Vicariance Alisa Hernandez

The long-term process by which a single species population of organisms becomes

geographically isolated, consequently becoming two or more distinct species on either side of

the newly formed barrier, vicariance is a kind of speciation event. Speciation describes the

emergence of a new species, which can happen in a variety of manners and result in at least

two different species groups. Vicariance may occur in any ecosystem or habitat and to a group

of organisms from any phylogenetic group (i.e., group sharing a common ancestor; e.g., aquatic

invertebrates, terrestrial plants, flying vertebrates) that can become geographically isolated

from each other with the formation of a new geographic barrier. The term vicariance is often

related to allopatric speciation, the difference between the two terms being that vicariance

occurs with the formation of new geographic barriers while allopatric speciation occurs when a

species disperses, moves to, across an existing barrier—although both processes result in

species separated by barriers.

History and Theory

Originally grounded in the mega-continental theory, Pangea, it has been hypothesized that

similar species occurring

on two separate

continents were previously

united and maintained a

continuous range when Simple diagram representation by which the process of vicariance takes place over
time. A single species group splits into two after geographic barrier formation and
consequent reproductive isolation (7).
the continents were
connected (1). In modern usage of the theory, vicariance is applied to a multitude of different

geological barriers that form and fall over time and it is thought to be part of the circumstances

by which allopatric speciation can occur (1). Geographic barriers may include large mountain or

river formations, stranding the two groups on either side, or more variable barriers such as

rising and dropping water levels in a lake or sea (2). Following the formation of the geological or

geographic barrier, the isolated groups become reproductively isolated from each other—

unable to reproduce between the two groups (1). This effectively results in zero gene flow,

which can be mathematically called 𝑚𝑚 = 0 where 𝑚𝑚’s value can range 0 < 𝑚𝑚 < 0.5 (1). Thus, a

group experiencing vicariance at 𝑚𝑚 = 0 would be an extreme lack of gene flow (1). This

mathematical value of vicariance is useful in the use of vicariance models, simulating the

theoretical process using computer algorithms to understand population dynamics (1).

Examples
Speciation via vicariance can occur in any environment in which a geographic barrier can be

formed and insurmountable by the

isolated individuals of the species

of interest. Due to the nature of

the process, there is no way to

Example of how vicariance might happen on a group of mountains with observe the occurrence in real-
different sea levels—which may result in species groups on top of mountain
peaks or valleys between mountains after a vicariance event (8). time, rather it happens over a

geological time scale—hundreds or thousands of years at a time (2). However, the geological

record allows for the investigation into the species seen currently or recently extinct by

examining the geological formations around the area (2).

One example can be seen in the Boidae family of snakes (commonly called boas) which are

nearly globally distributed and appear to have become separated after the Gondwanaland

mega-continent broke apart and restricted terrestrial travel between areas (3). Because boa

snakes are strictly terrestrial organisms, they can only disperse through connecting landmasses.

Once Gondwanaland separated into individual continents (i.e., Africa, South America, Australia,

and Antarctica) the snakes located on any of those landmasses were resigned to that area and

could not access and interbreed with other snakes outside their continent—thus each group

eventually speciated to the variety of Boidae snakes seen today (3).

An aquatic example can be seen in two different reef sea urchin species of the genus

Echinometra where one species can be found on

the eastern side of Panama, and the other on the

western side’s Pacific waters (5). These two groups

of sea urchins became distinct as the Isthmus of

Panama became uncovered from the water and

formed dry land with lower global sea levels,

stranding the aquatic animals on either side of the

Isthmus. Because the urchins cannot disperse over

land, the two isolated groups became their own

Isolation of species across the Isthmus of Panama
when continuous ocean water was separated by dry species after a few million years (5). Now, the two
land approximately 3 million years ago (9).
species of urchin can no longer reproduce when in

contact with each other (5). This is because the time isolated by the geographic barrier has

isolated the two species reproductively as well, where even when introduced artificially
(humans introduce the individuals from the two species in common waters) they will not

hybridize.

Ecological Implications
The process of vicariance is increasingly relevant in current biological research and resource

management because the human-driven climate and habitat change may be leading to novel

vicariance events (e.g., desert formation, latitudinal temperature range shifts, rising sea levels).

This can mean that habitat fragmentation created by human development may separate small

organism groups with low dispersal potential to speciate spontaneously. However, despite this

potential opportunity for increased biodiversity, there is also the risk that the habitats may

become too isolating and lead to the extinction of either the old or new species (6). Human

actions may lead to significant vicariance events with the formation of new barriers for all

manners of species and require careful monitoring and conservation to minimize negative

effects on affected organisms.

Peer Review Reflection
My peers advised that, although the examples section helped to illustrate my keyword, the

section was a bit long. I chose to break this section up into multiple paragraphs, where each

example is its own shorter paragraph (see “Examples” section). I feel that this edit made the

section easier to read and follow along with, each paragraph succinct enough to illustrate the

point without being too dragged out. I also was sure to elaborate on some jargon, such as

“speciation” and “allopatric” so that the language was more of a middle ground, rather than

one expecting a background in biology, geography, or ecology (see the introduction, third

paragraph of “examples” section). Adding more short definitions to the overall definition

allowed for me to elaborate or go into detail for some concepts while still illustrating my point

at a simpler language level.

Literature Cited
1. Cox, C.B., Moore, P.D., Ladle, R.J. 2016. Biogeography. 9th ed. John Wiley & Sons. New Jersey.
2. Sanmartín, I. 2012. “Historical biogeography: Evolution in time and space”. Evolution:
Education and Outreach 5: 555-568.
3. Noonan, B.P., et al. 2006. “Dispersal and vicariance: The complex evolutionary history of boid
snakes”. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40: 347-358
4. Bryja, J., et al. 2014. “The role of dispersal and vicariance in the Pleistocene history of an East
African mountain rodent, Praomys delectorum”. Journal of Biogeography 41: 196-208.
5. McCartney, M.A., et al. 2003. “Dispersal barriers in tropical oceans and speciation in Atlantic
and eastern Pacific sea urchins of the genus Echinometra”. Molecular Ecology 9: 1391-1400.
6. Parent, C. 2012 “Update: The (often ignored) role of vicariance in evolutionary diversification
on oceanic islands”. Frontiers of Biogeography 3: DOI 10.21425/F53412441.
7. Colvin, A. 2020. Illustration of allopatric speciation resulting from elevational topography.
[image] Available at:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Allopatric_speciation_caused_by_topography.svg
#cite_note-1
8. Colvin, A. 2018. Simplified illustration of speciation process via vicariance. [image] Available
at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Allopatric_Speciation_Schematic.svg
9. Colvin, A. 2017. Illustration of speciation of marine species isolated on each side of the
Isthmus of Panama. [image] Available at:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Isthmus_of_Panama_(closure)_-
_Speciation_of_marine_organisms_(w_annot).png