governing equations and boundary conditions are
made for the velocity and pressure profiles are important for the prediction of the wave-
induced forces on offshore structures. The simplifying assumptions are as follows:

 Wave is two dimensional and progressive in the horizontal plane.

 Wave maintains permanent form, no underlying current and contaminants at
the free water surface.
 The water is incompressible, inviscid and its flow is irrotational.
 The water depth is uniform.
 Surface tension force is negligible.
 The seabed is smooth and impermeable.

24
  Atmospheric pressure at the sea surface is uniform.
 The Coriolis forces due to the earth’s rotation are negligible.
 The velocity head is negligible compared with the hydrostatic pressure
head.
 The amplitude of the surface disturbance is very small relative to the
wavelength and the water depth.

Based on the above assumptions and simplifications, a regular harmonic wave is

represented.

Figure 2.1:2-dimensional wave train

Figure 2.2: Regular wave profile (H = wave height, A = amplitude)

25
When the above assumptions are put together, the following differential equations and
boundary conditions are resulted:

Surface boundary conditions:

and boundary condition at the seabed

Equation (2.5) arises from assumption 3. Equation (2.6) defines the continuity
condition which is an implication of incompressibility. Equations (2.7) and (2.8) are
momentum conservation equations. Both the surface and sea bed boundary conditions
have been stated accordingly in equations (2.9) and (2.10). The pressure at the surface is
atmospheric. However atmospheric pressure does not actually have effect on offshore
structures when calculating the forces excited on them. Combination of the hydrostatic
pressure and dynamic pressure gives rise to the total pressure which can be used in the
calculation of the wave induced force on structures. Thus

where and are the dynamic and static pressure respectively. Other boundary
conditions which are consequences of the linear theory are as follows:

26
Equations (2.13) and (2.14) are the kinematic and dynamic boundary conditions at the
free surface respectively. Combining equations (2.13) and (2.14) above the following
differential equation results:

For a velocity potential oscillating harmonically with frequency then equation (2.15)
can then be expressed as

Thus the boundary condition for the velocity potential at the sea bed is

When equations (2.16) and (2.17) together with the Laplace equation are combined, the
linear wave theory for propagating regular waves are obtained; the results are shown in
table1.2 below.

The expressions of the velocity potential for finite and infinite water depths are
simply shown in the second and third columns respectively. The hyperbolic cosine tends
to an exponential function of z as the water depth approaches infinity. For the case of
the relation between wave number and wave frequency, the hyperbolic tangent is unity
as water depth tends to infinite. Similar condition holds for the relation between
wavelength and wave frequency. The dynamic pressure still obeys the same condition
as the velocity potential for infinite water depth. However, the wave profile maintains
the same relation for both finite and infinite water depths. The velocity and acceleration
in the two chosen coordinate systems, that is, x- and z-axes are also shown in the table.
These two dynamic parameters are not used in the determination of the wave excitation

27
load on offshore structure. It is the velocity potential of the propagating waves together
with Laplace equation in the cylindrical coordinate system that forms a useful basis for
the determination of the wave-induced loads on offshore structure. This is clearly
demonstrated in the case for the fixed vertical circular cylinder based on the diffraction
theory.

Wave Finite water depth Infinite water depth

parameters/relations
Velocity potential

Relation between
wave number k and
wave frequency
Relation between
wavelenghth and
wave period
Wave profile
Dynamic pressure

x-component of
velocity
z-component of
velocity
x-component of
acceleration

z-component of
acceleration

Table 1.2: Wave parameters [25].

28
 Wave period, Wavelength, amplitude,
acceleration due to gravity, time, horizontal direction of wave propagation,
vertical coordinate, average water depth.

2.2 Fixed vertical circular cylinder in regular waves

This section involves the determination of the wave excitation loads on a vertical
circular cylinder which is completely restrained from motion. The wave excitation loads
which are the hydrodynamic loads are forces and moments developed from Froude-
Kriloff force. The linear diffraction theory provides a useful way for obtaining an
analytic solution for the vertical circular cylinder with its base fixed to the seabed and
part of it extending above the mean sea level. In this analysis assumptions made on the
linear wave theory completely hold and the potential flow theory can then be
comfortably applied. As a consequence of the linear diffraction theory, the velocity
potential is a superimposition of the velocity potentials of the incident wave and the
diffracted or scattered wave. This constitutes the radiation condition.

Figure 2.3: Fixed cylinder in the vicinity of regular propagating wave

29
Thus the partial derivative of the total velocity potential with respect to the radial
direction gives that for the incident wave and the scattered wave; this is the boundary
condition at r = a.

Thus the radiation condition is given by the equation

Then the surface boundary condition at r = a becomes

where a is the radius of the cylinder.

The exponential term is expressed in (3) above is expressed in the cylindrical coordinate
system by making use of the Euler’s formula, therefore

Put into (4), then becomes

Series expansion of the right-hand side (5) in terms of Bessel functions gives

Hence the incident velocity potential is appropriately written as

Where is a piecewise function and it is defined as:

30
While the velocity potential of the scattered wave which must satisfy the Laplace
equation is expressed in terms of Hankel function of the first kind, thus

This velocity potential must satisfy the surface and bottom boundary condition together
with the Laplace equation, likewise the incident wave velocity potential thus

at

at

Applying the radiation condition to (3) and (4), you obtain

The pressure exerted around the circumference of the cylinder can be obtained by
applying the Bernoulli’s equation for unsteady flow, and it is simply given as

31
At the mean sea level and the hydrodynamic pressure term is zero; then equation
(2.32) reduces to

Putting

2.2.1 Total force and overturning moment

Now consider a section of the vertical circular cylinder as given below:

In the figure r = a, the radius of the cylinder and the polar angle are clearly shown.
Thus the force per unit length along the section is

Figure 2.4: Section of vertical circular cylinder

32
Figure 2.5: Side view of vertical circular cylinder

Integrating over one complete revolution simply gives the sectional force and it is given
below:

The total force over the depth is obtained by the following integration

where:

effective inertia coefficient,

phase angle,

The overturning moment on the other hand is evaluated by applying the expression

33
 Equations (2.42) and (2.47) which are the expressions for the total force and
overturning moment for the fixed vertical circular cylinder are for the case of a fixed
spar with draught equal to the water depth. Thus the total force and overturning moment
expressions simply vary with the water depth. Parameters like density of water, diamter
of spar, wave height, and gravitaional acceleration are constants. By moving the water
depth to an infinite value, these expressions change and the results form significant
condition for ultra deep water.

0.6

0.5

0.4
Fmean

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
ka

Figure 2.6: Total force on fixed vertical circular cylinder against ka

2.2.2 Expressions for force and moment for infinite water depth
Having obtained the expressions for the total horizontal force and overturning
moment for the fixed cylinder, it is therefore important to determine the special case for
infinite water depth. Infinite water depth can be given rise to either by moving the
seabed to a point at infinity or by simply truncating the vertical circular cylinder
assuming the length below the cylinder is very large. The hyperbolic trigonometric
terms which are common to both the sectional force and the overturning moment about

34
the origin expressions will mathematically reduce to an exponential function of wave
number k and vertical coordinate z. Thus the equations are

Integrating each of these above expressions over a finite draught h will result in the total
force and overturning moment respectively,

The ratio of the overturning moment over the total force gives the inverse of the wave
number and it is the point at which the total force acts on the cylinder. Thus divide
(2.50) by (2.51) gives

35
 0

-10

-20

M/F

-30

-40

-50

-60
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
ka

Figure 2.7: Plot of M/F against ka for fixed vertical circular cylinder

2.2.3 Discussion of theoretical results

As can seen in figure 2.7, the ratio of the overturning moment to the total force against
the diffraction paramater ka, follows a parabolic path, that is, it increases until it gets to
a maximum value. The gradient of the curve at any point gives the inverse of the wave
number. This is shown in equation (2.52).

While in the case of figure 2.6, the total force due to diffraction on the fixed vertical
circular cylinder increases and attains a peak value at unity value of ka. Thereafter
decreases gradually then increases again as the diffraction parameter ka increases.

36
3 Moving vertical circular cylinder in regular
waves

This section represents the case for the movement of a verticular circular cylinder in
regular waves as it responds to the sea wave.

3.1 Large diameter articulated column in regular waves

As part of the effort to evaluate the generalized loading on a large structure,

consideration is made on an articulated column whose submerged surface is a vertical
circular cylinder. Choice of an articulated column in this analysis is justified in
section1.3. This analysis produces hydrodynamic added mass and damping of the
structure. Ultimately the surge and pitch responses are evaluated from the matrices
consisting of the hydrodynamic added mass and damping together with the total force
and overturning moment. Surge and pitch responses make up significant components of
the wave drift force on the vertical circular spar.

3.2 Oscillating vertical circular cylinder in regular waves

The disturbance created by the vertical circular cylinder as it oscillates harmonically in

sea environment in the absence of the incident wave is useful in determining degree of
freedom responses. Radiation velocity potential is the outcome of this disturbing effect
of the structure on the sea environment. It is part of the third component in the equation
of the total velocity potential .

Thus,

And is the potential of the structure as it oscillates with unit amplitude in the Rth
mode. Boundary conditions of the bounded fluid at the free surface, the body surface
and the seabed hold. Thus Laplace equation can be applied since irrotationality,
incompressibility and continuity conditions are satisfied.

37
The radiation condition provides

The radiation potential for an oscillating cylinder is simply given as

Where and are constants to be evaluated, and and satisfy the

transcendental equations below:

Where is greater than zero and m takes positive real values from one to infinity.
is Hankel function of the second kind with first order, and is a first
order modified Bessel function of the second kind. The first term in equation (3.4)
represents the wave maker component and describes the progressive disturbance. The
series term describes the non progressive disturbance and diminishes rapidly from the
body.

When equation (3.4) is differentiated and equated to equation (3.2) and the body
boundary condition is applied then the following equation results

As the hyperbolic and trigonometric cosine functions are orthogonal over the depth, the
expressions for both constants can be obtained by multiplying both sides of the equation
by the right function and then integrating with respect to depth. The results are

38
3.3 Hydrodynamic loading on articulated column
When equations (3.8) and (3.9) are substituted each into equation (3.7) the
hydrodynamic force due to radiation can be evaluated. The force can be expressed by
components as follows [26]:

These expressions above can be converted to generalized forces by means of equation

of the following equation

Making the necessary rearrangement the generalised added mass and damping terms are
obtained. The generalised added mass is

and the generalised added damping is

39
By substituting the expression for the radiation potential as given in equation (3.4) into
equation (3.12) and equation (3.13) respectively and then carrying out the necessary
simplification process, the following results are produced

The results above show that damping is entirely responsible for the wave-making
component of the velocity potential. The reason is that the outgoing radiation waves
lead to a process of dissipation of energy, while the non-progressive disturbance in the
body motion does not appear in the damping term. On the other hand, the added mass
term has both the non-progressive and progressive disturbances and, it contributes to the
inertia forces. From the graph below, it is observed that the hydrodynamic damping
increases by following a parabolic path, attains a maximum value and then decreases as
the frequency of the structure decreases.

40
 0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12

B12 /   pi a2 d2
0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
2 a / g

Figure 3.1: Radiation plot for Moving cylinder

3.4 Governing equation of motion

In order to solve for the response of the vertical circular cylinder it is important to have
an algebraic equation that contains all the necessary components which have been
obtained in sections 3.2 and 3.3, as well as the total horizontal force and overturning
moment. When these hydrodynamic forces have been found, it is therefore easy to
establish the governing equation of motion of the vertical circular cylinder. Thus the
governing equation is formed from the coupling of the diffraction horizontal force and
overturning moment on the fixed cylinder, and the damping and added mass expressions
on the oscillating cylinder.

The governing equation is simply defined by the matrix equation below

Where

41
 Equations (3.17) and (3.18) represent the time frequency dependent expressions for
the total force and the overturning moment respectively. While and are their
respective amplitude values. Equations (3.19) and (3.20) are expression for the surge
and pitch responses. Their respective amplitudes are and . The mass ( of the
structure or mass of displaced water is given by equation (3.21). Equation (3.22) is the
first moment of mass of the structure or spar about its base and it is dependent on the
position of the centre of gravity of the structure. By symmetric property ,
hence this condition will be applied in the mass matrix. While equation (3.23)
represents the second moment of mass of the structure about its base and it is
significantly dependent on the radius of gyration.

The other entries in the general matrix equation, which are given
as , , , and , arise from the hydrodynamic property of
the surrounding fluid as it interacts with the structure. These are the hydrodynamic
added mass and damping respectively. They are respectively obtained from equations
(3.14) and (3.15). Matrix inversion technique is used to solve for the surge and pitch
responses. It is simply established as follows: Let the diffraction column matrix be
represented by , hydrodynamic added mass and damping matrix by and response
matrix by . Then by solving for the response matrix yields

42
The results for the responses as computed by MATLAB are shown in figures 3.2 and
3.3 respectively. From the figures it is observed that the responses are small for high
frequency (HF) and high for low frequency (LF) for both cases. Also when the circular
frequency above 1.4 rad / s, it is observed that they (the responses) both follow similar
trends but there are great variations for the responses below this value. That is, the
maximum value of the combined surge and pitch response is about a quarter times
greater than that of the surge response.

Table 3.1 shows non-dimensional forms of all the terms of equation (3.16) and they
clearly defined as follows:

Surge response

Pitch response

Wave frequency

Structural frequency

Structural mass

Hydrodynamic added mass

Hydrodynamic added damping

Total horizontal force

Overturning moment

Table 3.1: Non dimensional forms of leading parameters

43
 2.5

1.5
surge + pitch

0.5

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
w

Figure 3.2: Combined surge and pith response

2.5

1.5
surge respone

0.5

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
w

Figure 3.3: Surge response

3.5 Drift force on vertical circular cylinder

To completely understand the behaviour of the structure, the drift force has to be
evaluated and this is done by using the far field potential. The far-field velocity

44
potential associated with the disturbance created by the cylinder in regular waves has
the form as [27]:

For unit pitch:

For unit surge:

Replace with

45
For deep water:

Equation (3.31) then becomes

fixed cylinder
spar

0.6

0.5
Fmean/rho*gA 2a

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
ka

Figure 3.4: Plot of drift force for fixed cylinder and moving spar

3.5.1 Results for fixed and moving cylinder

The plot above simply shows that the drift force for a fixed vertical circular
cylinder is higher than that of a uniform spar for values of ka less than 1.65. However,
for values of ka greater than 1.65, the two lines show similar trend for the drift force.
When ka is unity, the maximum value for the drift force of the fixed cylinder is about

46
0.45 more than the magnitude of the drift force for the uniform spar at that point. Also,
at this unit value of ka, there is a maximum value for the drift force of the fixed cylinder
but the uniform spar only has a maximum value at some point at higher values of ka.
This means that at high frequency the drift force on the uniform spar is higher due to
large inertial forces which cause the motion of the spar to be small [28]. At low
frequency drift force is small in both cases but higher for the fixed cylinder; the small
value of drift force is due to low disturbances of the incident wave.

47
4 Distribution of Weight

The weight of a spar is divided up into: the weight of hull steel, the weight of the
ballasts, and the weight of the topsides or deck. All other components and facilities,
such as helipads, derrick, piping, risers, living quarters etc, make up the topsides. A
typical classic spar consists of variable ballast and fixed ballast. Fixed ballast weight is
the weight of the material that makes up the ballast. Variable ballast weight is the
weight of sea water that usually floods it. The way these loads are distributed around the
spar is important in the determination of its centre of gravity, and as a result the stability
of the spar can be significantly predicted. Determination of the magnitudes of these
loads and their relative positions as well as restraints to the motion of the entire
structure helps in understanding motion characteristics of the structure. Principle
dimensions of the spar platform such as: lengths of each section, volume of water
displaced, mass of structure, centre of gravity of structure, centre of buoyancy of
structure, metacentric height, moments of inertia and radius of gyration are very useful
under this consideration. Three dimensions are of utmost importance in this regard.
They include: radius of gyration, centre of gravity and restoring stiffness. The radius of
gyration for the vertical circular cylinder or uniform spar is mathematically defined as
draught divided by the square root of 3. It is mathematically written as shown in
equation 4.1.

Where:

is the draught;

is the radius of gyration.

Equation (4.1) is true and it applies to a vertical circular cylinder. That means for a
draught of 193.5 m; the radius of gyration is 111.7 m. This cannot be true for the
realistic spar for the same draught due to the distribution of its sectional weights; such
as, weight of topsides or deck, and weight of ballasts. Ballasts weight is either formed
by amount of seawater in it in the case of variable ballast or the material that make up

48
the ballast in the case of fixed ballast. Topsides weight includes all the pieces of
equipment, devices, machines, and structures supported on the platform. A typical
example of a realistic classic spar platform to be used in this study is a GOM classic
spar platform, otherwise called the Neptune classic spar platform. This spar platform
has a diameter of 22 m, hull length of 215 m and it is installed in a water depth of about
590 m as indicated table 1.1 of section 1.1. A simplified model of the spar platform is
developed and hydrostatic and stability analysis is then carried out on it. The diagrams
below show the realistic classic spar and the simplified model.

Figure 4.1: Inboard section of realistic classic spar [29]

49
Figure 4.2: Approximated spar showing main sections

Figure 4.3: Upper section of spar showing centrewell and void section

50
 Figure 4.1 above shows the inboard section of the realistic classic spar. The void
sections, centrewell, fixed and variable ballasts are clearly seen in the figure. On the
other hand, figure 4.2 shows the approximated form of figure 4.1 and the various
dimensions of each section. and are the masses of the deck and fixed ballast
respectively. These masses are lumped up to form point masses for simplicity sake. ,
and are the lengths of the lower, middle and upper sections respectively. As a
result of experience various approximations are made of the length and weight of each
section. These approximations are found to produce relevant balance for all the
sectional loads. Thus, the lower section that fully contains flooded water has a length
which is two-third draught length. Middle section’s length is a third of draught length
and the upper section’s length is a fifth of draught length. The centrewell and the void
spaces are found in the upper section; sea water floods the centrewell and completely
floods the lower section to the keel of the spar. The variable ballasts are found in the
middle section and these ballasts contain sea water. The weights of these sections are
calculated from the relationship between buoyancy and weight of the spar.

4.1 Relationship between structural weight and buoyancy

Buoyancy and structural weight are two important forces needed in the determination of
weights distribution of realistic spar. The interplay between these two forces determines
the extent of stability of the structure. For a structure to be stable, buoyancy must be
greater than the structural weight. Thus the ratio of buoyancy to structural weight
should be greater than one. As a result, several indices have been developed for this
ratio; many are as results of work experience and research.

As a rule of thumb, the following relationship is established by Drake [30]:

Where: is buoyancy; is structural weight; is net buoyancy; is displaced

volume of seawater and is Drake’s buoyancy efficiency factor. varies from
75 to 80%.

51
Using equation (4.2) above,

When

and

Thus the ratio of buoyancy to structural weight of a realistic classic spar varies from 4
to 5. Consider the upper section of the spar platform in figure 4.2 above: Structural mass
of the upper section is obtained by applying the relation

and that of the midsection is

The structural or column mass of the lower section is

The calculations of the sectional weights and the inertia properties of the classic spar
are shown in appendix B. While the results of the principle dimensions or particulars of
the realistic classic spar are tabulated below.

Dimension Value Unit

Diameter of spar 22 m
Diameter of centrewell 11 m
Length of hull 214.9 m
Draught of spar 193.5 m
Length of upper section 38.7 m
Length of middle section 64.5 m
Length of lower section 129 m
Centre of buoyancy 96.8 m
Centre of gravity 91.9 m
Radius of gyration 126.9 m

Table 4.1: Principle dimensions of spar

52
Properties Values units
Column mass of upper 2262
section
Column mass of middle 10053
section
Column mass of lower 52776
section
Mass of classic spar 77187
platform
Mass of deck 10276

Mass of fixed ballast 10304

Moment of mass of upper 102755103

section
Moment of mass of middle 264868669
section
Moment of mass of lower 292749582
section
Moment of mass of deck 55404945
Table 4.2: Inertia properties of classic spar

From the table 4.1 above, it can be seen that the radius of gyration of the realistic
spar is greater than that of the uniform vertical circular cylinder. This is due to the
additional weights caused by the effects of topsides, ballasts and geometry. The topsides
weight is of the order of ten thousand tonnes, which is practically standard topsides
weight range of offshore platforms. Also the centre of gravity is lower than the centre of
buoyancy thus ensuring stability of the structure. In reality the location of the centre of
gravity of a realistic spar cannot be determined by simply applying the theoretical
relation that is defined in equation 4.1. However, for the realistic classic spar, the
following empirical relation is used in determining its centre of gravity. It has been
established that the position of the centre of gravity of the realistic spar is 95% of half
the draught length. Thus the 193.5 m draught length gives a centre of gravity distance
of 91.9125 m from the base. Having obtained the value of the location of the CG, it is

53
now possible to determine the separation between the centre of gravity and the centre of
buoyancy. The separation is important because it gives rise to the pitch restoring
moment or stiffness of the classic spar. It is a measure of the work done per unit pitch
about the keel of the structure; or the ability of the structure to maintain its stability in
the sea environment. Increase in the separation between the centre of gravity and the
centre of buoyancy leads to increase in the restoring stiffness provided the pitch angle is
maintained at a small value. Other contributing factors to the restoring stiffness are
buoyancy and structural weight of the entire structure. They both exhibit a restoring or
turning couple which is a function of the pitch angle and either of their magnitudes.
Hence the restoring couple is defined as the product of either the buoyancy or the
structural weight and the horizontal separation between the lines of action of the two
forces. Buoyancy highly depends on the draught length or the volume of sea water
displaced by the structure. That is why spars are generally designed to have large
draught in order to accommodate a high displaced volume of water and ultimately
results in sustaining high stability due to high restoring moment. In all of these the pitch
angle must be maintained as low as possible. A low value of the pitch implies high
stability while a high value low stability. The restoring stiffness for the classic spar can
be obtained from left-hand side of the moment equation which is given by

is the restoring stiffness of the realistic classic spar. However, the uniform spar
does not possess restoring stiffness since the position of the CG and that of the centre of
buoyancy coincide.

4.2 Coupled equation for restoring stiffness, pitch and surge

As distinct from equation 3.16 of section 3.4 the realistic classic spar equation of
motion incorporates the restoring stiffness by coupling it with the entry in the second
row and second column of the stiffness matrix. Changes are also made to the first
moment of mass and the second moment of mass. The first moment of mass is
multiplied by the factor 0.95, and the ratio of the radius of gyration of the realistic

54
classic spar to uniform spar is applied to the second moment of mass. Thus, the equation
of motion for the realistic classic spar becomes:

Where:

Hence the second moment of mass is given by

and the restoring stiffness is

and also the

The factor 1.14 arises from the relationship between the radii of the uniform spar and
realistic spar. This is simply established as follows:

Radius of gyration of uniform spar

Radius of gyration of realistic classic spar

adius of gyration of realistic classic spar

adius of gyration of uniform spar

Therefore,

Since .

While the other factor associated with the restoring stiffness, i.e. 0.025, emanates from
the separation between the CB and the CG. Lastly, the factor 0.95 is derived from a
relation established by experience.

55
4.3 Discussion of results

By making a simple comparison between figure 4.4 and figure 3.3 of section 3.5, it is
observed that the drift force for the realistic classic spar is much higher than that of a
uniform vertical circular cylinder. The discrepancy in the magnitude of the drift force is
due to the weight distribution of the realistic classic spar, and increase in radius of
gyration and this eventually leads to the increase in inertial forces. In this case, the
response of the realistic classic spar is reduced and thus the increase in drift force. The
results thus verify the characteristic behaviour of large offshore structures in deep water.

Figures 4.5 shows the results of two distinct changes made on the radius of gyration.
The curve with green line represents the result when the radius of gyration is increased
by 10%, the curve with red line is the case when radius of gyration is decreased by 10%
and the blue curve represents the base case. For values of ka less than 0.2, the three
curves show similar trends; maintaining a zero value for the drift force. While at values
of ka greater than 1.7, the three curves also indicate similar trend attaining the
maximum value for the drift force at ka equals 2. Thus there are significant changes
observed for the drift force between 0.2 and 1.7 values of ka. At unity value of ka, the
drift force is increased by about 8% when the radius of gyration is increased by 10%,
and the decreased by 10% when the radius of gyration is decreased by 10%. Figure 4.6
shows the results for variation of CG. Similar changes as those observed in the case of
figure 4.5 are likewise observed in this case for extreme values of ka. However, changes
in the CG do not cause much change in the drift force. As indicated in the figure, just
5% increase in the position CG only result about 1% decrease in drift force, while 5%
decrease in position of CG result in about 1% increase in drift force. Figures 4.7 and
4.8 are parameter study of the drift force. Radius-to-depth ratio is shown in figure 4.7
and depth-to-radius ratio is shown in figure 4.8. In figure 4.7, depths of 200 m, 250 m,
and 500 m are used while the radius of 11 m is kept constant. Thus the ratios
, and are produced respectively. The same trend is
observed for the three curves representing all three ratios at values of ka greater than
1.65 and they both reach a maximum value for the drift force at ka equals 2. The drift
force has increased considerably between values of ka in the range of 0.2 to 1.65. The
drift force is observed to increase most for greater magnitude of the depth. Hence the

56
smaller ratio means greater depth and more the drift force. While in figure 4.8, shows
the results obtained for changes in radius of the classic spar when the depth is kept
constant. A value of 193.5 m is used for the depth and values of 11 m, 12.5 m and 15 m
are used for the radii. The ratio with the highest value which means smallest radius is
observed to produce the highest drift force. However, this aspect of the parameter study
does not actually show much effect on the drift force.

0.6

0.5

0.4
Fmean1

fixed cylinder
spar

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
ka

Figure 4.4: Drift force on realistic classic spar and fixed cylinder

57
Figure 4.5: Effects of variation of radius of gyration on drift force

0.7

0.6

0.5
5% increase in CG
5% decrease in CG
base case
0.4
Drift

0.3

0.2

0.1

-0.1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
ka

Figure 4.6: Effects of variation of CG on drift force.

58
 0.7

0.6
a/d = 0.055
a/d = 0.044
a/d = 0.022
0.5

0.4

0.7
Drift

0.3

0.6

0.2

0.5
base case
0.1
drift for 10% increase in radius of gyration
drift for 10% decrease in radius of gyration
0.4
Fmean1 + Fmean2

0.3
-0.1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
ka
0.2

0.1

-0.1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
ka

Figure 4.7: Drift force for different radius-to-depth ratios

59
 0.7

0.6

0.5
d/a = 12.9
d/a = 15.5
d/a = 17.5
0.4
Drift

0.3

0.2

0.1

-0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ka

Figure 4.8: Drift force for different depth-to-radius ratios

60
5 Conclusion

From the analysis carried out in the dissertation, it is obvious that spar is the driver
for the exploration of oil and gas resources in deep and ultra deep waters. In the
offshore oil and gas industry, spar platform has already taken established position in
terms of its application in offshore environments, hence effective dynamic analysis was
carried on it in order to determine its responses in regular waves and eventually
compute the drift force. The effects of changes in the radius of gyration, and the
position of the CG of the realistic classic spar on the drift forces were computed by
MATLAB. The MATLAB programme was also used to analyse changes in water depth
at constant radius and the changes in radius at constant water depth on the drift forces.
The following depths were employed in the former parameter study: 200 m, 250 m, and
500 m respectively. The latter study involved the use of the following radii: 11 m, 12.5
m and 15 m.

From the observations and results obtained from the dynamic analysis carried out in
this work, it is shown that:

 The drift on a fixed cylinder is greater than that on a moving cylinder

due to the fact that the fixed cylinder offers greater resistance to the
surrounding wave while the moving cylinder is compliant with
surrounding wave. In simple terms the moving cylinder moves freely
in the waves and offers less resistance to the excitation caused by the
wave.
 As the water depth increases, the drift force on the realistic classic
spar increases due to increasing inertial forces and decreasing
response. Even in cases of 1000 m and above, similar trends are also
expected to be observed and the above generalization about the drift
force, the inertial forces and the responses completely hold.
 It is also shown that both the radius of gyration and the position of
the centre of gravity have a great influence on the drift force and the
response. The case of variation of the radius of gyration, increase in
its magnitude resulted in increase in the drift, however, the position
of the CG shows a contrary trend. CG variation is only restricted to

61
 very small changes, between 1- 5%, and the changes on the drift
force are also very small. s
 In all of the results presented in the project, in low frequency (LF)
time scale the realistic classic spar undergoes slow-drift motion. This
implication is also observed at LF motion for the case of a realistic
classic spar in long regular waves and it does not respond much to
drift force. The high inertia of the spar largely contributes to this
motion condition. However, for high frequency (HF) motion there
are considerable drift forces. Thus short regular wave can excite high
drift-motion on a realistic classic spar.

Thus taking into consideration the above generalizations and the influence of these
parameters (radius of gyration, CG, water depth) on the response and drift force, the
structural engineer will be able to determine the extent of loading the spar platform.
Since the overall weight of the spar platform has a significant effect on the response and
drift force.

62
REFERENCES
1. Retrieved June 8 2010 from http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/
systems/ship/platform-spar.htm
2. Ran, Z and Kim, M.H. 1997 Nonlinear Coupled Responses of a Tethered Spar
Platform in Waves: International Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering,
Vol.7, No.2.
3. Ran, Z and Kim, M.H. 1996 Responses of a Spar Platform in Random Waves and
Currents (Experiment Vs. Theory), International Journal of Offshore and Polar
Engineering, Vol.6, No.1.
4. Wybro, P 2004 Floating Production System Deepwater Development Options,
MTS Field Development Workshop
5. Wybro, P 2004 Floating Production System Deepwater Development Options,
MTS Field Development Workshop
6. Retrieved August 1 2010 from http://www.slideshare.net/ajw563/spar-
platforms-1364883
7. Retrieved August 3 2010 from http://www.slideshare.net/ajw563/spar-
platforms-1364883
8. Kurian et al, 2010 Response of Classic Spar by Morison Equation and Diffraction
Theory, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia
9. Bhatta, D. D., 2002. Surge Motion on a Floating Cylinder in Water of Finite
Depth. Hindawi Publishing Corp. http://ijmms.hindawi.com
10. Das, S.K., Sahoo. P.K., Das, S.N., 2006 Determination of roll motion for a floating
body in regular waves: Journal of Engineering for the Maritime Environment.
DOI:10.1243/14750902M0 1904
11. Hsiao, S.S., Lin, M.C.,1999 Wave Forces on a Large Structure in the Presence of
Current: Journal of Marine Science and Technology, Vol.7, No.1, pp. 17-25
12. Ran, Z and Kim, M.H. 1996 Responses of a Spar Platform in Random Waves and
Currents (Experiment Vs. Theory): International Journal of Offshore and Polar
Engineering, Vol.6, No.1.

63
13. Ran, Z and Kim, M.H. 1997 Nonlinear Coupled Responses of a Tethered Spar
Platform in Waves, International Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering,
Vol.7, No.2.
14. Taylor, R. E., and Dolla, J.P. 1979 Hydrodynamic Loads on Vertical Bodies of
Revolution, The Royal Institute of Naval Architect
15. Garriga, O.S.,and Falzarano, J.M. 2008 Water Wave Interaction on a Truncated
Vertical Cylinder, Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Vol. 130
DOI: 10.1115/1.2904941
16. Natvig, B. J. and Pendered, J. W. 1980 Motion response of floating structures to
regular waves, Applied Ocean Research, Vol. 2, No.3
17. Drake, K. R. 1984. Dynamics of Large Diameter Articulated Columns in Waves.
PhD thesis, University College London
18. Jha, A.K., de Jong, P.R., Winterstein, S.R., 1997. Motions of a spar buoy in
random seas: Comparing predictions and model test results. In. J.Vugts, ed.,
Behaviour of Offshore Structures. Delft: Delft University.
19. Montasir, O. A. A., Kurian, V. J., Narayanan, M. A. W., 2008. Dynamic Response
of Spar Platforms Subjected to Waves and Current. In. V.J. Kurian, ed.,
International Conference on Constitution and Building Technology. Malaysia.
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS. ICCBT (2008) – C- (15) – pp 173 – 182.
20. Ng, C.Y., Kurian, V.J., Montasir, O.A.A., n.d. Experimental and Analytical
Investigation of Classic Spar Responses. Civil Engineering Department, Universiti
Technologi, Malaysia
21. Drake, K. R., Taylor, R. E., Matsui, T., 1984. Drift of an Articulated Cylinder in
Regular Waves. Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences. London: The Royal Society. Vol. 394, No. 1807, pp. 363 – 385.
22. Taylor et al. 1983. The dynamics of a flexible articulated column in waves.
Journal of Engineering Structures. London: Butterworth & Co. Ltd. Vol.5
23. Det Norske Veritas. 2004. Global Performance Analysis of Deepwater Floating
Structures. Recommended Practice DNV-RP-F205, Amended April 2009.
24. Sarpkaya, T., & Isaacson, M., 1981. Mechanics of Wave Forces on Offshore
Structures. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.
25. Faltisen, O.M., 1990. Sea Loads on Ships and Offshore Structures.

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 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
26. Taylor et al. 1983. The dynamics of a flexible articulated column in waves.
Journal of Engineering Structures. London: Butterworth & Co. Ltd. Vol.5
27. Drake, K.R., 2010. Private Communication. Department of Mechanical
Engineering: University College London
28. Drake, K.R., 1984. Dynamics of Large Diameter Articulated Columns in Waves.
Ph.D.thesis. University College London.
29. Retrieved September 6 2010 from
http://www.floatec.com/images/mm_content/Deepwater_Floater_Intro.pdf.
30. Drake, K.R., 2010. Private Communication. Department of Mechanical
Engineering: University College London.

65
APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: Radiation Potential for an Oscillating Cylinder

The Laplace equation in cylindrical coordinates system is given by

The radiation potential is assumed to be of the form (variable separable

solution):

Thus

Substituting and into we have

Divide through by , thus the result is

In order to get a solvable equation, the following substitutions are made

66
Where x and y are constants.

Substituting these constants into , we have

We already know that

is a constant that satisfies the second order differential equation.

Therefore, is implied in and .

Since depends on depth, and then must be positive or negative. The

two conditions are evaluated as shown below.

1. For

becomes

Letting then
becomes

is a Bessel’s modified equation, which has the solution

Since and are modified Bessel functions of the first

second kinds respectively.

67
For the radiation condition to be satisfied, and thus increasing the
distance from the body decays rapidly.

2. For

A Bessel’s equation of the form below results

Solution is that which describes a progressive ring wave

at a large distance ; where and are Hankel functions of the first

and second kinds respectively.

satisfies the radiation condition of outgoing waves, thus

By combining with and then

with , hence the general expression for the radiation
velocity potential as given in equation (3.4) is obtained.

APPENDIX B: Determination of particulars of the realistic classic spar

Centre of buoyancy

Centre of gravity

Length of lower section

Length of middle section

Length of upper section

Column mass of lower section

68
By simplifying equation (4.6),

Column mass of middle section

Also simply equation (4.7),

Column of upper section

Mass moment of inertia of lower section about the base of the classic spar

Mass moment of inertia of middle section about the base of the classic spar

Mass moment of inertia of upper section about the base of the classic spar

Mass of topsides or deck

Overall mass of spar

69
Thus

Mass moment of inertia of the deck about the base of the spar

Mass of fixed ballast

Radius of gyration

70
71