Vicariance Alisa Hernandez

The process by which a species population of organisms becomes geographically isolated, and

consequently becomes two or more distinct species on either side of the newly formed barrier,

a speciation event. Speciation describes the emergence of a new species, which can happen in a

variety of manners and result in at least two different species groups. Vicariance may occur in

any ecosystem or habitat and to a group of organisms from any phylogenetic group (i.e., group

sharing a common ancestor; e.g., aquatic invertebrates, terrestrial plants, flying vertebrates)

that can become geographically isolated from each other with the formation of a new

geographic barrier. The term vicariance is often related to allopatric speciation, the difference

between the two terms being that vicariance occurs with the formation of new geographic

barriers while allopatric speciation occurs when a species disperses, moves to, across an

existing barrier—although both processes result in species separated by barriers.

History and Theory

Originally grounded in the mega-continental theory, Pangea, it has been hypothesized that

similar species occurring

on two separate

continents were previously

united and maintained a

continuous range when Simple diagram representation by which the process of vicariance takes place over
time. A single species group splits into two after geographic barrier formation and
consequent reproductive isolation (7).
the continents were

connected (1). In modern usage of the theory, vicariance is applied to a multitude of different
geological barriers that form and fall over time and it is thought to be the primary process by

which allopatric speciation occurs (1). Geographic barriers may include large mountain or river

formation, stranding the two groups on either side, or more fluid such as rising and dropping

water level in a lake or sea (2). Following the formation of the geological or geographic barrier,

the isolated groups become reproductively isolated from each other—unable to reproduce

between the two groups (1). This effectively results in zero gene flow, which can be

mathematically called 𝑚𝑚 = 0 where the value of 𝑚𝑚 can range 0 < 𝑚𝑚 < 0.5 thus, a group

experiencing vicariance would be an extreme lack of gene flow (1). This mathematical value of

vicariance is useful in use of vicariance models, simulating the theoretical process with the use

of computer algorithms to understand population dynamics (1).

Examples
Speciation via vicariance can occur in any environment in which a geographic barrier can be

formed and insurmountable by the

isolated individuals of the species

of interest. Due to the nature of

the process, there is no way to

Example of how vicariance might happen on a group of mountains with observe the occurrence in real
different sea levels—which may result in species groups on top of mountain
peaks or valleys between mountains after a vicariance event (8). time, rather it happens over a

geological time scale—hundreds or thousands of years at a time (2). However, geological record

allows for the investigation into the species seen currently or recently extinct by examining the

geological formations around the area (2).

One example can be seen in the Boidae family of snakes (commonly called boas) which are

nearly globally distributed and appear to have become separated after the Gondwanaland

mega-continent broke apart and restricted terrestrial travel between areas (3). Because boa

snakes are strictly terrestrial organisms, they can only disperse through connecting landmasses.

Once Gondwanaland separated into individual continents (i.e., Africa, South America, Australia,

and Antarctica) the snakes located on any of those landmasses were resigned to that area and

could not access and interbreed with other snakes outside their continent—thus each group

eventually speciated to the variety of Boidae snakes seen today (3).

Another example is the East African mountain rodent, Praomys delectorum, which is a species

endemic to the Mozambique boreal forests and through molecular DNA evidence has shown to

have had several vicariance events around the mountain area due to extreme glaciation and

melting over time (4). These vicariance events occurred as portions of the mountains at high

elevations became covered in ice during glacial periods, changing the climate and plant

community of the surrounding forest area, and changed again once global temperatures rose

and melted low elevation ice caps (4, 2). With these shifts in climate and community, the

mountain rodent groups became extirpated—locally extinct—and re-populated different areas

once available, however due to the long time periods between recolonization, the different

rodent groups speciated after periods of reproductive isolation (4). This resulted in the diverse

number of genetically distinct rodent species seen currently in the area.

An aquatic example can be seen in two different reef sea urchin species of the genus

Echinometra where one species can be found on the eastern side of Panama, and the other in

the western side’s Pacific waters (5). These two groups of sea urchins became distinct as the
Isthmus of Panama became uncovered from the water and formed dry land with lower global

sea levels, stranding the aquatic animals on either

side of the Isthmus. Because the urchins cannot

disperse over land, the two isolated groups became

their own species after a few million years (5).

Now, the two species of urchin can no longer

reproduce when in contact with each other (5).

This is because the time isolated by the geographic

barrier has isolated the two species reproductively

as well, where even when introduced artificially

Isolation of species across the Isthmus of Panama
when continuous ocean water was separated by dry (humans introduce the individuals from the two
land approximately 3 million years ago (9).
species in common waters) they will not hybridize.

Ecological Implications
The process of vicariance is increasingly relevant in current biological research and resource

management because human driven climate and habitat change may be leading to novel

vicariance events. This can mean that habitat fragmentation created by human development

may separate small organism groups with low dispersal potential to speciate spontaneously.

However, despite this potential opportunity for increased biodiversity, there is also the risk that

the habitats may become too isolating and lead to extinction of either the old or new species

(6). Human actions may lead to significant vicariance events with formation of new barriers for

all manners of species and require careful monitoring and conservation to minimize negative

effects on affected organisms.

Peer Review Reflection
My peers advised that, although the examples section helped to illustrate my keyword, the

section was a bit long. I chose to break this section up into multiple paragraphs, where each

example is its own shorter paragraph (see “Examples” section). I feel that this edit made the

section easier to read and follow along with, each paragraph succinct enough to illustrate the

point without being too dragged out. I also was sure to elaborate on some jargon, such as

“speciation” and “allopatric” so that the language was at more of a middle ground, rather than

one expecting a background in biology, geography, or ecology (see introduction, third

paragraph of “examples” section). Adding more short definitions into the overall definition

allowed for me to elaborate or go into detail for some concepts while still illustrating my point

at a simpler language level.

Literature Cited
1. Cox, C.B., Moore, P.D., Ladle, R.J. 2016. Biogeography.9th ed. John Wiley & Sons. New Jersey.
2. Sanmartín, I. 2012. Historical biogeography: Evolution in time and space. Evolution:
Education and Outreach 5: 555-568.
3. Noonan, B.P., et al. 2006. Dispersal and vicariance: The complex evolutionary history of boid
snakes. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40: 347-358
4. Bryja, J., et al. 2014. The role of dispersal and vicariance in the Pleistocene history of an East
African mountain rodent, Praomys delectorum. Journal of Biogeography 41: 196-208.
5. McCartney, M.A., et al. 2003. Dispersal barriers in tropical oceans and speciation in Atlantic
and eastern Pacific sea urchins of the genus Echinometra. Molecular Ecology 9: 1391-1400.
6. Parent, C. 2012 Update: The (often ignored) role of vicariance in evolutionary diversification
on oceanic islands. Frontiers of Biogeography 3: DOI 10.21425/F53412441.
7. Colvin, A. 2020. Illustration of allopatric speciation resulting from elevational topography.
[image] Available at:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Allopatric_speciation_caused_by_topography.svg
#cite_note-1
8. Colvin, A. 2018. Simplified illustration of speciation process via vicariance. [image] Available
at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Allopatric_Speciation_Schematic.svg
9. Colvin, A. 2017. Illustration of speciation of marine species isolated on each side of the
Isthmus of Panama. [image] Available at:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Isthmus_of_Panama_(closure)_-
_Speciation_of_marine_organisms_(w_annot).png