-

18
OSC ILLA TOR CIRC UITS

INTROD UCTION

wave generators play a prominent role in the field of electronics. They generate signals
from a few hertz to several gigahertz (lOQ hertz). Modem wave generators use many
different circuits and generate such outputs as sinusoidal, square, rectangular, sawtooth ,
and trapezoidal waveshapes. These waveshapes serve many useful purpose s in the
electronic circuits you will be studying. For example, they are used extensively througho ut
the television receiver to' reproduce both picture~ and sound. ·
One type of wa,~e 5enerator is known as ~ oscillator. Oscillators are electronic
circuits used to generate high frequency as signals. If the output current or voltage has
the form of a sine wave with respecno-time'; the device is called a sinusoid al or harmonic
oscillatcr. If the output voltage changes ..from -one level to another abruptly, as in a
triangular, rectriangular, sq4are or sawtooth wave, i_t is called a relaxation oscillator. An
oscillator delivers an output voltage of a give~ waveform without the application of an
external input signal, i.e., it converts de powe'r to the ac po\'Yer in the load. An oscillator
is essentially an amplifier with positive feedback to overcome energy losses as heat in
resistors.
At frequency under 1 MHZ, we can use RC oscillators. These low frequency oscillator
use operational amplifier and RC resonant circuits to determi ne the frequency of
oscillation. Above 1 MHZ, transistors and LC resonan t circuits are used. The main uses
of oscillators are television transmitters and receivers, radars, commun ication systems etc.
~

d:2 THE BASIC OSCILLATOR

An oscillator can be thought of as an amplifier that provide s itself (through feedback)
with an input signal. By definition, it is a non-rota ting device for produci ng alternati ng
current, the output frequency of which is determin ed by the characteristics of the device.
775
6 Discrete Electronics Circuits and Its Applications
The primary purpose of a n oscillator is to generate a given waveform at a constant peak
amplitude ,md specific frequency and to maintain this waveform within certain limits of
amplitude and frequency. An oscillator must provide amplification . Amplification of
signal power occurs from input to output. In an oscillator, a portion of the output is fed
b;ck to sust,,in the input, as shown in figure 18.1. Enough powe r must be ied back to the
input circuit for the oscillator to drive itself as does a signal generator. To c_ause the
oscillator to be self-driven, the feedback signal must also be regenerative (positive).
Feedback
Amplifier
Input Output
Fig. 18.1 Basic oscillaror block diagram
Regenerative s ignals must have enough power to compensate for circuit losses and
to maintain oscillations. Since a practical oscillator must oscillate at a predetermined
frequency, a frequency determining device ifdcf), sometimes referred to as a frequency
determining network (fd11), is needed. This device acts as a filter, allowing only the desired
frequency to pass. Without a frequency determining device, the stage will oscillate in a
random manner, and a constant frequency will not be mairltained. Before discussing
oscillators further, let's review the requirements for an oscillator. First, amplification is
required to provide the necessary gairl for the signal. Second, sufficient regenerative
feedback is required to sustain oscillations. Third, a frequency-determining device is
needed to maintain the desired output frequency. The basic oscillator requirements, in
addition to the application, determine the type of oscillator to be used. Let's consider some
fa ctors that account for the complexity and unique characteristics of oscillators. Virtually
e\'ery piece of equipment that uses an oscillator has two stability requirements, amplitude
stability and frequency stability. Amplitude stability refers to the ability of the oscillator
to mai,,tain a constant amplitude in the output waveform. The more constant the
amplitude of the output waveform, the better the amplitude stability. Frequency stability
refers to the ability of the oscillator to maintain its operating frequency. The less the
oscillator varies from its operating frequency, the better the frequency stability. A constant
frequency and amplitude can be achieved by taking extreme care to prevent variations in
load, bias, and component characteristics. Load variations can greatly affect the
amplitude and frequency stability of the output of an oscillator. Therefore, maintaining
the load as constant as possible is necessary to ensure a stable output. As you should
know from your study of transistor biasing, bias \'ariations affect the operating point of
the transistor. These variations may alter the amplification capabilities of the oscillator
circuits as well A well-regulated power supply and a bias-stabilizing circuit are required
to ensure a constant, uniform signal output. As a result of changing temperature and
humidity conditions, the value or characteristics of components such as capacitors,
;esistors, and transistors can change. The changes in these components also cause
changes in amplitude and frequency. Output power is another consideration in the use
of oscillators. Generally speaking, high power is obtamed at some sacrifice to stability.
When both requirements are to be met, a low-power, stable oscillator can be followed by
Oscillator Circuits 777
a higher-power buffer amplifier. The buffer provides isolation between the oscillator and
the load to prevent changes in the load from affecting the oscillator. Uthe oscillator stage
must develop high power, efficiency becomes important. Many oscillators use class C bias
to increase efficiency. Other types of oscillators may use class A bias when a high
efficiency is not required but distortion must be kept at a minimum. Other classes of bias
may also be used with certain oscillators.
, /11.3 CLASSIFICATION OF OSCILLATORS
Depending on the nature of the generated wave, oscillator circuits are divided into two
categories:
I
I Oscillators
Sinusoidal or Relaxation oscillators
harmonic oscinators
/18.3.1 Sinusoidal or Harmonic OsciUators
A sinusoidal oscillator produces a sine-wave output signal. Ideally, the output signal is
of constant amplitude with no variation in frequency. Actually, something less than this
is usually obtairled. The degree to which the ideal is approached depends upon such
factors as class of amplifier operation, amplifier characteristics, frequency stability, and
amplitude stability.
Sine-wave generators produce signals ranging from low audio frequencies to
ultrahigh radio and microwave frequencies. Many low-frequency generators use resistors
and capacitors to form their frequency-determining networks and are referred to as RC
oscillators. They are widely used in the audio-frequency range.
Another type of sine-wave generator uses inductors and capacitors for its frequency-
determining network. This type is known as the LC oscillator. LC oscillators, which use
tank circuits, are commonly used for the higher radio frequencies. They are not suitable
for use as extremely low-frequency oscillators because the inductors and capacitors
would be large in size, heavy, and costly to manufacture.
A third type of sine-wave generator is the crystal controlled oscillator. The crystal-
controlled oscillator provides excellent frequency stability and is used from the middle
of the audio range through the radio frequency range.
_/18.3.2 Relaxation Oscillators
Non-sinusoidal oscillators generate complex waveforms, such as square, rectangular,
trigger, sawtooth, or trapezoidal Because their outputs are generally characterized by a
sudden change, or relaxation, they are often referred to as relaxation oscillators. The
signal frequency of these oscillators is usually governed by the charge or discharge time
of a capacitor in series with a resistor. Some types, however, contairl inductors that affect
the output frequency. Thus, like sinusoidal oscillators, both RC and LC networks are used
.,..._...-1-1
Discrete Electronics Circuits and Its Applications Oscillat.o r Circuits 779

for determining th.c ' h'

freq.uency of oscillation . W'I th Ill f
. . t I S categ O non-smu h1111l,il 18.5 THE ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF AN OSCILLATOR
oscillators are mu It1v1brators, bl ocking osci llat o rs, sawtooth <>ene ory
t
gcncratnr~. ,., ra ors, and trap('Z111d,tl
The essential components of an oscillator are:
Drpenc.Jin,.; on the pa rticulilr device produ c· ti . .
br divided int o two rn tegorics. mg , e oscillations, oscillator circuits 111 ,1y
18.5.J Tank Circuit

, ----L_____
Negal1ve - resistance type
Oscillators The tank circuit consists of an ind uctance coil in parallel with a capacitor. The frequency
of oscillations in the circuit depends upon the values of capacitance and inductance.

This is given by, /=

1
2n../Lc
,..(18.2)
Feedback type
Negative-resista_nee type: It possesses a current
voltage characteristic curvt• l ll where, Lis the inductance of induction coil and C is the capacitance of the capacitor.
oegall ve sIope w1 th m some range of its operation .
. Feedback type: It contains a positive feedback amplifier in 1, · h . . 18.5.2 Operational Amplifier or Transistor Amplifier
adiusted that the overall gain becomes infinity . w IC the loop gam 1s so
The amplifier receives de power from the source and changes it into ac power tor
The oscillators which generate signals in the radio fre ue .
sur i ,tymg it to the tank circuit. The oscillations of tank circuit are fed to the operational
frequency osollators, on the other hand th . q _ncy ranges are called radio
11
e osc1 ators which gene t • . amplifier or transistor amplifier.
audio frequ ency range are known as aud 10 ' f . ra e s1gna 1s 111 th l'
requency oscillators.
Positive feedback: In positive feedback, a portion of th . . 18.5 .3 Feedback Circuit
to the input, and summed out of phase with th .
the circuit response since the large open 1 e m~r
_ e output signal 1s sent back
~ignal. The result IS a stability in
to be very small. Sometimes quite differe~~~aga1::s i~ctt~:e? forces the dif~erence signal
The feedback circuit supplies a part of the output energy to tank circuit in correct phase
to overcome the losses occurring in tank circuit and the balance is radiated out in the form
eedback signal is summed 111 of electromagnetic wave. The feedback circuit provides a positive feedback.
phase with the input signal, as shown in fig~~ 18.2.

18.6 BARKHAUSEN OSCILLATION CRITERION

~--~--vou,
For a positive feedback system the overall gain can be written as, Ai= A/(1-AB), where
A is the gain of the internal amplifier, B is the feedback ratio, and - AB is the loop gain.
If AB = 1, from this equation A1 tends to infinity. The ampWier then gives an output
voltage without requiring any externally applied input voltage. In other words, the
amplifier becomes an oscillator. This condition of unity loop gain, i_e., AB = 1 is called
the Barkhausen Criterion. This condition means that IAB I = 1, and the phase angle of
AB is zero or an integral multiple of 360°. Therefore, the basic conditions for oscillation
in a feedback amplifier are (i) the feedback must be regenerative, and (i1) the loop gain
must be unity.

ONDITION FOR OSCILLATION 18.7 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

e Condit-ions for oscillation are: To build a sinusoidal oscillator, we use an amplifier with positive (regenerative) feedback
where a function (V1) of the output voltage is feedback to the input in the same phase.
f·j2. lfhe phase shift around the feedback loop must be zero d egree
lfl The block diagram of a sinusoidal oscillator is shown in figure 18.3(a).
,~ vo Itage gain, Aci_, around the closed feedback loop (loop .ga;") t 1
u, mus equa to
umty.

l The voltage gain around the c

ln (A) and the attenuation (B)
AcL = AB
~~s~~ f;:e~~:cc~l~~!~~t~d is the product of the amplifier
... (18.1)
 Osc illa tor Circ uits
I~ ·1

BO Discrete Elec tron ics Circ

uits and Its App l icat
ion s f
.q, .. ~ CJ r r C2 Cl f -fl··-·
rFL 1:,! ~~~
X y

Vm - : Amplifier A v.
Oulp ul

v,
Feedback
networi< B Input Base
,eom-, ~----~
Emitter) Collector (b) Vector Ana lysis
Signal
a feedback oscillator
(a) Block diagram of (a) Amp lifier with an
Re
Feedback Network
Fig. 18.4
lifie r is a
(a), ass um e that the amp
on of the circuit in view rees out of pha se
(b) Oscillatio ns die out
(c) Oscillatio ns increase (d) Osci llations are fixed
in amplitude To analyze the ope rati coll ecto r (M) is 180 deg
ration. The signal on the ene rati ve feedback,
F"ig.18.3 common-emitter configu circuit to pro duc e reg
. the sign al (inp ut) on the base (R). For the ecto r sign al, Wh en pow er
d th with shift of the coll
vid e a 180--degree pha se
. is less than V die out as shown
If AB is less than l, ABV is gre ater ~':in~
AB \ou :ut signal will the RC netw ork mu st pro tain s man y diff eren t frequencies) will
r, if AB and the out put a noise voltage (noi se con
in figure 18.3(b). How eve ~B e ~al t;eath ter than Vin
is applied to the circuit, in view (b). As the
wn in figure 18.3(c). If Vm and rese nted by vec tor LM
voltage increases as sho ' en_A~Vin equals(d). This noise signal is rep urs. The vol tage
oscillations are fixe d . li dq
m figure 18.3 app ear on the collector. w (a)), a pha se shif t occ
the output voltage m amp tu e as sho wn . . al cou ples thro ugh Cl and across RI (vie pha se (ab out 60 deg rees )
_ .
given by Barkh en for Prod ucmg oscillations in a feedback
sign bee n shif ted in
The h\' O req wre men ts nted by vector LN, has cou ple d to the nex t
aus across R1 (ER 1), rep rese nt N (vie w (a)) is then
circuit are as follows : de. The signal at poi as bef ore will cau se
and redu ced in amp litu resistor and cap acit or
equ al to uni ty. . Using the sam e size the vol tage across
uld be gre ater than or RC section (R2 and C2) at poi nt P is
1. The loop gain AB sho se shift to take place. The
sign al
back (A) ano ther 60- deg ree pha
at poi nt P has bee n shif ted abo ut 120
A r= Gain without feed -. - (18.3) tor LP. Now the signal last
Gain with feedback, 1 - AB R2, repr esen ted by vec her. The sam e acti ons occ ur for the
de is red uce d still furt
e feed bac k. degrees and its amp litu the r 60-< legr ee pha se shif t and has
positiv This sign al experience
s ano
k factor. B is positive for section (R3 and 0). deg rees and
where, B is the feedbac ) has bee n shif ted 180
if AB = 1 the n~= 00_ amp litu de red ucti on. The signal at poi nt R (ER3 bas e of the com mon -
In equation (18. 3), further is the inp ut to the
Generally in an oscillat
or th . LR Notice that poi nt R e is reg ene rati ve (aid ing
t mus t be zero or 3600 is repr esen ted by vector sign al on the bas

;:; ~:1::e:~w~ ~:rs: vector LR sho ws that the

2. The total pha se shif ~ g:h :
emi tter amplifier. Als o, me nt An exact 60-
tinZ vol tage is ap; ~:; 0 tive feed bac k req uire
tu~ ed ~- A small star
0
This meets the regenera pha se shif ts mu st
the out put vol ~ge reaches !ta
a ~er ta:
. .
:::1
,
figure 18:3
i;~e aas ;s, as/ h~w n in s to umt y and the
. u o~ ica y red uce ure 18.3(d)) .
(c). Aft er the circuit operation).
degree pha se shif t per stag e is not required, but the
sum of the thre e

peak to k out put v d m amp litu de (fig equal 180 degrees . wil l be shif ted
. o ge oscillations are fixe llators· the init ial noi se sign al
pea k osci , only one frequency of ctive. Therefore, the RC
Here are the key ideas beh te tha
ind any feed bac
. For a given RC netw ork ork is freq uen cy sele
, re the loop pha se shift oth er words, the netw vec tors and thei r
• Initially, loop gain AB
is gr
ea r n 1 a, the frequency whe exactly 180 degrees. In sinc e the leng ths of the
15 ,r,_ cy- dete rmi ning device s is gov ern ed by
netw ork is the frequen uen cy of osc illa tion
level · hed AB reducing either s dep end on frequency. The freq e resi stor s and
• Aher the ~i red out put , mus t decrease to 1 by phase rela tion ship
thes e sect ions . Var iabl
15 reac
ce and capacitance in wor k to allow for min
or
A or B. the values of resi stan in the feed bac k net
d to pro vid e tun ing r is bias ed for class
capacitors may be use osc illat or, the amp lifie
t. For an RC phase-shift
TH RC FEEDBACK CIR
CUITS / variations in pha se shif or signal.
J! OSCILLATORS WI rati on to min imi ze distortion of the wav e
A ope
.

lhs-Qu;;h wh.ich re~n,;.,ra

ws the blnc.k dfa,
Fi~ ce WA, vi~M (aJ, 6.ho fuedba.d-; is
tive
v~. Vk,y1 (b) s~w
,

, The RC
..
i:~
an amplifre r with an
RC netw ork
. network _also acts as
the 18,8.1 Wien-Bridge Osc illa tor
J"
ge of this osc illa tor is that
the frequency
foXJ uency-d.etf?r rnining de s a vector analysl.6 of the
signal Eat various cy oscillator. The adv anta oscillators
the frequency can
This is an aud io frequen in RC
p<Jmfs in lfw cirw it. uency range 1:10, whe reas
may be varied over a freq
 uiscrctc tlcctr onics Circuits and
It s Appli catto ns
Osc ,lla tur Circuit'., 783
n(ll UL' varied, ,.,·., RC oscill,ll\lr is a fixed
lrl'qu ency us,i llnlm . In RC osd
frcqu<.•llC)' del ermin inb nenvo rk r111d llnl11r holl,
ilmplif11•r inlro dlll'(' n pl 111sc• ch,111g
pPsiliv1• feedb,1ck 1s nbl<1111cd . On c• 111 llw Sl)',1111 111 11d
lhe 1,ther hnnd, lhl' ns\'i llalions
arr,, ni,;in~ both nehv ork _.ind ampli 111 ,1y lw 1,1>1nlned hy
fic~r lo inlro duct• zen1 plrns<.• shlfl
lhl' prinnpiL• uf W1L'n -bnd1;L' oscill nnd ni.:I unll y this i•,
rilor.
A praclk,11 \-Vien brldgt• nscill,1tor
cirruil llSl'S nn Clpcrntlonnl nmplifit•r
circuil , w1lh till' oscillalor fn:qut•n C)' ,lllcl l{C bl'id)\1 '
set by llw R ,111d C comp onent ~. Fl!,;
a basic circuil of il Wien l.,rid!;L urc.• 18.:,(,t) Hhow :,
' osci llator .
We assum<.' thnl ,rn inpul sii;nn
l exists ill th e non-I nvert ing tcrmi
11 pcrali nnnl ampl ifier. Si nce the nnb of llw
non-inve rlin~ .implificr introduc1·s

•Ry,c- Cl.
frequ<.•ncy - se lect iv•· feedback circui zero phase shill , llw
t mu ~l alsCl intro duce zero phase 1
positil'c fccdb;i ck cond ition . shift lo crea te thl' I,, • 2-.RC
P. 1
from fii;ure 18.S(a ), rl'sist ors R ,
1 R2 and cap,1citors C 1, C from th e fr eq uency
adjustment clem ents while resist -
ors RJ and R,1 form part of 2the '=J"
operational ampl ifier outpu t is conne feedback path . The Pi!(. 18,5
cted as the bridg e input at point s lb) Wlene hrltJr,e o:1d llator
circuit outpu t at points b nnd d is n and c, The brid ge
the input to the opera tiona l ampli The po~it ivc feedback loop utl11.zcs d C ·rh ncg;i tive feedb ack loop
fier. R, an utili ze,,
b • wicc the si:zc of K,,, Wh,m ,the c , , . •d
I<,. and R,,. I<,, mu~t . c t circuit i11 firs t turnc on, p~lt, ve
t' • I, •dbac k Thi$ allow , the O<JClll
feedback Is more 1,an ncga ,v~ cc ation lo build up. After the
. , . f dback becom es large ,•nough
oudtput ls.ignal reaAchl3e,tsc:il dl~~:"1: ds::i~ to
re uce oop ga in :r l~:e :r;; ::u: ; will be l~ ,i than
, , I and 0!1Ci llat1o n
rn nnot bc malnl ai ned .

Thc close loop voltage gai n is, Ac, 2R I 3

= + ,. R ...( IIH>/

~ince the lead- lag ci rcuit has a B I

of , the loop gain IB Ar , B "' 3 I
Fig. 18.5 3 /. :i' "'
(a) Prac1ica/ wier, bridge oscillator Anot her wa of draw in g the wicn
Neglecting loadi ng effect of the oper.i bridg e O!ld llator is !lhow n in figur
th e outpu t of th: bridge is the differ e 135{c ). Herc
t'ional ampl if;er input and outpu entia l volta_ge {1 .e., e rro r volta ge/.
t impe dance . In ope rallon , the
bridge is balanced, and thus, the
&= ~+ S error voltage Ill ze ro.
R4 R2 C1 n~
C
andfn = 1
21t JR 1R2C 1Cz (185)
R
If, R1 =~= Ran d C =Ci= C, the resulting oscillator frequ ency is 1
1
/0 = - -
21t RC
and R3 = 2
R4
Thus the ratio of ~ to R4 great er than 2 will provi de C R
circuit. sufficient loop gain for the

Figure 18.S(b) show s a Wien bridg

e oscillator. This circuit uses a comb
positive feedback and negat ive feedb inatio n of
ack to achieve oscillation . There is fig. 18.S (c) Wien bridge oscillator
feedback from the outpu t throu gh a path for positive
the lead-lag circuit to the non-i nvert
is also a path for negat ive feedback ing input. There Desig n proce dure:
from the outpu t throu gh the volta
inver ting input . ge divid er to the
I. Select the frequ ency of osciilator
(f,,).

a ; ; -~
 784 Discrc rc Elccrro ni cs Circui ts a nd Its Appli ca tions
Oscillator Circuits 785
2. Choos,· ,1 v;tluL• 11( c,1pacito r c.
.1. fi nd th L' va lut• of R using equation ./., = __ I _ Let S = jrn
2rrRC
13= 1 +S(jiff) 2 -j [ 6/j,/f)-/j,/f) J]
. (18.8)
-1. Cho0SL' a v,1luc of R,,.
5. f ind tlw 1·,1lu,• 0( R,, using rn ndition . R,, =2R
Where,/1 = 1/21tRC
Example 1. /i1 11 W1c11 brid<.;c vsn l/nto 1if 1I ' For A 0 P = I, Pshould be real. So the imaginary term in the above equation must be
r:
oscil/11tio11 i.~ 1(/ kHz. find the un/u r, u,r cnp11c1tur
- C. 11 ,,1
It unlut> vf R is 100 kQ, n11rl Ji-eq11 ,.11 ,._
equal to zero, that is;
1

Solution. The opcra tin5 frequen.:y of a

1
'
w· b 'd .
•en n ge oscillator is given by/= _ _I __
2rrRC
~(1J-(1r =O

Therefore, C = - - = ~-=-::-:::---.--- - or,

2rr Rf 2rr X 100 X 10J X 10 X 10J = 159pF.
1 0.065
8.9 PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
The frequency of oscillation / 0 is given by,/0 = ./66 (27tCR) RC
... (18.9)

Also, the loop gain

.9.1 Phase Shift Oscillator (Operational Amplifier Circuit) A,
or, 2
An e.x ample of an oscillator circuit that follows th .
circuit is the phase shift oscillator F. h e basic development of a feedback
· igure 18 ·6 s ows the c; · t Of h • 1-5(¾)
The operational amplifier provides a phase shift of 1 ._rc_ui a _P ase_shift oscillator.
0

d b th 80 as it is used Ill the mvertmg mode or, A,,~ -29 .. . (18.10)

and rema ming 1800 phase shift i·s
. pro uce Y ree RC netw k Th· f
1s usually referred to as ladder netwo k Tl th or · is orm of RC lavout From this expression, we observe that the gain of the inverting operational amplifier
(or 00)_ If AP is greater than unity at :
thir ius . el total phase shift around the loop is .360" should be at least 29 or feedback resistance ~ = 29 R1 •
s particu ar frequency ·11 t·
transfer function of the RC n t k b . • • osci a ions can ~tart. The The gain A, is kept greater than 29 to ensure that variations in circuit parameters
e wor can e calculated as
with not make I Avl3 I < 1, otherwise oscillations will die out.
f --------------1/ Amplifier
Since there are three stages, the total loss for the feedback network will be 0.125.

~
Therefore, the inverting amplifier needs a gain of 8 in order to set the Aji product unity.

I ,------N,,,._...~ I Phase shift oscillator is particularly suited to the range of frequency from several
hertz to several hundred kilohertz.
Design procedure:

r,. . . ...., ,,: , , , , ,. ,

1. Select the frequency of oscillations /o-
2. Choose a suitable value of capacitor C.
I = I

1 = 0.065
3. Calculate the value of resistor R using equation / 0 = ./6 RC
6 (27tCR)
4. Choose a suitable value of resistor R 1 so that R1 ~ IOR to avoid loading of amplifier
due to RC network.

v, /... :~.t~.!•.b····· ·· ·( •-~··-

Fig. IS.6 Phase shift oscillator circuit
18.9.2
5. Calculate the value of resistor ly using condition R1 = 29R 1

Phase Shift Transistor Oscillator (Transistor Circuit)

p = VJ = - ~ - ~ - - - - - Figure 18.7(a) shows the circuit diagram of phase shift transistor oscillator. To obtain a
I 6R 6 , , I ... (18.7)
Vo
+- C+, R-c- +- R3CJ positive feedback essential for oscillations, the frequency determining circuit must
S s- 5.1 introduce a phase shift of 180°. This is obtained with three cascade section RC, each
shiftin~ the signal by 60°.
 Osci llato r Circuits 789
and Its App licat ions
88 Discrete Electronics Circ uits

FreqUetlcy
and hf, = 56
D"""""n,ng
Rt = R, /'fr shou ld be 56 for
sust aine d oscillarirni De-lice
the phas e shif t oscillators with
So for
shift oscillator , if the value of R =R =R =200 kn, 1111,1
Example 2. /11 an RC_plzase . •1 1 3
the frequ ency of the oscillator
C1 = C1 = C3 = 100 pF. Find
r is give n by,
Feedbaci<
Network
e---- - - -.....-- - Oulpu t

tl1e RC phas e shift osci llato

Solu tion . The freq uenc y of
I 1 Amplif ier

f= ~ = 21tx 200 x]03 xIO Ox1 0-u x./6

=3.2 48kH z

fig. 18.9 LCoscilla1or

FEE DBA CK CIR CUI TS
10 OSC ILL ATO RS WIT H LC
use reso nant circuits consistin
Some sine -wav e osci llato rs reso nant circu
circu it in whic h a
For example, reca ll the tank
cito r, prod ucin g a sine wav
in the indu ctor and capa
circu it, oscillations wou ld
internal resis tanc es in a tank
reso nant circu it does, how
in figure 18.8, view (a) . Each es the amp litud e to decrease, as show
which diss ipat es pow er. This
pow er Joss caus
ctio n of amp litud e in an osci
views (b) and (c). The redu
dam ping . Dam ping is caus
ed by both tank and load
amo unt of dam ping . Load ing
resistance, tlie grea ter the . The
resis tanc e of tlie tank
as incr easi ng the inte rnal
nera tive feedback.
over com e by appl ying rege
t. The
lo begm · wha t 1s · kn own as the flywheel effec
· The amplifier supp ·
lies ener gy
in a circuit in tlie_inter:aJs
between
g of indu ctan ce and capacitan
cl'. n wheel effect is the main tena nce of oscil latio ns
tank circuit alternately stored
~nergy m the mdu~t;;; a;:~
p~lses of excitation energy. The e
it store s ener gy alternately
ides initia l oscil latio ns. A portion of the oulJ:'ul o
a acilor. The LC netw ork prov the regenerahve-feed~ack
e. If there were absolutely
no
t of the amp lifier thro ugh
~efwork is then returned to
the inpu
to develop oscillations
cont inue inde finit ely, as shown
ns. When a tank circuit is used
twork to susta in the oscillatio the resonant frequency
ever , cont ain som e resistancl
'
ency of the oscil lator is prim ~y
~e an oscillato~, the outp ut frequ
n in
= -- -
,f[c ... (18. 18)
llato r circuit is referred to
as be founa bY th e formula·· f,, 2Jt
of the tank circm·t and can
resis tanc es. The larg er tJie· tank ley, Oap p and Crystal
oscillators are the Colpitts, Hart
The mos t commonly used LC
l
tlie tank causes tlie same effec
effec t of this dam ping can be Controlled Oscillators.
Colp itts Osc illat or

Jnnnnr
18.1 0.1 .
Osnllator .
18.10.1 .1 Operational Amplifier Colpitts n m figur e 18.10 . The figure

U OU U U
illator circuit is showand
Undamped 1
An operation 1 al amp
.. C I .
lifie r o rtts
osc tis through both C C2- The voltage across C2
is tlie feedback
voltage dev; lope d across CI
Time
(a)
Oscillation
l::.:
~shl~1::~~ i~;a ;~~~a~;~~:,:~ v:l~ ~~:: nd the
voltage(VJ>- 100 kll
R,=

J (\ n7 7l\vnvr
V V Time-
Oscillations In a Tuned
Circuil Having Low
Series Resislance
v,
R,=1 0kll
(b)

\T \T V 7 7 c> L
-- -- , lnpul
Time__.
Osclllallons in a Tuned
Clrcull Having High
Series Resislance
Oulpol
1 --
c:L-
(c)

Fig. 18.8 Effects ofdamping

ram of a typical LC oscillator
. Notice that tlie oscillator
= -'-
~T-~ -~
v, v..,
co/pins oscil/ aJor
Figu re 18.9 show s a block diag latio ns: amp lification, a frequency- Fig. IS.IO Operational amplifier
irem ents for sust aine d oscil
cont ains the thre e basic requ .
nera tive feedback
dete rmin ing devi ce, and rege
L &IF
 V ) Ll fldLU r \... l( L Ul l) I _., 1

The operation al amplifie r provides the basic amplific

ation needed while the oscilbto r
frequ ency is set by LC feedback network of a Colpitts Opcr,,tio n: .
configur ation . When the switch (SW) is closed, the capac1tor RC, and C2 . d Tht-se c;i ;Jci tors
The expressio n for the attenuat ion (B) is: · · · · arc charge · hP .
~re discharg ed through the inductan ce L and there b . d mped a rrnon1 c
• y set up J . ·u cr
oscilla tions in the tank ci rcuit. The osc1' II a 1·ions acros s C . are applied to the base erni .
I • . ff' d bac k
junction and appears in the amplifie d fo rm In the coll ector
B- VJ - !Xe, = ~ = ~ - C2 depends upon the relative capacita nce va lue of C1 and
c1r~u1t. The a~ountf ~ e: ma llcr
V001 !Xe, Xe, __I _ - C .. . (18.19) C2, Higher the va ue O 1'
1 the feedback .
2n/C 2
Analysis:
The oscillato r frequenc y is given by,/ =
0 ~ .. . (18.20) Figure 18.Jl(u) shows the equivale nt ci rcuit of colpitts
2n,;LC,.,1 oscillato rs.
C1C2
Where,C ,1 = - C Let Cs= c,Cz , then the circuit equation may be written as :
C
1+ 2 . C1C2
JS.10.1.2 Transistor Colpitts Oscillator j(wL- -'-)11 -_}_ 1,, + ..J_C
. I, = 0 ... (18.21)
A transistor colpitts oscillato r can be made as shown in wCs CJJC1 w 1
figure 18.1 l(a). In this circuit the
parallel
combina tion of C, and R, conjunct ion with R and
1 Rz combina tion provides self- - _}_ l1 + (ri, + r, - ..1..)1. + r,lc = 0 ,,. (18.22)
bias. This type of oscillato r uses an LC circuit in the
necessary
feedback loop to provide the
phase shift and to act as a resonant filter that passes only
we, coc,
the desired frequenc y
of oscillation.
_i_1 1 + (r, -r,,,)l . +(r, +rc -r,,,- w~ )fc=O .. . (18.23)
The frequenc y determi ning network is made up of wC 2 2
inductan ce L and capacito rs C
and Cz.The function of Cc is to block de and provide an ac 1 Translslor
path from collector to the tank ,. . . . . .............. .. ................. I

circuit. RFC (Radio frequenc y choke) provides the

collector and also prevents ac signal from entering the
necessar y de load resistanc e fo r ! rb re !
de supply V" . The capacito r Cb
conveys feedback from collecto r to base circuit.

f-'lg . JS. I I (b) Eq11/va/ellf clrc11/1 of colpitts

ror oscillatio ns to occur, the determin a nt of the above
equatioll.5 must be zero
Equating it to zero, the real and imagi~ar y terms af the
determin ill\l separate ly, we obtain
the conditio n of feedback and operatin g frequenc y . Hence,

{wL-
j
~J wC1
-I _,_
·
wC2

- wC1 (,. + ,,. - oobJ ,;. =0

Flg.18.l l /a) A bias co/pills oscillator wi1h a BIT as the gain element
i
olC 2
(r,. - r,,,) (,, + 'c - r., - JJ
 Oscillato r Circuits 793
792 Discrete Electroni cs Circuits and Its Applicati ons

'l col- ~J{(rb+r, - ~J(r,+re- r., -1J-r, (r, _ r.,)} or (col - ~ J A - w2 1 dcJ- c)d+~J=o w' ~ 1 1
.. . ( [8.26)

where, A= (r1, + r,)(r, + rc-r,,,)

{(r,)(~J-(o~J(r..
- ~
1
~J} +rc-r., -
=J_ (
1
..
1
)
... (18.27)
From equation (18.26), we get:/ 21t lCs . AC1C2

{(~)(r,-rm
+~ )- ~)rb+ r,-~J}
2
=0
This equ ation gives the frEquency of oscillations.
µF . IfH,e frequ_ency of
Example 3. f11 the Colpitts osciflator, C1 = 0.2 µF and C1 = 0.02
Now equating reaJ parts to zero, we have, required gam fo r osaflatwn.
tire oscillator is 10 kHz, find tire value of the inductor. Also find tire

. . . given +C
. by,f = JJCLC,C 7t
1 2
·
Solution . The frequency of Colpitts osaUator IS
2 2

+{ cor,-rn,
2
+ rb+r, }=O
co 2C~
C1 +C2 O.Z2xl0-
6
= 13.392mH
C1C 2 J1
Therefore , L = 47t2 Ci Ci 6
4it2 x (10 x 103 J2 x 0.2 x 10- x 0.02 x 10-
6

or (col- _l_)(rb + r, + r, +re-rm)+ r, + re -r., + rb +r, + Zr, - r., - 6

co2c2 co2c2 ,,,2c C - 0 . .. (1824) 02 x 10- _ 10_
The voltage gain required to produce oscillatio n is A . > S.
wCs wC 2 wC 1 2 ~ I 2
l
C2 0.02 X 10- 6
the resonant frequency of
The frequ~cy at which oscillatio n starts is very near to
resonant cucu1t,
1 18.10.2 VCO Topolog y
i.e., col - - - = o. ion of a practical RF VCO, the
wCs While several oscillator topologie s are viable for construct
proven successfu l in many commerc ial VCO modules and countless discrete
one that has
It maybe assumed that r,< < rm 18.12). This topology is
VCO circuits is the Colpitts common- collector topology (figure
to RF.
Therefore equation (18.24), then becomes, useful for a wid e range of operating frequenci es, from IF
r,+rc-r.,+ rb +r,+Zr,-r,.. _ 0
oi2cf ro 2C~ ro 2C1C 2 -

or (rb r-
+r,{~ rm(~ )+(r, -r,..) =0 .. . (18.25)
TANK
c,

~r
Since r, << r., equation (18.25)·is quadratic, hence

s__ rm+J{r;,-4(rb+r, Xr, -r.. )}

C2 - Z(rb + r,)
The 2nd term in square root is small in comparis on to , 111
• Fig. 18.12 The basic co/pins oscillillor
s~ r,,,+r,,, ~--L
may be construc ted with
C2 2(rb+r, ) (rb+r,) A flexible, low-cost, and reasonabl y high-perf ormance VCO
surface-m ount inductor
an inductor- capacitor (LC) tank circuit consistin g of a low-cost
Equating the imaginary part to zero, we get: circuit controllin g the
and varactor diode. The oscillator tank is a parallel-r esonant
changes the oscillatio n
oscillation frequency ; any change in the inductor or capacitor
( mL- ~ ){(rb + ,;.)(,;. + r, -r.,)-7m 2"c}-
1 2
_3_1_2-
co c 1 C2
_ _l _ =0
ro 3C 1C~ frequency . The inductor and varactor can implemen t the variable
resonanc e as a parallel-
_ s or series-mo de network.

b
94 Discrete Electron ics Circuits and Its Applications
Oscillator Circuits 795

The parallel-mod e network may be used at lower frequen cies where large-vahll'
va ractors arc 1mpr,1c lical and the inductor value can be made larger. The parallel-mmlt· lo = ~ , Cr =Cv +C121
configurati on a lso permits a straightforward analysis of the oscillator. 2it 11 L x Cr

Vee Where, C - CvAR x Co C - C1 x C2 .. . (18.28)

v - CvAR +Co ' 12 - C1 +C2
Calculate the quality factor of the resonant tank circuit (QT) as follows:

Q - l R -~ xRs
v- 2it x Cv x R x J ' oc - v
5 0
REQ
Qr= ----=-,Rf:Q =RoL II Roe ... (18.29)
21t x L x l 0
Es timate the oscillation amplitude as follows:

V
o
=2 x l Q x R EQ
x~
Jo(~)
Fig. 18.13 Use of the co/pills topology in a VCO
·nie oscillator is generalized with a feedback-amplifier model of the circuit. Expressions Y0 :J0 x REQ x l.4 ... (1830)
for the exact oscillation frequency may be derived by equating impedances in that model, Calculate the loop gain and startup criteria as follows:
1 but those expressions are cumbersome and provide HIile insight into the design process. 1
· = g111 x R EQ x-;;,
Loop gam +½
where n = Ci Cz ... (1831)
Alternatively, the Colpitts oscillator can be analyzed in a simpler but less accurate
manner, which provides a set of design equations that are clearer, more insightful, and
S . . gm REQ
useful for first-order oscillator d esign. First, the Colpitts oscillator may be redrawn as an tartup cntena: (2it x lo x Ci) (21t x lox C2) » .•. (18.32)
Q~ '
LC amplifier with positive feedback (figure 18.14). This view is useful in calculating the
loop gain, oscillation amplitude, and phase noise. To predict startup behavior and minimum 2:1 ratio
011ciflation frequency, the original circuit can also be redrawn as a negative impedance Calculate the Colpitts oscillator phase noise (PN) at an offset frequency(/,,,) from the
p lus resonator structure (figure 18.15). Equations from these two views are combined as carrier as follows:
a ~ct of governing equations for U1c Colpitts oscillator . 2

Vee
PN= i~ x-¼-x(_h._) xRk, . .. (18.33)
r·- -· / V0 2Q0 J.,
JXc 18.10.3 Hartley Oscillator
I
18.10.3.1 Transistor Hartley Oscillator

l_ _ Oaclllalor
Dovlco RN
The Hartlay oscillator is similar to the Colpitts oscillator except that the feedback circuit
consists of two series inductance and a parallel capacitor. Figure 18.16(a) shows the
circuit of a shunt fed Hartley oscillator using a transistor in CE configuration.
In this circuit the parallel combination of R, and C, in conjunction with R and R
1 2
Roqulron RL " RN combination provides self bias. The resistances R1, Ri and R, and the supply voltage Vcc
establish the de operating point. Capacitors Cb and C, are respectively the blocking
17lg.18.l4 /,Campl/flermodel Fig. 18.1 S Reflect/011 amplifier model capacitor and by pass capacitor. Jhe frequency determining network is made up of the
D118lc: Oc8ign Bquatlon1:1 for the Colpitts Oscillator: variable capacitor C and the inductors L1 and Li· The coil Li is inductively coupled to
L2 and the combination forms an auto transformer. Since the transistor operates in the CE
Ignoring pnra1:1ltic elcmcntli, the basic equ ations for this analysis assume that Cc > C
1 mode, it introduces a phase shift of 180° between its input and output voltages. A part
t nd C 2, and C1 > Cit (Cit is th e base-emitter capacita.nce). Calculate the oscillation of this voltage appearing across the inductance L1, is the feedback voltage. The feedback
frequ ency (j0 ) as follow s: voltage ls 180° out of phase with the output voltage. Thus the total phase change becomes
360° or 0°. This makes the feedback positive which is the essential requirement for
,.........____ .... ~,c~uvrncs Lircu1cs and Its Applications

Oscillator Circuits 797

oscilla tor. Radio frequency choke (RFC) provides de load for the collector and also kt,,, ,,.
ac current ou t of the de supply Vcc . The reactance of RFC is higher than Li and lwn,1,. The impeda nce 2 1 and input resistance h;,. are in parallel and hence the equivalent
may be omitted fro m the equivalent circuit.
impedance z; is given by, 2 ' 1 = z, 11 h;,.
Circuit Operation:
Now the load impedance ZL between output terminal 2 and 3 is equivalent lo the
When, the switch _(SW) i: closed , collector current star~s rising and charges 11 1,, eqLJiva len t impedance of Zz in parallel with the series combination of 2; and ZJ. Hence,
cap 3 citor. When ca pacitor C 1s full y charged, it discharges through L and L . Now
1 1 I I 2 3 + z; + Z 2
damped ha rmoni c oscillations are set up in the tank circuit. The oscilla tions aioss I, 'z;:- = z;+ 2 3+z; = 2 2 (2 3 + Z;)
are applied to _the _input circuit_ (ba~e emitter junction) and appear in the amplified forn:
in the outpu t circuit (collector circuit). Feedback of energy from collector-emitter circuit 111
or
~=
Zz (23 +z;)
the base-emitter circuit is accomplished by means of mutual inductance between L and J,., 22+(½+z;)
1
Jn this way energy is continuously supplied to the tank circuit to overcome the Joss,:.,
occurring in it. So continuous un-damped output is obtained. The vo ltage gain without feedback is given by, A., = - (ht, ZL/lz;,) · ·· (18.34)

Theory: In order to obtain the feedback fraction p, we consider the output voltage between the
terminals 2 and 3. The output voltage is given by, V 0 = l1(Z'1 + Z:i) ·· · (18.35)
The general equivalent circuit is shown in figure 18.16(c)
The voltage feedback to the input terminals 1 and 2 is given by,
V/f>=I 1 Z '1
Therefore, P= Vfo/Vo =2;1(2; +Z:i) .. . (18.36)
Applying the condition A"" p = 1 for osciJJation, we get

- ".r, zL x __z_;_ =I
11;,. (23 +Z;)
Subs tituting the value of 2L we have,

"1, x 22 (z; +23) x --2_;_ -1

h,, 22+(23+2;) (2;+zJ)

or l,f, X 2z2; = -1
h;, Zz +(23 +2;)
C
h.r, x 22{ 21h;, 1(21 + 2;, )} =- l
or
7:;; 22+2J +{z1 h;,1(2 1 +2;,)}
C
(a) Shunt-fed Hartley oscilfator (b) AC equivalent circuit of Hartley oscilfator ltfi. [ 2122h;, ] = -1
or h;,. 22(21 +h;,.)+23(21 +h;,)+21lz;,
or lift, 2 1Zz = - Zz(2 1+ Ii;,) - 2 3(2 1+ Ii;,) - 2 1/z;,
or 2 1Zz(lift.) + 2 1Zz + Zzlt;, + 2 12:Jh.- + 2 11z;, = 0
or It;,, (2 1 + l,i + 2 3) + 2 12 2(1 + lzt,) + 212:J = 0 ... (1837)
This is the general equation for the oscillation.
Suppose in Hartle oscillato•r, the resistance of inductors are negligibly small and M
be the mutual inductance between the inductors. Now we have,
L __ _ _ __ , z, _______, 2 1 = jwL1 + jwM, Z2 = jwli + jwM, ~ = 1/ jox
Substituting these values in the above equation, we have
(c) General equivalent circuit of Hartfey oscilfator
II 1,UwL1 + jwM) + (jwli +jwM) -j I coc I+ (jwL1 + jwM)(jwli + jwM)(l + hi,)
Fig.18.16 + (jwli + jwM)(-j I ox)= 0
 /798 Dlscreu: Eli,cr:ron ks Ci rculLs and It s Appl lcntion s O scillator Circu its 799

or
ii,,, /111I L, + l.1 + 2M - ( I /ui21')1 - r,>2(L, t· M)( L2 ·t· M)( l 1· hr,,) + ((I ., ·I M) /Ci ti
T he ln duc tom L 1 and 1. 1 h ,1ve a m uluJI co upling, M, w h ic h mu s t be take n into
.. . /fH'l/lJ acco unl in d e te rm in in g the 1•q u iva le nl impe d a nce fo r the re1mna nt ta n k ci rc u il. Th e
Th •r •fo 1· • II f nry , 111
'-' u '-', W ruqu (•ncy of OHci lf ll lor cm, bl! ob1 11 hwd by equ11 1ln1,11hu im,wln 1' opern llon ,md th e thcio ry a rc lhe ~a m e of tra ntt islo r ised ci rc u il. The freq ue n cy o f osci lla ti o n
Of il llll VI! N JUill 1un l o zero O

1., + l.2 ➔· 2M - /1 / co c) = ()
2
i1, g ive n by,!,, "' ~ ... ( II-S.43)
01'
r,,2c -= I /(L 1 1- L2 -1- 2M) 2it,; L,,1C
or 1 Whe re, L,,1 = L1 + l:i + 2M
JO-,
CJlu "' + L2 + 2M)C ... (IH.:1'1)
Example 4. Ill tltc Hartley oscillator. L2 = 0.4 111H and C = 0.004 µF. If lite frequency of
lite oscillator is 120 kHz, find lite value of L1• Neglect tlte 11111/ ual i11d11cta11cc:.
Therefore, J. I
""' 2n j(L 1 + Lz + 2M)C ... (11!/10) 1
Solution. The frequency of Hartley osci llator is given by, f =
Writing L, + L2 = L, the total inductance of the coll and neglecti'n g M, we h ave, 2it.J(L 1 + L2 )C
1
1 0 .4 x 10 - 3 = 0.04 mH
1,, .. 2nJfE ... (18.41)
Th e re fore, L1 = 4rc2fc· - L2 41t2 x (120 x 103}2 x 0.004 x 10-6
. From equation (18.41) we find that the frequency of oscillations is a roxlmatel
given by the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. Note that th b '
m pp • y
ea ove equation llw
✓
mutual i d t M b
. n uc ance etween L1 and L2 has been neglected. The condition for h1, 18.11 TUNED COLLECTOR OSCILLATOR
maintenance of the oscillation can be obtained by equating the real t f !
(18.26) to zero. Thus, par o equation
Figure 18.1?(a) shows the circuit of tuned collection oscillator in CE configuration. It
- CJ/(L1 + M)(l:i + M)(l + 1z1,.) + l(L 1 + M) / C) = 0 consis ts of a turned circuit L1C 1 in collector and hence the name. The resistors R1, R2, R,.
or 1 +h = 1 _ (L1 + L2 + 2M)C and suppl y voltage Vre establish the de operating point for the transistor. The combination
'Jc (L2 + M) ro 2C - (L 2 + M)C L1 and C 1 forms the oscillatory circuit to set the frequency of oscillation. Hence C 1 is a
variable capacitor and L 1 forms the primary winding of a step down transformer. The
l'J, = (L1 + L2 + 2M)C l = (L 1 + M) capacitor Cr is the emitter by pass capacitor so that resistor R,. has no effect on ac
(L 2 + M) C (Li + M) .. . (18.42) operation of the circuit. A feedback coil Lz in the base circuit is magnetically coupled to
' Equation (18.42) gives the condition for the maintenance of oscillations. the tank circuit coil L1• Since transistor is connected in CE configuration, it indroduce 180°

r-10.3.2 FET Hartley ~scilla~or

A FET Hartley oscillator JS shown in the following figure.

Fig. 18.17 (a) Turned collector osdllator

phase shift between its input and output voltages. Another phase shift of 180° is provided
by transformer. In this way a phase shift of 360° appears between output and input
voltages resulting in a positive feedback . The capacitor C2 connected in base circuit
FET Hartley oscillator provides low resistance path to the oscillations.
 Oscillator Circuits 801
)0 Discrete Electronics Circuits and Its Applications

According to Barkhausen Criterion for sinusoidal oscillations

M
B le IL IAwPI = 1
I
L, or P= IA!
IA,., I
hoo c,
lb h1olb R Voltage introduced in the secondary _ - jroMlt
Where, p= Voltage across the primary coil (R + jwL1) 1L

... (18.46)
or, P{R= ~
+ jroL } 1
Fig. 18.17 (b) Equivalent circuit of turned collector oscillator using CE hybrid model
Putting the values of A,,, and~ from equations (18.44) and (18.46) in equation (IS.4S)
Circuit Operation: we have :
When switch (Sw) is closed, collector current starts increasing and capacitor C 1 jwM h1, +llhZt __!!k.._+ M
charges. When this capacitor (C 1) is fully charged, it discharges through coil L 1, setting R + jroL1 = 1z,,zL lz1,Zt h1,
up natural oscillation in the tank circuit. These oscillations induce a small voltage in the
coil (L) by mutual induction. The induced voltage across Li is applied between emitter jroMf, = hiL + M
or
and base and thus causes corresponding variation in base current. The variations in lb R+ jroL1 Zt
are amplified P times and appear in collector circuit. A part of the energy is supplying Substituting the value of Zv we have,
the losses occurring in the tank circuit and the rest .Jf the energy is radiated out in the
form of electromagnetic waves. jroMh
___
2
C
hi, {(1-w L1 1)+ jroc1
fe_ = _.!,;....----,-----+ M
R}
Analysis: (R + jroL1} (R + jwLi)
Figure 18.17(b) shows the ac equivalent circuit of the oscillator, using CE hybrid jwMhfe = h;, (1 -ciLiC 1) + jroC 1Rh;, + M(R + jroL1)
or
model. Here it is assumed that h" = 0. = h;, - h1,w2L1C1 + jroC 1Rh1, + MR+ 1roLiM
= (h;,,-h1,ro2L1C1+ M.R) + jw (C 1Rh;, + ML1)
-h Z 4
The voltage gain without feedback is given by, A,,, = __fi_, _L_ .. . (18.44) or (11 - -It· ro2 L C 1 +MR)+ jro (C 1Rh;, + ML1- Mh,,.) = 0 ... (lB. 7)
h;, + llhZL 1
The re;! a~~ imaginary parts of equation (18.47) must separa~ely be ~ero._Equating
Where, Af1 = h;,hoc - h,,h1, and Zt is the equivalent impedance of the capacitive
the real part to zero, we get the frequency of oscillations and equatmg the tmagmary part
1
reactance - - and impedance (R + jroL1) in parallel. The negative sign in equation to zero, we get the condition for sustained oscillators.
roe:1
(18.44) indicates a phase shift of 180°. Equating the real pa~t to zero, we get,
1 1 1 h;,. - /1;,w2 L1C 1 + M.R = 0
Here, 1-w2 L1C1 + (MR/h;,,) = 0
Zt = (R + jroL1) + 1/jroC1
w2 L 1C1 = 1 + (M.R/h;,)
1
= - -- + jroC1 1 pR.M)
R+ jroL1
W= JL,C1 -~ll+,;;:-J
(1 + jroC1)(R + jroli)
R+ jroL 1 The frequency of oscillation is given by,/=
2
7t J~iCt · ( 1 + R/~~) . . (lS.4B)
2
_ 1 + jroC1R - ro L1C1 Since 6/J and R are small and h;, is large, hence the frequency of oscillation is given
- R+ jroL1 ... (18.49)
1

or zL = I+ jwL 1 ...(18.45)
by,/= 21tUi
)+
(R-lo 2 L1C1 jC 1R 1 Now equating the imaginary part t~ zero, we have
C1R h;, + L1/llt - Mhfr = 0
~ Discrete Electronics Circuits and Its Applications Oscillator CircuiC5 803

or C 1RI,". + L1Lll, = Mh1, This circuit is called an Armstrong oscillator to honor Majo r Armstrong, who in vented
the regenerative receiver, and much else besides in radio. He added the tickler co, / L..z th "'
Therefore, M = C1Rl1;, + L1Lllt provides positive feedback . If Lor C is varied, the frequency of oscillation changes, a nd
(11150)
,,fr we have a variablejrequency oscillator, or VFO. LC tuned circuits do not provid~ good
Mis the minimum va lue of mutual inductance which is necessary so that the cirrnl l frequency control, but with effort relatively stable VFO's can be built. Oscillators w' th aor-
may osci llate. core inductances are quite practical at radio frequencies (above, say 250 ~Hz~. Nole th ~t
the inductance of an air-core coil is not affected by de in the coil. The cirnut shown 5

JS.12 TUNED GATE OSCILLATORS

Fig_ure 18.18(a) shows a tuned gate oscillator circuit. Q is an FET, with high input
res1Stance and self-Limiting drain current, both of which features are important here. A
tnode vacuum tube could also be used, which has the same characteristics. When lht•
circuit is quiescent, the resistor R,, called a grid leak (from vacuum-tube days) provide•
VGS = 0, and so the drain current is loss, and the FET is prepared to amplify.
Voo
Lz
called seriesjed because the bi:15 and si~al no"'. in the same _drain circuit
supply should be bypassed with a capaotor so ,t IS a good signal ground) .
<~.,r;;;:~~
.
could also be shunt-fed, as in the Pierce oscillator above, by using an RFC ;ind a capaet tor
to separate bias and signal.
Two mod es of feedback are shown in figure 18.IS(c). In the Hartley circuit, th e
inductor is lapped to match the low impedance of the collector drcu i_t (or plate, for a tube),
while the other end supplies the base (or grid). Only one capacitor IS used , which makes
tuning easy. The Colpitts circuit does not require a tapped inductor, but uses two
capacitors as a capacitive voltage d ivider . The phase is opposite at the two ends of the
tuned circuit, providing the necessary positi,ie feedback. The frequency IS/ = I /2,r,/ LC.
In usual high-frequency RF circuits, L is in µH and C in pF.
•12V

M;12
~- cl
C

I
1N
4148 100
L, R,, µF

out

Fig. 18.18 (a) Armstrong 1un~d gau oscillator

The tuned circuit L 1C provide~ an oscillating voltage to the gate through blocking
capacitor CK when ex~ted. The dram current then varies sympathetically, and is coupled
through the mutu_al ".'ductance M 12 to the tuned circuit. If the polarities are properly
arranged, the osollahons m the tuned circuit are encouraged, and if the losses are
counterbalanced, the oscillations continue and even increase. When · the gate becomes
posihve by about 0.7 V, current through R, pulls the gate negative, decreasing the gain
until the losses are JUSI compensated, and the amplitude of oscillation is steady. When
this occurs, the gale becomes quite negative, even beyond cutoff, and the drain current
decreases. All the oscillators studied below operate in this way. The diode Dis there o nly
to ease the load on the gate when starting; it has no effect when the oscillator is in
operation.
Hartley Colpitts
Fig. 18.18 (b) Oscillator feedback
Hartley osdUator
F,c. 18.IS(d
A modification of the Colpitts circuit, called a Clapp oscillator, is shown in figure
18. IS(c). This circuit can be' built and tested. The tuning capacitor is in series with the
inductance; here, ii is a fixed capacitor. but in a VFO it would be variable. All three
capacitors are 0.001 µFin this circuit, lwt in a practical circuit, the capacitance in series
with the inductor would be much smaller than the other two (perhaps SO pF), and would
give a considerable range of frequencies. The inductor was a 120 µH ferrite core inducto r
I happened lo have on hand. The 1 mH inductor in the source lead is a radio-frequency
choke or RFC, designed to retain its inductance when a reasonable de current passes
through it. Here, it separates the bias circuit from the RF circuit. The leads of the MPF
102 JFET are DSG, in that order, when looking at the fiat side of the package with the
leads downward.
This circuit gave a 5 V peak-to-peak signal at the source at a frequency of a bout 828
kHz, appropriate for a 120 µH inductor resonating with 1/3 nF the three .001 capacitors
in series. The average gate voltage was about - 4.5 V, which meant that the gate varied
from about - 10 V, well beyond cutoff, to +0.7 V, limited by the diode. The average drain
'
i g()4 Discrete Electronics Grcuits and Its Applications
,
The frequ.cncy for which a cr;s taJ is ~ou
nd 15
r err
O,.,ciflawr Cirwru;

· ef: ed In as 1.he n:atu raJ r=nant

--~ - -
2.0:5

•;il,ra ti=
current was 0.6 mA The JFET is operating as a Gass C amplifier in this circuit. Thie lied to the cn,yi;.tal prodtsea ,,__, ...,JC;J 1 I
frequency of the crys tal. Vo I tage app n1 f equP.OCV of the c r; st.aL
makes an excellent RF oscillator for other purposes, if you do not have a signal genl.'rnlor , which, in tum, produce an output voltage at the nat_ur~l rewria~J d;cu it comp<>red of
A Hartley oscillator is shown at the right of figure 18.18(c). It uses most of th" s.,nw A vibrating crys tal can be represented by an equrva ent e
components as the Clapp oscillator. A capacitor is necessary to block the gate bias vull,1Kf ca pacitance, inductance, and resistance, ,___ equ•·•, alen l
from the tuned circuit. The tuning capacitor is a 100 pf poly capacitor. Ll is a coil wound
I f tal · view' (b) s ,....,,, ,s an -
Figure 18.20, view (a), illustrates the sy.rnbo o a C:f5 . ,£ the sbl and the holder;
w ith 30 wire on a 1/2 "form.. It has 210 turns, tapped at the 45th tum, and is aboul 3• circuit for the crystaL View (c) shows an equivalent arcuJ\ ~ ho~
long. The tube makes a nice handle while winding the coil, and is cut off when th. Cl represents the capacitance between the meta.I plates o ·
winding is finished. The ends of the coil can be put through 60 holes in each end. Wh<-n
you get to the 45th turn, scrape off a little of the enamel with sandpaper and solde r lho
tap wire to it. The turns can be secured with coil dope, if you have it. If not, just UH<'
transparent tape or nail lacquer. Solder 22 leads to each of the three wires. l Electrodes
C'2

r--0
L1

1.8.13 CRYSTALS

Another frequency-determining device is the crystal The crystal may be used with a lank
TL__________
cry, 1a1
R1

circuit, or it may perform alone.. Crystals exhibit a characteristic known as the piezoelectric (b) Equivalent drcvit for the crystal
effect. The piezoelectric effect is the property of a crystal by which mechanical forces (a) Crystal symbol

l::
0
produce electrical charges and, conversely, electrical charges produce mechanical forces.
This effect is a form of oscillation similar to the flywheel effect of a tank circuit. 1ne
piezoelectric effect can be seen in a number of crystal substances. The most important of
these are the minerals quartz and Rochelle salt. Although quartz does not exhibit the L____-c, I
piezoelectric effect to the degree that Rochelle salt does, quartz is used for frequency

L____r__
control in oscillators because of its greater mechanical strength. Another·· •mineral,
tourmaline, is physically strong like quartz; but because it is more expensive, it is not used
e?(tensively. This discussion will deal only with the quartz crystal. The crystals used in
oscillator circuits are thin sheets, or wafers, cut from natural or synthetic quartz and
ground to a specific thickness to obtain the desired resonant frequency. The crystals are (c) Equivalent circuit for the crystal and holder
mounted in holders, which support them physically and provide electrodes by which
Fig. 18.20
voltage is applied. The holder must allow the crystals freedom for vibration. There are
~ - , d;fferen< <ypes of holde~- One fype is sho= in fig=e 18.19. The Q of a crystal is m~y times greater than that·of an LC tank dr~t. The high Q
is present because the resistance in the crystal is extremely small. Commeraally P:oduced
crystals range in Q from 5000 to 30000. The hig~ Q _cau~ _the frequency stab1ht~ to be
much greater than that of an ordinary LC tank circu11. This lS the reason a crystal lS used

'!}!>' in many sine-wave generator circuits.

~
®
18.13,1 Crystal Oscillators
Figure i8 .21 shows a crystal controlled oscillator circuit._ Here, it is~ Colpitts_oscillator
in which the inductor is replaced by the crystal. ln this type, a p1ezoelectrtc crystal,
usually quartz, is used as a resonant circuit replacin~ an LC circuit. The crys~ is a _thin

III
slice of piezoelectric material, such as quartz'. tourma~e and Rochelle salt, which exh1b1ts
a property called piezoelectric e!fect. The_ p1ezoelec_trtc effect means the crystal re~c~ to
any mechanical stress by producing electric charge; m the converse effect, an electnc field
results in mechanical strain.

Fig. 18.19 Crystal holder

• Discrete Electron ics Circuits and Its Applicat ions
Oscillaw r Circuits 807

Reacrance (X )

F,g. 18.21 Crystal osdllaror

t .
The aystal is suitably cut and polished to vibrate a a ~ frequency and mounted
between hvo metal plates as shown - fi
is shown in figure IB.22(b). 1he rati::'of ~ lB.22(a).
The eqwvale nt circuit of the crystal
series resonan t frequency is very cl h °C may be severaJ hundred or more so thal
ose to parallel resonan t ~~..,~ency. The resonan1
'----·
~~..,~-.r
~ - - - · is . .
. mverseJ y proporti onal to the thicl:n
be obtained . ess of the crystaL Resonan t frequenc ies
(c }
from 05 to 30 MHz can
{b) t:tearica l eqrarv/arl drCMil (c) The
F,g. 18.22 PiLZP t:learic CT]sr.al (aJ r,mbcl
rt:aaana funaion wile, R=O

Advanta ges:
Ille advanta ge of the crystal is it5 very high Q
as a resonan t cin:uit, which ~
R &equeoc y stability for the 05Cillat.oc. Howev:e r, since tbe recmam mquenc ies ol
good
crystals are tanpe:ra bue depende nt it i s ~ to endme the cry~ in a
~
J_ tempera ture controUed oven to adneYe t h e
~ ~ of the order 1 part in 1oi->.

c=J SUMM ARY

T 1. T h e ~ ~ pmride a Ji-eif
2. OscilJatD o att ded:zuai c circuit - 5
t al UIO" - i t •mad iD the ..,..ating m<:>de.
ID,,_ -
3. If lhl.- output vo&tag,e er cmmm Is» h a m ai a .m
bigb ~ ac 1liipal.
,e wa,,e wlds a,o,ped to ms-, ttw ~
is c::aJled a RDU50id al « haimoo,ic aidla!lrx .
4. If the output volDg,e d_,.. &:a. <me lewe
ID . , . , a - ~ - • ill a ~ - ~
(a)
« saw toad, - - . it is ailed a na:utiDl l ~
(b)
lillC ~
J1is,.1&.22 S. At freqaenq ~ 1 MHZ,. tn' CZD tzse
-...d;
'- m 5 e ! f ~ ~ t w o ~ - b e -
C.,) The magmt:udr ci w l,x,p pa A;II - be t:qial to L
foe pwalleJ - rr,,,uency ,. givm .,,, 'I, a ~ . . . . ~ - .........,
~) The leaf fi-e iWt ol ti!r kq, pia - - he
O".
7, 1hr amdsiaa b acillai:la n aa
---~
'1s)Tbe~lbft~h~~-
'·':'.1 · · ,
··:-"X/!6 givenby,oos=
1
JiE. TheQo ftheoys talisgiv enby,Q = ½~]
[ 1/2
.. (18..Sl)
a.
~ , Tbe ~ pa.. Ao,-- -' - d e a d
Tbe ewatial MIJ
~ kq, G:o;> ~ -
oi .- mc:illa x _, _.01!CS1ir.
~~=i i:!~
. ..... ~ a: ==-:r-
a.m;,lifia aad Bdl:aa mccit.