Chapter 9.

Vector in the Plane and in

Space

Le Cong Nhan

Faculty of Applied Sciences

HCMC University of Technology and Education

January 8, 2021

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 Contents

1 Vectors in R2

2 Coordinates and Vectors in R3

3 The Dot Product

4 The Cross Product

5 Lines in R3

6 Planes in R3

7 Quadratic Surfaces

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 9.1 Vectors in R2
Vector
A vector is a quantity (such as velocity and force) that has both magnitude
and direction. A vector is often represented by an arrow or a directed line
segment and denoted by
−→
v or ~v or PQ

The zero (or null) vector, denoted by 0, has length 0 with no specific direc-
tion.

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 Vector Operations
Let u and v be vectors and c ∈ R. Then
(1) Scalar multiplication: the scalar multiple cv is a vector
length kcvk = |c| kvk
direction is the same as v if c > 0 and is opposite to v if c < 0.
If c = 0 or v = 0, then cv = 0.
(2) Vector Addition: u + v is a vector formed by the Triangle Law.

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 Components of a Vector
If we place the initial point of a vector at the origin of a rectangular co-
ordinate system, then the terminal point of a has coordinates of the form
(a1 , a2 ) or (a1 , a2 , a3 ). These coordinates are called the components of a
and we write

a = ha1 , a2 i or a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i

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 Vector operations
(1) ha1 , a2 i = hb1 , b2 i ⇐⇒ a1 = b1 and a2 = b2
q
(2) If a = ha1 , a2 i then kak = a12 + a22
(3) Linear combination of the vectors a and b

λa + βb = hλa1 + βb1 , λa2 + βb2 i

(4) If P (a, b) and Q (c, d) are points in a coordinate plane, then the
vector
PQ = hc − a, d − bi.

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 Example 1
If u = h8, −2i and v = h−3, 5i, find s and t so that su + tv = w, where
w = h2, 8i

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 Example 2 (Using vectors in a velocity problem)
A river 4 mi wide flows south with a current of 5 mi/h, and for an exhibition,
the Earthrace must travel directly across the river from east to west past a
viewing stand in 20 min. What is the desired heading for the boat?

Figure: Earthrace

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 Standard Representation of Vectors in the Plane
Standard basis vectors in R2 : i = h1, 0i and j = h0, 1i . Then a vector
v = hv1 , v2 i can be expressed as follows

v = v1 i + v2 j.

Example 3
If u = 2i + 2j, v = −2i + 5j, and w = i − 4j, what is the standard
representation of the vector 2u + 5v − w?

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 Example 4
Two forces F1 and F2 act on the same body. Suppose that F1 has magnitude
3 newtons and acts in the direction of −i, whereas F2 has magnitude 2
newtons and acts in the direction of the unit vector
3 4
u = i − j.
5 5
What additional force F3 must be applied in order to keep the body at rest?

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 9.2 Coordinates and Vectors in R3

Figure: Coordinate system

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 Graphs in R3 : Planes, Sphere, Cylinders

Example 5
What surfaces in R3 are represented by the following equations?
a. z = 3 b. y = 5

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 Equation of a Sphere
An equation of a sphere with center C (h, k, l) and radius r is

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 + (z − l)2 = r 2

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 Vector in R3

Standard Representation of Vectors in the Space

Standard basis vectors in R3 : i = h1, 0, 0i, j = h0, 1, 0i and k = h0, 0, 1i.
Then a vector v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i can be expressed as follows

v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k.

Example 6
Find the magnitude of the vector v = 2i − 3j + 5k and the distance
between the points A (1, −1, −4) and B (−2, 3, 8).

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 Example 7
A vector PQ has initial point P(1, 0, −3) and length 3. Find Q so that
PQ is parallel to v = 2i − 3j + 6k.

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 9.3 The Dot Product

Definition 8 (The Dot Product)

If a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i, then the dot product of a and b is
the number a · b given by

a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3

If u, v, and w are vectors in R2 or R3 and c is a scalar, then

Magnitude of a vector v · v = kv k2
Zero product 0·v=0
Commutativity v·w=w·v
Scalar multiple c (v · w) = (cv) · w = v · (cw)
Distributivity u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w

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 Theorem 9
If θ is the angle between the vectors v and w, then

v · w = kvk kwk cos θ, 0≤θ≤π

If θ is the angle between the nonzero

vectors v and w, then
v·w
cos θ =
kvk kwk

It follows that

v ⊥ w ⇐⇒ v · w = 0

Figure: Angle between two vectors

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 Direction angles and Direction cosines

The direction cosines of the

vector a
a·i a1
cos α = =
kak kik kak
a·j a2
cos β = =
kak kjk kak
a·k a3
Figure: Direction angles α, β, γ of vector a
cos γ = =
kak kkk kak

cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1

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 Projections

Scalar projection v of onto w

v·w
compw v =
kwk

Vector projection v of onto w

 
v·w
Figure: Projection of v onto w propw v = v
kwk2

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 Work as a Dot Product

An object that moves along a line with displacement PQ against a constant

force F performs

W = F · PQ

Figure: Work as a Dot Product

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 Example 10
Suppose that a wind is blowing with a force F of magnitude 500 lb in
the direction of N30◦ E over a boat’s sail. How much work does the wind
perform in moving the boat in northerly direction a distance of 100 ft?

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 Example 11 (Exercise 51, p. 704)
A trunk is dragged 20 ft across a floor, using a force of 50 lb, as shown in
the figure. Find the work done if the direction of the force is inclined θ to
the horizontal, where
π π
a. θ = b. θ =
3 4

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 9.4 The Cross Product

Definition 12 (The Cross Product)

If a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i, then the cross product of a and b
is the vector

a × b = ha2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 i

 
i j k 

a × b = a1 a2 a3 
b1 b2 b3 
     
a a3  a1 a3  a1 a2 
=  2 i −  j + 
b1 b2  k
 (1)
b2 b3  b1 b3 

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 If θ is the angle between the vectors
a and b (so 0 ≤ θ ≤ π), then

ka × bk = kak kbk sin θ

As a consequence

a k b ⇐⇒ a × b = 0
Figure: The right-hand rule gives the
direction of a × b

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 Area of a parallelogram having a and
b as adjacent sides:

A =(base) × (height)
= kak (kbk sin θ) = ka × bk
Figure: Area of a parallelogram

Example 13
Find the area of the triangle with vertices P (−2, 4, 5), Q (0, 7, −4), and
R (−1, 5, 0).

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 Triple Product and Volume
The product (u × v) · w is called the scalar triple product of the vectors
u, v, and w
 
 u1 u2 u3 
 
(u × v) · w =  v1 v2 v3  (2)
w1 w2 w3 

Figure: Computing the volume of a parallelepiped

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 Volume of parallelepiped
The volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors u, v, and w is
the magnitude of their scalar triple product:

V = |(u × v) · w| (3)

Example 14
Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors
u = i − 2j + 3k, v = −4i + 7j − 11k, and w = 5i + 9j − k.

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 Torque
Consider a force F acting on a rigid body at a point given by a position
vector r. The torque τ (relative to the origin) is defined by

τ =r×F (4)

measures the tendency of the body to rotate about the origin.

The direction of the torque vector in-

dicates the axis of rotation and the
magnitude

kτ k = krk (kFk sin θ)

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 Example 15
A bolt is tightened by applying a 40-N force to a 0.25-m wrench as shown
in figure. Find the magnitude of the torque about the center of the bolt.

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 Example 16
Figure below shows the half-open door that is 3 ft wide. A horizontal force
of 30 lb is applied at the edge of the door. Find the torque of the force
about the hinge on the door.

Figure: Swinging door

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 Example 17 (Exercise 44, p. 715)
A 3-lb weight hangs from a rope at the end of Q of a 5-lb stick PQ that is
held at an angle 60◦ to the horizontal, as shown in Figure below. What is
the torque about the point P due to weight?

Figure: Finding the torque

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 9.5 Lines in R3

Parametric form of a line in R3

If L is a line that contains the point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and is aligned with the
vector v = Ai + Bj + C k, then the parametric equations for L is

x − x0 = tA, y − y0 = tB, z − z0 = tC

for parameter t.

Figure: L is aligned with v

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 Symmetric form of a line in R3
If L is a line that contains the point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and is aligned with the vector
v = Ai + Bj + C k, (A, B and C nonzero numbers), then the symmetric
equations for L is
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
A B C

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 9.6 Planes in R3

Point-normal form
A plane with normal vector N = Ai + Bj + C k that contains the point
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) has the Cartesian equation

A(x − x0 ) + B(y − y0 ) + C (z − z0 ) = 0

We can rewrite this equation in the

standard form

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0

The numbers [A, B, C ] are so-called

attitude numbers of the plane.
Figure: The graph of a plane
with attitude numbers [A, B, C ]

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 Example 18
Find an equation of the line that passes through the point Q (2, −1, 3) and
is orthogonal to the plane 3x − 7y + 5z + 55 = 0. Where does the line
intersect the plane?

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 Example 19
Find the standard form equation of a plane containing P (−1, 2, 1),
Q (0, −3, 2) and R (1, 1, −4).

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 Example 20
Find the equation of the line passing through (−1, 2, 3) that is parallel to
the line of intersection of the planes 3x − 2y + z = 4 and x + 2y + 3z = 5.

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 Example 21
Find the standard-form equation of the plane determined by the
intersecting lines
x −2 y +5 z +1 x +1 y z − 16
= = and = =
−3 −2 4 2 −1 5

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 Vector methods for measuring distances in R3

Distance form a point to a plane in R3

The distance form point P (x0 , y0 , z0 ) to the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
is given by

|QP · N| |Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 + D|

d= = √ (5)
kNk A2 + B 2 + C 2

Example 22
Find an equation for the sphere with center C (−3, 1, 5) that is tangent to
the plane 6x − 2y + 3z = 9

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 Example 23
Find the distance between the two skew lines
L1 : x = 1 + 2t y = −1 + t z = 2 + 4t
L2 : x = −2 + 4s y = −3s z = −1 + t

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 Distance form a point to a line in R3
The distance form point P to the line L is given by the formula

kv × QPk
d= (6)
kvk

where v is a vector parallel to L and Q is any point on L.

Figure: The distance form a point to a line in R3

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 Example 24
Find the distance from the point P(3, −8, 1) to the line

x −3 y +7 z +2
= = .
3 −1 5

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 9.7 Quadratic Surfaces

A quadric surface is the graph of a second-degree equation in three vari-

ables x, y , and z. The most general such equation is

Ax 2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Eyz + Fxz + Jx + Hy + Iz + J = 0 (7)

where A, B, C , ..., J are constants, but by translation and rotation it can

be brought into one of the two standard forms

Ax 2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + J = 0 or z = Ax 2 + By 2 (8)

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 Example 25
Use traces to sketch the quadric surface with equation

y2 z2
x2 + + =1
9 4

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 Example 26
Use traces to sketch the surface z = 4x 2 + y 2 .

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 Example 27
Sketch the surface z = y 2 − x 2 .

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 Example 28
x2 z2
Sketch the surface + y2 − =1
4 4

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 Example 29
Identify and sketch the surface 4x 2 − y 2 + 2z 2 + 4 = 0.

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 Example 30
Classify the quadric surface x 2 + 2z 2 − 6x − y − 10 = 0

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