Poonch Revolt Genesis of An Unending Crisis

Poonch Revolt 1947: Genesis of an Unending Crisis
Ossama Bin Mushtaq
Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

Department of History
2021
Candidate’s Declaration
I hereby declare that the BS Undergraduate thesis presently submitted, bearing the title:
“Poonch Revolt 1947: Genesis of an Unending Crisis” is the result of my own research and
has not been submitted at any other institute for any degree.
Ossama Bin Mushtaq
i
Supervisor’s Declaration
I hereby declare that the BS candidate Mr. Ossama Bin Mushtaq has completed his BS
undergraduate essay titled: “Poonch Revolt 1947: Genesis of an Unending Crisis” under my
supervision. I recommend it for the submission in candidacy for the Bachelor’s degree in
History.
Dr. Farooq Ahmad Dar
Associate Professor
Quaid-i-Azam University,
Department of History
ii
Acknowledgment
I am extremely grateful to Dr. Farooq Ahmed Dar for his invaluable assistance and support
with full encouragement and enthusiasm. He has been a great teacher, mentor, and supervisor,
offering instructions and motivation with a perfect blend of insight and humour. Throughout
my undergraduate degree program he remained my inspiration. He is so kind and
compassionate towards his disciples that we never hesitated to discuss things with him.
I want to pay special regards to all the staff of Dr. Razi-udin Siddiqi Memorial Library Quaid-
i-Azam University, Seminar Library Department of History, Seminar Library Department of
Pakistan Studies Quaid-i-Azam University, Research Institutes such as Institute of Regional
Studies Islamabad, and National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research for providing all
the necessary material which proved very helpful for my work.
I am indebted to my dearest friend Zunaira Asif, who stood by me when it seemed no one else
would. Whenever I get distracted from my work, she acted like a stimulus for me. I am so
grateful to all the members of Kashmiri Sangat QAU, particularly Ali Hamza from BS Political
Science. This work could not have been completed without his valuable feedback and support.
I would never forget the hospitality of Osama Ashraf Chohan and Sardar Wasi Tahir during
my visit to Rawalakot. They helped me enormously with advice, information and contacts of
the people who actually participated in the Poonch revolt. I must extend my gratitude to Haniya
Maqbool, Ayesha Karim and Qudsia Mehtab for being source of motivation for me.
The real motivation for me to choose this topic for my undergraduate essay was a quote of
renowned American author Robert Heinlein that “A generation which ignores history has no
past and no future”. I believe in the significance of history in defining the fate of nations. Those
who forget their history, history forgets them.
iii
Dedication
I wholeheartedly dedicate this work to my beloved mother Salma Mushtaq and sweet sister
Sadia Mushtaq. They have been my source of inspiration and gave me strength when I thought
of giving up. It was their love, affection and support that encouraged me to complete this work
on time.
I also dedicate this piece of work to Shaheed Muhammad Maqbool Bhatt, who sacrificed life
for his motherland. His courage, determination and altruism is always remained a big
inspiration for me in every field of life.
iv
Abstract
The present study deals with the impact of the uprising of Poonchis against the Maharaja Hari
Singh in 1947, behind the origination of Kashmir dispute. The Poonch evolved from a small
domain of 330 sq. miles into a semi-autonomous jagir of 1600 sq. miles. The inhabitants of
Poonch were rebellious and never accepted the rule of foreign conquerors. After the foundation
of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir in 1846, Poonch was declared as an internal jagir
governed by the descendants of Dehan Singh. After the arrival of Hari Singh on the crown of
J&K, a double autonomy was inflicted on Poonch. The taxation was also double on the poor
peasants and labourers of this region. After the end of World War II, a large number of ex-
servicemen of British Army from Poonch and Mirpur returned to their native villages. After
observing this derogatory behaviour of Maharaja’s administration they initiated an agitation
that turned into an armed struggle in 1947. This research focuses on exploring the causes that
led to this revolt and also the initial circumstances using the qualitative research method.
v
Table of Contents
Introduction......................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1 : Historical Background ................................................................................... 9
Chapter 2 : Road to Revolt .............................................................................................. 22
Chapter 3 : Outbreak of Revolt ....................................................................................... 34
Chapter 4 : Consequences of Revolt ................................................................................ 43
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 53
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 56
Introduction
The conflict over the possession of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir has been the
primal cause of contention between India and Pakistan since their inception in 1947. 1During
the last seven decades, both countries have fought three conventional wars with each other to
uphold their claim to accede the territory of Jammu and Kashmir in its entirety. But they
remained unsuccessful to resolve this obstinate issue, as they failed to devise a feasible
solution. This conflict has been seriously affecting the lives of ordinary Kashmiris living on
both sides of the Line of Control. After passing around 73 years, this dispute is still alive and
posing serious threats to global peace and security.
Jammu and Kashmir was one of the largest among the 562 princely states of British India from
1846 to 1947.2 Like other princely states of British India, in principle Maharaja of Kashmir
was enjoying complete autonomy over the internal affairs of governance, while he was
dependant on the British Empire for external affairs of the state including foreign relations and
communications. 3 The reigning family of J&K belonged to the upper-class Hindu Dogra Rajput
clan of the Jammu region. They managed to rule over the state for exactly a hundred years till
the time of decolonization of the British from the sub-continent. The atrocities of Dogras ruler
towards their subject and their intents to establish Hindu-rule, raised animosity among the
Muslims toward their monarch. As the result of continuous oppression and excessive taxation,
an indigenous revolt broke out in Poonch and the adjacent districts against the Dogra rule.
Initially, it was a peaceful agitation but turned into armed resistance.
1
Alastair Lamb, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy 1846-1990, (Hertfordshire: Roxford Books,
1991), 1.
2
Sumantra Bose, Kashmir : Roots of Conflict, Path to Peace, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 2003),14.
3
Victoria Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War, (New York:
I.B. Tauris, 2003),10.
1
In early 1947, Maharaja’s administration imposed heavy taxes on the poor peasant of Poonch.
Earlier the ex-servicemen of the British Indian Army from Poonch were neglected to be
recruited into the Dogra army. This increased the resentments among the Poonchis towards the
Maharaja of Kashmir. They decided to raise their voices against this unjust behaviour through
peaceful demonstrations but they were not given any attention. A young barrister Sardar
Muhammad Ibrahim Khan and an ex-serviceman of Indian Army Sardar Abdul Qayyum Khan
independently raised their armies in addition to several other guerrilla bands. These smaller
and dispersed bands were later united under an organised platform, known as Azad Kashmir
Forces of Azad Forces. In October 1947, a direct conflict between the Azad Force. Although
the Azad Force had a scarcity of arms and ammunition, but they fought with great bravery and
zeal. Dogra forces lost their control over all the strategically important posts in the tehsils of
Bagh and Sudhnoti. This defeat made the Maharaja and his companions furious towards the
Muslim nation fellows. To take revenge for their humiliation in Poonch, they assisted the
organised massacre of Muslims in Hindu majority districts of Jammu province. 4 Unlike the
present scenario, the Kashmir region remained mostly peaceful in this chaotic situation. While
the Jammu was divided into two parts; the western part was a Muslim majority area while the
eastern part had Hindus in the majority. They had visible differences in ideological and political
aspirations. The Hindus wanted to accede to the state of J&K with India while the Muslims had
the desire to join Pakistan.
The intrusion of tribesmen from Pakistan increased the trouble for the Maharaja to maintain
the law and order. To deal with this situation he signed an instrument of accession with the
dominion of India on 26 October 1947. On the very next day, the Indian troops were deployed
into the state of Jammu and Kashmir which resulted in a conventional war between India and
4
A.G. Noorani, “Horrors of Partition,” Frontline March, 09,2012,
https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30164617.ece
2
Pakistan. The issue was then taken into United Nations Security Council for arbitration but it
was never resolved. It is still considered the oldest unresolved issue of the UNSC. The state of
Jammu and Kashmir was then disintegrated into three fragments, which are now in the control
of India, Pakistan, and China.
Statement of Problem
Historically the region of Poonch remained isolated from the Maharaja of Kashmir’s autonomy,
since the inception of the princely state in 1846. The sons of the younger brother of Gulab
Singh were claiming possession of Poonch Jagir. After the intervention of British officers, they
were granted a jagir of 1600 sq. miles in Poonch. It was an autonomous region under the
suzerainty of Maharaja of Kashmir. It remained as a separate entity till Hari Singh assumed the
office of Maharaja in 1925. In five years, he consecutively gained the administrative as well as
economical, and judicial control of the Poonch Jagir. Before that act of Hari Singh, Poonchis
were enjoying a comfortable lifetime under a separate rule. This one-sided decision increased
their anger towards the Maharaja of Kashmir. The society of Poonch was tribal in nature, and
they had never happily accepted foreign rule over them.
The armed struggle of Poonchis, proved very vital, as they had a vast experience of the military
expeditions on different fronts in Europe and Central Asia. Around 50,000 (some sources says
60,000) of the Poonchis and Mirpuris had fought for the British army during first and second
World War. 5 The revolt of Poonchis was so momentous that Maharaja’s army was forced to
flee from major posts in Poonch and adjacent districts. This was the first blow to the authority
of Maharaja Hari Singh which later on turned into a full-fledge war of India with Pakistan-
supported forces. Unfortunately, very little importance is given to the actions of locals in the
instigation of the Kashmir dispute by both India and Pakistan. The Indians always claimed that
5
Javid Iqbal, “Poonch Rebellion: History Established not re-written by Christopher Snedden,”
Greater Kashmir, March, 08, 2013, 04.
3
the violence in the J&K actually started after the intervention of Pakhtoon tribesmen from
Pakistan on 22nd October 1947. While Pakistan had never supported the assertion that the
struggle was initially carried out by the uprising of locals Muslims of Poonch. So the neglected
role of the Poonchis is needed to be discussed
The main objective of this study is to analyse the role of the Poonch Revolt in the origination
of the Kashmir dispute. Furthermore, this study aimed to address the following questions.
 How the socio-political scenario of Poonch impacted the instigation of an uprising against
the Dogra rule?
 How the eruption of revolt in Poonch, affected the shaping of political ideologies of
Muslims and Hindus of Jammu province?
 To what extent this notion is true that the tension in Jammu and Kashmir had been started
before the arrival of outsiders from India and Pakistan?
Scope and Significance

This study has a wide scope in the sense that it covers the historical background of the Poonch
from a smaller principality to an autonomous internal jagir of 1600 sq., miles and then into a
district of Jammu province. It follows the chronological order from ancient times to the mid-
20th century. It also discusses in detail the major political, social, and military developments
that occurred before and during the Poonch Revolt in 1947. The immediate consequences of
the Poonch Revolt are also the art of this work. This, in this regard, gives a wider scope to the
study.
This study has much significance as there is no coherent study present under this topic. Very
less attention was given to the Poonch revolt by the scholars working on the Kashmir dispute.
This study will not help to better understand the role of indigenous people in the instigation of
4
the Kashmir dispute, but also allows us to enhance the basic understanding of the regional
history of the region that constitutes the present-day Azad Jammu and Kashmir.
Review of Literature
This study includes several primary sources, secondary books, research journals and articles,
dissertations.
Secondary books include The Untold Story of the People of Azad Kashmir (2012) by
Christopher Snedden. This book gives well-documented details of the three actions of
Jammunites including, the uprising in Poonch, and massacre of Muslims in Jammu, and the
formation of the Azad Kashmir government. These three actions were violence and disturbance
in the state of Jammu and Kashmir before the execution of the partition plan. Snedden has
particularly explicated in detail the character of the Poonch Muslims in the post-independence
scenario. Instead of digging out the roots of the Kashmir dispute in the Kashmir region, he
specifically focuses on the major developments took out in Jammu province, particularly in the
western part. The work of Snedden is well articulated, but it lacks continuity in topics.
However, the present study only focuses on the historical significance of revolt by Poonchis.
While the other two are discussed briefly to signify the interconnection between these actions.
Kashmir Saga (1965) by one of the pioneers of the Poonch revolt and first president of
Provisional Government of Azad Jammu and Kashmir Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan. He
took part in the organisation and leading the Azad Force, comprised of ex-servicemen of the
Indian Army against the Dogra troops. Although the book lacked continuity but still it is
considered one of the most reliable sources on the events of the Poonch uprising. The role of
the author was very decisive in the break out of the armed struggle. So the description given
by him is also helpful to understand the social and political context of Poonch. Even though he
has given a detailed overview of the struggle of locals but he avoids describing the unique
aspect of the Poonch region that caused this revolt. He also neglects the cultural differences
5
between the Kashmir and Jammu region. This study is more focused and brief about the
investigation of the whole episode of agitation.
Kashmiris Fight -For Freedom: Vol. II (1947-1978), by Muhammad Yusuf Saraf is one of the
most comprehensive book written on the history of freedom struggle of Azad Kashmir. In this
volume he discusses the major events and conditions in Azad Kashmir from 1947 to
1978.Regardless of the contributions done by the locals under the platform of Azad Force, he
emphasised the role of Pakistan in the instigation of insurgency in J&K. It does not draw a
clear line between the indigenous efforts with the assistance from neighbouring Muslims of
Pakistan. This study contributes in this regard by defining the role of common people with least
intervention of administration of Pakistan.
Tarikh-i-Poonch (Urdu) by Syed Mahmood Azad is one of the few books written on the
regional history of Poonch. This books extensively expounds the history as well as the
geography, society and politics of Poonch since ages. The writer seems well aware of the major
inscriptions written by orientalist writers about Poonch in different times. He takes help from
those sources to strengthen his arguments. Instead of giving a balanced opinion, he seems more
biased toward the Muslim perspective of history. He fully negate the histories of Hindu
historians without arguing which is not a balanced approach inquire the actual events of the
past. The current study tries to adopt an impartial and unprejudiced attitude to compile this
wide and important phase of history.
Tragedy in Kashmir (1983) by A.H. Suharwardy is a very comprehensive and reliable book on
the history of genesis of Kashmir dispute. Instead of irrelevant events and details, this books is
more focused towards its topic and has a continuity. It is also written with a specific perspective
of history, without comparing the counter arguments. The current study gives acceptance to
the narratives given by different schools of thought.
6
Hypothesis
The outbreak of an armed resistance of Poonchis against the Maharaja Hari Singh in the spring
of 1947 was the initial event of disruption in the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. This
rebellion led a series of violence and massacre in the Jammu province. The intrusion of
tribesmen from NWFP on 22nd October 1947 and the arrival of Indian Troops on 27th October
1947 resulted in the consequence of the ongoing revolt by the natives of the state.
Organization of Chapters
In addition to the Introduction, Conclusion, the present study is comprised of four chapters.
Chapter One: Historical Background. This chapter gives an overall historical overview of the
Poonch since ancient times to the inception of revolt. It follows a chronological order of the
major phases and events. It explains the evolutionary stages of Poonch in different periods of
time. The specific role of Sudhan tribe in the history of Poonch is also the part of this chapter.
Chapter Two: Road to Revolt. This chapter elaborates the actions and factors led to the
outbreak of Poonch revolt. It covers the social, political, religious, economic and historical
aspects that caused the revolt to occur in Poonch. It also substantially analyzes those factor to
elucidate their significance.
Chapter Three: Outbreak of Revolt. This chapter deals with the main events occurred during
the revolt. It emphasizes on the social and political context prevailed in the region that steered
an organized revolt of the local to initiate against the government of Maharaja Hari Singh. It
also explains the role of major characters who contributed this revolt to be organized and
executed.
Chapter Four: Consequences of Revolt: This chapter extensively focuses on the initial
outcomes of the Poonch revolt. It answers that how a provisional government of Azad Jammu
7
and Kashmir did was formed by the native Kashmiris, and how a massacre was initiated against
the Jammunite Muslims. The impact of this revolt on the society of Poonch is also the part of
this chapter.
Methodology
To undertake this research, a Qualitative methodology is applied. The present study tries to
analyse the role of the local people of Jammu and Kashmir behind the initiation of the Kashmir
Dispute. To emphasis the significance of historical facts and authenticate the arguments several
sensual surveys are also included in this study Therefore, the basic approach adopted is
descriptive and analytical.
8
Chapter 1: Historical Background
Poonch is one of the oldest principality of the mountainous state of Jammu and Kashmir. A
very little is known about the ancient past of this region due to the unavailability of reliable
historical material. The earliest accounts about the Poonch could be traced from the work of
famous Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsiang who came to visit Kashmir in 617-53 AD.1 In the first
volume of his travelogue, he gave a brief explanation about the condition of Poonch (which
was then known as Parnotsa) as well as the adjacent smaller principalities. According to Tsiang,
the realm of Parnotsa was spread over 330 miles in circuit. There were a large number of
mountains and rivers streams pass through this area, which contracted the land suitable for
agriculture. The administrative affairs of Parnotsa at the time of his voyage was dependent on
Kashmir which was 117 miles away in the north-east.2 The eminent historian of 12th century
A.D, Pandit Kalhana in his famous book Raj Tarangini chronicled the history of the area under
the title of Lohara or Loharkot,3 which was 40 miles away of the present-day Poonch
district.4The archaeological remnants of Lohara signify that it was once a glorious kingdom
spread over hundreds of miles. 5 The architect of the city was magnificent while its dominance
was established on the other adjacent principalities including Kashmir. The prominent scholar
from Persia, Al-Biruni also mentioned the details about the very region in his renowned work
on Indology, known as Kitab-al-Hind. Nevertheless, the tradition of formal history writing was
not appreciated in this part of the world as the people were willing to rely on oral tradition.
1
Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan, The Kashmir Saga,(Mirpur: Verinag Publishers, 1990), 14.
2
Li Rongxi, trans., The Great Tang Dynasty: Record of the Western Regions (California: BDK
America, 1996), 95.
3
Some historians like Wilson in his Hindu History of Kashmir (Page 47) mistakenly identifies
Lohara as Lahore, which is a famous city of Punjab lies in the upper Indus plain near the River Ravi.
4
Syed Mahmood Azad, Tarikh-i-Poonch, (Poonch: Idara Muaraf-i-Kashmir, 1975), 18.
5
Azad, Tarikh-i-Poonch, 19.
9
Therefore it is not feasible to describe precisely the economic and social conditions of Poonch
during the earlier times, except the excerptions of foreign travelers and pilgrims.
Poonch lies in the Pir Panjal Belt, which bound if from the north, the Jhelum River and Potohar
region lie in the west, the state of Rajouri in the east and the plains of Jammu lie in the
southward direction. 6It is situated in 33° 45’ N and 74° 9’ E, with an elevation of around 1020
meters above the level of the sea. The climate of Poonch remains hot and damp most time of
the year. The abundance of water sources has made the land suitable for the cultivation of rice,
maize, fruits, and flowers. Due to severe temperatures in five hot months, the nomadic tribes
of Poonch have a tradition of migration toward the north in the summer while came back to the
lower plains in winter.7 Initially, it was established as a settlement near the river Punch Tohi
(Tawi), 8 outside of the Lohara state, which is the reason it was given the title Parnotsa, meaning
outer or extended part of the dominion. 9Some people believe that this name was given by
Kashmiris who used to call it Punats, but it is not the fact. It was given by the natives of Lohara
to the extended part of their city. Some evidence suggests, it was established to function as the
winter capital of Lohara state which was situated in the northeast of the Poonch settlement.10
According to Raj Tarangni, the ancient inhabitants of this land belong to the Khasha tribe, who
were dwelling all the outer hills in between of Banihal pass and river Jhelum. It was the Khasha
who established the Lohara dynasty that ruled the major part of the northern Indian
subcontinent from 830 to 1320 AD. Their descendants are nowadays known as Khakhas settled
in Poonch and Muzaffarabad district. The lower Himalayan mountainous range of Pir Panjal
6
John Hutchison and J. Ph. Vogel, History of the Punjab Hill States, (New Delhi: Asian
Educational Services, 1994), 698.
7
S.R. Bakshi, Kashmir: Valley and its Culture, (New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 1997), 140.
8
Poonch Tohi or Tohi/Tawi of Poonch is a tributary of Jhelum River. It originated from the
foothill of Pir Panjal range, flowing southward through Indian Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir
and Pakistan Administered Azad Kashmir. The cities of Mirpur, Kotli and Poonch are situated at the
bank of this river.
9
10
Azad, Tarikh-i-Poonch. 20.
10
and its inhabitants have always acted as a natural barrier for the foreign invaders from the south
and west to conquer Kashmir.11
Lohara State
The kingdom of Lohara was founded by a local chief of the Khasha tribe namely Raja Nara in
around 830 AD.12 The capital of the Lohara was situated at the hill fortress of Loharkot, which
was the center of several villages grouped together by the Raja Nara. The precise location of
the Lohara kingdom had remained a debate among the historians as many were of the opinion
that the accounts about the Lohara in Raj Tarangini were referred to the early history of Lahore.
But this confusion was ended by the famous Hungarian-born British Archaeologist and
translator of Raj Tarangini M.A. Stein, who confirmed that the Lohara was situated in the Pir
Panjal mountain range. Before the establishment of the Lohara kingdom, all the smaller
principalities of Pir Panjal and adjacent areas were under the supremacy of Kashmir. Nara not
only ended the foreign intervention but also managed to extend the territory of his kingdom to
the neighbouring hilly tracts.13 Later on in 950 A.D., princess Dida of Lohara married the king
of Kashmir, Kshemagupta. This marital alliance ended the long lasting enmity between Lohara
and Kashmir. After the death of Kshemagupta, the princess Dida became the Regent of his
younger son Abhimanyu II. But instead of transferring power to her sons and grandsons, she
killed them one by one and seized the whole power in her hands. 14 This showed that how much
supremacy women were enjoying in the society of Kashmir at that time. After disposing of all
the obstacles in her way, she became the queen of Kashmir, while her brother kept on ruling
the dynasty formed by Raja Nara in Lohara. When the continuous invasions of Turkish
11
12
Laxman S. Thakur, “The Khasas: An Early Indian Tribe,” in A Panorama of Indian Culture:
Professor A. Sreedhara Menon Felicitation Volume, ed. K.K. Kusuman, (New Delhi: Mittal
Publication, 1990), 287. .
13
M.A. Stein, trans., Kalhana’s Raj Tarangini: A Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir, vol.2,
(Westminster: Archibald Constable and Company Ltd, 1900), 293-94.
14
Stein, Kalhana’s Raj Tarangini, 294.
11
Muslims from Kabul threatened the rule of the Shahi Kingdom of India, both Lohara and
Kashmir kingdoms collectively fought to protect their neighbouring Hindu Shahi dynasty. But
these contingents failed to rescue the forces of Raja Jaipal against the armies of Mahmud of
Ghazni and ultimately the Kabul Shahi dynasty, 15 got crumpled. 16 After capturing the most part
west of river Sindh, Mahmud forces advanced toward the north where they met the collective
army of Kashmir and Lohara near Jhelum River. The sluggish forces of northern India failed
to withstand the energetic armies from the West, got retreated, and besieged them in the fort of
Lohara. Mahmud had to stop his expedition further due to severe weather conditions but its
earlier victory exposed the capabilities of the weak army of Lohara. Later on, the internal
disputes and weak leadership led to the decline of this dynasty which was eventually done in
the 12th century A.D.
For a long time, the Lohara dynasty remained one of the most powerful empires of northern
India. Its influence was spread over a large area, even the neighbouring states were persuaded
by their strength. Internecine fighting, corrupt officials, incompetent leadership, religious
preaching and attacks of Muslim intruders weakened the structure of this magnificent kingdom
and eventually vanished. The glorious history of this dynasty suggests that how much the
people of this region were civilized in the past.
The arrival of Islam in Poonch

The successive attacks of Mahmud on Kashmir made it a vulnerable place for the invaders
from Central Asia. At the beginning of the 13th century, a Turk Muslim dynasty of Mamluks
was established in Delhi. The staggering Hindu kingdom of Lohara failed to counter their
assaults and was in continuous danger of deterioration. In the meanwhile, Muslim missionary
activity was also flourishing in this part of India. The Sufi saints from the Middle East and
15
It was a Hindu dynasty (850-1026 AD.) that held sway over the Kabul, Gandhara and
Western Punjab during the early medieval period in the Indian sub-continent.
16
Hutchison and Vogel, Punjab Hill States, 705.
12
Central Asia traveled to all across the India to preach Islam. It was the result of the teachings
of Sufi preacher Syed Abdur Rehman alias Bulbul Shah, that Rinchan Shah, the ruler of
Kashmir converted to Islam. 17 There is a Latin phrase Cuius regio, eius religio, which means,
“whose realm, their religion”, this indicates that the religion of the ruled would be dictated by
the ruler. This happened the same in Kashmir when Islam was patronized by the ruler, a large
number of subjects also embraced Islam at the hands of Bulbul Shah. The sphere of preaching
had also reached the region of Poonch. Many Sufi saints also visited the Poonch with the
message of Islam and inspired the people in a large number. The breakthrough in this regard
came when the first Muslim dynasty of Kashmir was established by Shah Mir in 1339 AD. The
Shah Mir Dynasty ruled over Kashmir for the next two centuries. Due to the absence of any
strong local rule, it also managed to establish its influence in the region of Poonch. The rulers
of Kashmir, officially patronized the campaign of Islam preaching. The reigns of Sikandar
Shah (r.1389-1413) and Zain-ul-Abideen (r.1418-1470) are considered remarkable in this
regard, as they not only strengthen the boundaries of their realm but also backed the activities
of religious conversions. As a result a large number of people converted to Islam. The Poonch
at that time was the biggest contributor of soldier in the army of Kashmir. It was during this
time when a large number of Hindus and Buddhists of Poonch converted to Islam. 18 The role
of the indigenous people of Poonch is least mentioned in this time of history. In the last days
of this dynasty several civil wars erupted in different parts of the kingdom. After the decline of
the Shah Mir family, the Chaks took over Kashmir which instigated the communal riots among
the Muslims. This ultimately resulted in the disintegration of Muslim kingdom of Kashmir and
several smaller principalities including Poonch became independent. After the arrival of the
Mughals in 1586 during the reign of Akbar the Great, ended the local rule. Jahangir was a huge
17
Mohibbul Hasan, Kashmir under the Sultans, (Delhi: Aakar Books, 1959), 29-30.
18
Hasan, Kashmir under the Sultans, 59-95.
13
admirer of the beauty of Kashmir and often visited Kashmir passing through Poonch. The
Mughals directly ruled Kashmir as their administrative unit for the next 160 years but the region
of Poonch was handed over to a family of local Muslims of the Rajput clan. They established
their capital at Loran, a place in district Haveli. 19Their rule continued till the arrival of Sikhs
in 1819.When the Durrani Empire took over the hill states of northern India, this ruling Rajput
family upheld friendly relations with them
During this whole era, the region of Poonch had encountered several changes. Firstly the advent
of Islam had changed the social and political conditions of Poonch. Some Sufi saints
established their monasteries (Khanqas) where they used to preach Islam. The locals were
introduced with different cultures and traditions of Middle East and Central Asia. However the
impact of old Hindu traditions remained intact in their lifestyle. In the reign of Rathore family,
proper demarcation of Poonch and Kashmir was held. It was during this time the Poonch
emerged as a capital while the ancient name of the state Lohara fell into abandonment. In the
later years of their rule it was chaos and a state of disorder, which led the Sikhs to assert their
supremacy over Poonch along with other hill states.20
Dogra Rule in Poonch

The establishment of the Sikh Empire in Punjab was a serious threat to the survival of the
Durrani Empire in the hill states of northern India. Ranjit Singh was also keen to capture the
state of Kashmir which was under the suzerainty of Afghans. To reach Kashmir he had to first
capture the smaller hill states in his way including, Bhimber, Rajouri, and Poonch. The Sikh
forces succeeded to capture the first two states in 1810 and 1812 respectively. 21 But the state
of Poonch showed great resistance with the help of Afghans, and forced the Sikh army from
19
20
21
Syad Muhammad Latif, History of the Punjab: From the Remotest Antiquity to the Present
Time, (Calcutta: Calcutta Central Press Company Ltd, 1891), 388.
14
further advancement till the debacle of Kashmir in 1819.This capture on one hand finished the
indigenous rule over Poonch while on the other hand, a seed of split was sown between Sikhs
and Dogras.22 Gulab Singh of Jammu was serving as a commander in the army of Ranjit Singh
while his two brothers Dehan Singh and Suchet Singh were acting on high ranks in Lahore
Court. Ranjit was very much impressed by the competency and bravery of these Dogra brothers
so he rewarded them by appointed Gulab as the Raja of Jammu while his brother Dehan Singh
was given the jagirs (principalities) of Chibbal, Poonch and Bhimber.23 After some time, Dehan
Singh was raised to the post of Diwan (Prime Minister) in the Lahore Court, while Gulab Singh
was made caretaker of the jagir of his younger brother. Meanwhile, an uprising of locals began
in these hilly states, which was effectively crushed by the shrewdness of Gulab Singh. It is
believed that though apparently Gulab Singh was showing his allegiance with the court of
Lahore but inwardly he wanted to consolidate his own rule over the hilly states of Jammu. The
death of Ranjit not only trembled the Sikh Empire but the House of Jammu also divided. After
the assassination of Dehan Singh in 1843, his son Hira was granted with his Jagir. But he also
died and his younger brothers Jawahir Singh became his successor. After the first Sikh-Anglo,
a treaty was signed which granted Gulab Singh with all the area between Beas and Indus
including the Poonch Jagir in return for a minimal amount of 75 lac rupee. Gulab Singh
declared himself the Maharaja of the newly formed princely state of Jammu and Kashmir In
the Treaty of Amritsar 1846, he undoubtedly accepted the ‘supremacy of the British
22
The Dogras were actually a Hindu Rajput clan mainly inhabited in the region of Jammu .The
founder of Dogra dynasty Gulab Singh was born to a well off family of a small principality in Jammu.
He served in the court of Ranjit Singh as a commander. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the Lahore
Darbar started to decline. The British took the advantage of their weaknesses and waged a war against
Sikhs. He foreseen the drastic consequences of Anglo-Sikh wars on the Empire of Sikhs, so he shifted
his loyalty toward the British. He played a vital role in soothing the situation in favour of the East India
Company. In the reward of his services, the governor-general promised him to grant the hilly areas of
Jammu and Kashmir. He was also allowed to establish his regime as an independent ruler in the hilly
territory of empire.
23
Christopher Snedden, The Unwritten History, (New Delhi: HarperCollins, 2013), 63.
15
Government’24 But as the region of Poonch was earlier under the control of his nephew
Jawahir Singh and Moti Singh, and they refused to surrender their sovereignty before their
uncle .It raised a dispute between the family members of Jammu House, which was later
resolved after giving the autonomy to Moti Singh in the internal affairs of the Jagir, while
maharaja of Kashmir will be responsible to uphold all the external affairs. However it resulted
in a split between the houses of Jammu where one faction was included the family of Gulab
Singh while the other was the House of Poonch or the family of Dehan Singh. Thus this
arrangement continued till 1940, when the Maharaja of Kashmir formally announced the
demolition of Poonch Jagir. It was then made a district of Jammu Province.
Table 1.125
Maharajas of Jammu and Kashmir.
J& Maharaja Position Born Died Rule J&K
Gulab Singh Raja of Jammu 1792 1857 1846-1857
Ranbir Singh Gulab’s son 1832 1885 1857-1885
Pratap Singh Ranbir’s son 1850 .1925 1885-1925
Hari Singh Pratap’s Nephew 1892 1961 1925-1949
The Maharaja of Kashmir was a radical Hindu and instead of providing equal opportunities
among his subjects, he had adopted a biased policy toward the Muslims and other communities.
In all the administrative and military posts, the presence of any Muslim was negligible. The
taxation policy of the rule was also discriminatory, as it mainly put more burden on the peasant
and merchants of Kashmir than on the noble elites of Dogra lineage. The rule also restricted
the Muslims and other religious groups to practice the rituals of their faiths. Freedom of speech
was also badly suppressed by using state machinery.26 The economy of most subjects was
dependant on the agriculture and trade of wool. They were also restricted by imposing heavy
24
K.M. Panikkar, The Founding of the Kashmir State: A Biography of Maharaja Gulab Singh,
1792-1858, (London: George Allen & Urwin, 1953), 114.
25
Snedden, People of Azad Kashmir, 230.
26
Bose, Roots of Conflict, 15.
16
taxation on them. The Dogra rulers consolidated their rule through the use of force, and
managed to govern the region for one hundred years.
Sudhans of Poonch
The Sudhans or Sudhozai tribe has played a vital role in shaping the history of Poonch in the
way it has evolved today. They trace their descent from Afghanistan, from where their ancestor
Nawab Jassi Khan migrated to the western part of Poonch around 500 years ago. 27They are
mainly settled in the region commonly known as Sudhan Tract, including Districts of Kotli,
Sudhnoti, Poonch, Bagh, and Haveli. Initially, they had to fight hard against the local people
to intact their existence. Sooner they overwhelmed all the hindrances in their path and emerged
as a strong and influential community of the region. Sudhans are considered a martial race and
famous for their bravery. They are also very much proud of their ethnic identity and consider
themselves superior to other races of Poonch. 28 However there is great confusion among
historians and academics about their origin. Some historians claim that the Sudhan and
Sudhozai are two different ethnic groups. Renowned historian of Kashmir, Muhammad Din
Fouq in his book, Castes and Tribes of Poonch ascribed the Sudhans as a branch of the Rajput
clan. While the famous scholar Iffat Malik in her book Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict International
Dispute states that the claim of Sudhans about attributing their ancestral linkage with Sudhozai
of Afghanistan seems admissible as they both tribes practice common customs and
traditions.29Throughout history, this tribe showed great resistance to foreign intruders
particularly the Sikhs and Dogras. In 1932, the tribes of the northern hill states of Punjab
including Dhoondh, Sathee, Murdial, and Sudhans etc. instigated a revolt against the Sikh rule
of Punjab. Apart from the fact that, numerous tribes were involved in the turmoil, but the
27
Ibrahim Khan, Kashmir Saga, 78.
28
J.M. Wikeley, Punjabi Musalman, (Lahore: The Book House, 19--), 145.
29
Iffat Malik, Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict International Dispute, (Karachi: Oxford University
Press, 2002), 62.
17
Dogra’s actual fight was against the Sudhans who refused to submit at any cost. They were
people of great self-respect and rigid toward outsiders, this behaviours has caused great trouble
for them after the setback in the revolt. To subdue these rebellious tribes the barbaric forces of
Dogra used every possible means to torture them. 30Their houses were put on fire and fields
were destroyed. Out of forty thousand Sudhan tribesmen, five thousand were set to death. They
went so hard in brutality that around twenty Sudhan leaders were flayed alive and hung their
corpses on the trees.31They endured all the miseries with high esteem and dignity. After
subjugation before the Dogras, one of their tribal leader Shams Khan was kept as a hostage in
the service of Raja Dehan Singh. 32 He was a shrewd person who soon became closed personnel
of Dehan Singh, which was disturbing for his brother Gulab. As he considered him an
undercover enemy in their ranks. So he convinced his brother about the treachery of Shams
Khan and demanded to teach him a good lesson. When Shams Khan received this information,
he rearranged his tribesman and the people from adjacent areas to fight against the Dogras. An
armed resistance was instigated against the Dogras but again crushed badly by the army of
Gulab Singh. This time they got more furious at the defiance of Sudhans, and decided to strike
terror into the rebels. He started a massacre against each and every member of the society, even
the women and small children were brutally killed. In the “History of the Reigning Family of
Punjab”, Smyth narrated this tragic events in these words, “The males of the insurgent tribes
has been almost entirely exterminated, some five or six thousands of them, whose heads were
tossed about the encampment in the sight of their captive relatives”. The famous incident of
Mang in famous revolutionary leaders Sabz Ali and Mali Khan were flayed alive along with
other insurgents and their bodies were hung with trees to make them deterrent for others.
30
Carmichael Smyth, ed. A History of the Reigning Family of Lahore with Some Accounts of
the Jummoo Rajahs, the Seik Soldiers and Their Sardars, (Calcutta: Thacker and Co. –St. Andrews
Library, 1847), 205.
31
32
Smyth, Reigning Family of Lahore, 206.
18
Nevertheless, the years from 1832-1840 were very difficult for the Sudhans, but they survived
it with great vigour. In the coming years they struggled hard to regain their dignity, which was
ultimately restored after the participation of a great number of Sudhans in World War I with
British Armies. At the end of the war, they were highly appreciated by British officials for
showing bravery on the battlefield. Their martial skills and adaptability to extreme weather
conditions made them suitable to serve in the army. They took the advantage of this opportunity
and a large number of Sudhans (around 40,000-60,000 personnel) served the British Indian
Army in World War I and World War II.33 This helped them to lift their social status and
economic conditions.
Role of Khan Muhammad Khan

Baba-i-Poonch, Colonel Khan Muhammad Khan, commonly known as Khan Sahib was one of
the most influential politicians and a social reformer of Poonch Jagir. He was born to a rich
Sudhan family in the small town of Sudhnoti in 1882.After completing his earlier education,
he joined the British Indian Army in 1903. He had a true urge to serve his people who were
compelled to live under the prejudiced rule of Dogra. When World War I began, he convinced
his people to join the British Army. His guidance proved valuable and around 32 thousand
people of the Sudhan tribe had joined the army. 34The recruitment of such a large number of
people of his tribe helped them to lift their social and economic status. He was a brave soldier
who fought courageously on all the battlefields. At the end of the war, in return for his services
British awarded him with the Indian Distinguished Service Medal. He retired from the British
Army at the rank of Subedar in 1924.After returning to his area, he indulged himself in social
welfare activities. The Poonch Jagir was considered the least literate and underdeveloped
among all the regions of Jammu and Kashmir. In the early 1930s, he started an educationist
33
Christopher Snedden, The Untold Story of People of Azad Kashmir, (Karachi: Oxford
University Press, 2012), 31.
34
19
movement to increase the literacy rate. He wanted to make education common irrespective of
gender .To fulfill this goal a unique scheme of raising funds was introduced by him. Every
woman was asked to give “Muthi Bhar Atta”- a hand full of extra flour once a week for the
fund of his educational project. The scheme proved successful, a mosque and a religious
institute with the name of Dar-ul-Uloom was established in the town of Palandri. He was
greatly impressed by the educational movement of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. Following his
pattern, he formed a committee of tribal elders to increase education in their region. He also
proved his claim of the reinforcement of education for girls by building a separate school in
1939.35A large number of educational institutes were established, where the teachers
voluntarily performed their duties. He also worked for the social well-being of his people. A
huge portion of the population was addicted to several intoxicants like cigarettes and snuff. 36
He started to campaign to eradicate this evil from his people. He also discouraged the injurious
and un-Islamic traditions that prevailed in society. He also served the legislative assembly of
the state of Jammu and Kashmir from 1934-1946.The role of Khan Sahib was very vital during
the War of Independence in 1947. Being the Chairman of the War Council, he played a vital
role in the organisation of ex-servicemen of his tribe to raise arms against the Dogra. It was the
result of his ingenious leadership that Dogra forces were kicked out of their land. The Sudhan
Educational Conference founded by him to support the education of deserving people is still
working efficiently.
The people of Poonch will always remain indebted to the services of Khan Sahib. Instead of
living in the poverty and tyrannical rule of Dogras, he encouraged them to join the British
Army. He not only restricted to the acclamations, but actively engaged himself in the practical
35
Azad, Tarikh-i-Poonch, 232-233.
36
Azad, Tarikh-i-Poonch, 232-233.
20
works. His contribution to the rise of social and political consciousness of Poonchis is
irrefutable.
21
Chapter 2: Road to Revolt
The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir was a political entity, artificially created by the
British in conjunction with the Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu in 1846. In the beginning, the
dominion of Gulab Singh was extended over the regions of Jammu, Ladakh, and the Valley of
Kashmir. During the reign of his son Ranbir Singh, the area of Gilgit was also incorporated in
the realm of Dogras. As a result, it became an amalgamation of a diverse ethnic and linguistic
populace. The newly emerged state was comprised of an area that had never been effectively
ruled under a single native ruler. The varied cultural and historical values, extreme weather,
and difficult geography were big hindrances to consolidate the novel state. 1 Apart from
Kashmir, neither of the parts had ever experienced any organized government. Strong
leadership was required to keep all the units integrated under a single authority. The Poonch
which was an internal Jagir of J&K, proved the most difficult region to administer since the
inception of the state. The natives of Poonch had a long “history of resentments”2 toward the
successive rulers of Gulab Singh’s dynasty. To deal with this issue, they adopted a hostile
strategy to subdue these defiant people. But they failed to establish a strong authority in this
part of their state. After remained under oppressive rule for exactly 101 years, thousands of
peasants and soldiers from Poonch Jagir instigated a revolt against their monarch Hari Singh.3
The uprising resulted in the weakening of Dogra’s control over the western part of Jammu
province particularly the districts of Poonch and Mirpur. They were drive out from the major
strategic location in these districts. This chapter will discuss the factors that led to the outbreak
of the Poonch Rebellion in 1947.
1
Pannikar, Founding of Kashmir State, 124-125.
2
3
Hari Singh was the last Maharaja of princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. His reign lasted
from September 1925 to November 1952.
22
Dual Administration in Poonch
The family of Gulab Singh and the house of Poonch settled their disputes by effecting a ‘dual
control’ over the jagir of Poonch in 1848. 4 Sir Frederick Currie, the British Resident in Lahore
proposed a new organization to define the relationship between both houses. He stated that
“Poonch has a right to exist as a separate entity but also it is a feudatory state of Jammu and
Kashmir”. 5 Since then Poonch was governed as an internal jagir by the rajas of Poonch under
the suzerainty of the maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir. The jagir spread over the area of 1627
square miles, which was even bigger than many smaller princely states of India. The rajas of
Poonch had sufficient autonomy over their possession and this might be the reason that it was
considered as “the state within the state”.6 Although the intra-family conflict was resolved but
inwardly both houses kept grudges for each other. The successive maharajas of Jammu and
Kashmir always claimed that the jagir of Poonch was granted by their forefathers as a gift to
his nephews. While the heirs of Dehan Singh never accepted the supremacy of the monarchs
of Jammu and Kashmir, who inherited this position by the cleverness of Gulab Singh.7 They
refused to enthusiastically accept their inherited jagir as a subservient unit of the newly
emerged state of Jammu and Kashmir. But due to the external pressure of the British, they
endured this setup with a low spirit.
In 1885, the incompetent leadership of Maharaja Pratap Singh compelled the British to directly
intervene in the administration of Jammu and Kashmir. A ‘Council of Administration’ was
enforced to limit the power of pro-Russian maharaja of the state. All the administrative affairs
of the state were controlled by the British resident through this council till 1905. The pro-
British younger brother of maharaja Pratap, Amar Singh was a very influential figure in this
4
Prem Nath Bazaz, Inside Kashmir, (Srinagar: The Kashmir Publishing Co., 1941), 230.
5
Bazaz, Inside Kashmir, 232.
6
7
23
council. His influence enhanced the role of the council while with limited authority over the
administrative affairs Pratap Singh became a ‘figurehead’.8 He also took several steps to
change the status of Poonch by limiting the authority of the raja of Poonch. The real intention
of Amar Singh was to convince his childless brother, to nominate his son Hari Singh as the heir
of Raj Gadhi. But instead of naming his nephew, Pratap Singh declared the prince of Poonch
Gharana as his spiritual successor. The British refused this will of Pratap and appointed Hari
Singh as the next monarch of Jammu and Kashmir. After assuming the title of maharaja in
1925, Hari Singh adopted several measures to dominate the internal affairs of the Poonch. He
also tried to intervene in the appointment of Jagatdev Singh as the raja of Poonch in 1927.
Jagatdev Singh took the complaint before the British government to restrict this unlawful
interference. But instead of ruling against the Hari Singh, they refused to play any role in the
domestic affairs of the princely state. The successor of Jagatdev Singh was a minor, so after
his death in 1940 the jagir of Poonch was formally integrated into the state of Jammu and
Kashmir. 9
This proclamation of Maharaja Hari Singh was not welcomed by the people of Poonch, as they
were most comfortable in the separate Raj. Instead of all these discriminatory measures from
the successive Poonch Rajas, the predominantly Muslim population of Poonch had developed
friendly relations with them. The separate rule was a barrier in the way of imposition of severe
regulations in Poonch from Dogra monarch. 10 But when dual autocracy was enforced by the
Maharaja Hari Singh in the 1940’s the people got displeased. The title of the raja of Poonch as
“Ilaqadar” or “Independent Jagir” was retained but an administrator was appointed over him to
maintain check and balance. 11Subsequently all the authority and status enjoyed by the raja of
8
Snedden, People of Azad Kashmir. 233.
9
Snedden, People of Azad Kashmir 237-238.
10
Alastair Lamb, Birth of a Tragedy: Kashmir 1947, (Hertingfordbury: Roxford Books,
1994), 60.
11
24
Poonch was now transferred to the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir. 12 Under the new
administration, more taxes were imposed on the Muslims of Poonch. The role of local
administration like police, judiciary, bureaucracy etc. was also curtailed by affecting new
policies. Even for the petty affairs, people were obliged to visit Srinagar. This absolute control
over the Poonch increased the anger of Poonchis, which they later showed in the armed revolt
of 1947.
Table 2.113
The Rajas of Poonch.
Poonch Raja Position Born Died Ruled
Poonch
Dhyan Singh First raja 1796 1843 1827-1843
Hira Singh Dhyan’s son 1816 1844 1843-1844
Jawahir Singh Dhyan’s son Deposed 1844-1859
Moti Singh Dhyan’s son 1892 1859-1892
Baldev Singh Moti’s son - 1918 1892-1918
Sukhdev Singh Baldev’s son 1901 1927 1918-1927
Jagatdev Singh Baldev’s son - 1940 1928-1940
Shiv Ratandav Singh Jagatdev’s son 1925 - 2July 140-?
Rise of Political Consciousness

The Poonch was a Muslim majority area with a low population of Hindus and other religious
communities. According to the Census report of India 1941, the Muslims constituted around
90 percent of the population of Poonch. 14Instead of giving opportunities to the local Muslims,
the rajas of Poonch invited their Hindu Dogra relatives from Jammu and other adjacent areas
of Punjab to help them in the affairs of governance. 15 This discriminatory behavior increased
grievances among the Muslims which constituted the 77 percent population of the state of
Jammu and Kashmir.16 There was no concept of freedom of expression in Dogra’s regime. The
12
13
14
Census of India 1941, Vol. XXII, Jammu and Kashmir State, Part I, Srinagar, R.G.
Wreford, Editor, Jammu & Kashmir Government, 1943, 8-9.
15
Azad, Tarikhi-i-Poonch, 80.
16
Bose, Roots of Conflict,17.
25
words of Maharaja were considered the final decree, and no one has the authority to challenge
it. There was not any platform for the people to raise voice for their rights. The common people
were not aware of their
In October 1932, the first political party of Jammu and Kashmir, the All Jammu Kashmir
Muslim Conference was established to preserve the rights of Muslims in the state, as well as
increasing the pressure on the Monarch to amend his oppressive policies toward the peasantry
class. It was the first instant when the natives had initiated a step to participate in politics on
the state level.
Poonchis recruitment in British Indian Army

Poonch was a barren mountainous land with a small number of farms available for cultivation.
The Poonchis had very few economic opportunities available locally except cattle farming and
agriculture on a small scale. A bulk of taxes were also imposed on them which slowed their
pace of progress. They were living a miserable life in poverty and destitution. In this situation
the only solution left for them was to seek employments outside Jammu and Kashmir. Many
local Poonchi Muslims started working on the railways in Punjab, and some joined the British
mercantile navy at Bombay. 17 The foremost job the Poonchis got outside of their jagir was in
the British Indian Army as soldiers. Despite of a long history of their martial traditions, only a
small number of Muslims (around 2000 out of 7957 men) were inducted into the state’s army
as they were not considered loyal to the Raj. The state army was dominated by the Hindu
Dogra Rajputs of the Jammu region, who were also famous for their bravery. Actually the
Jammu province (including Poonch) as a whole was a big contributor of soldiers to the Indian
Army well as the State’s army. 18 The employment in the Indian Army was more favourable for
the Muslims of Poonch as the major recruitment centers including Rawalpindi, Sialkot etc.
17
Census of India 1941, 232-34.
18
26
were located closer to them. A large number of Poonchis along with Mirpuris joined the British
Army and served in World War I and World War II. Although the people from other parts of
Jammu province also served themselves in the British Army but the major share was from the
Muslim majority districts particularly Mirpur and Poonch: “It was particularly said about
Punch (Poonch) that every male Muslim in the Jagir was, had been, or when old enough would
be a soldier in the Indian Army … the Mirpur- Punch area (was) the great recruiting area of the
Indian Army”. 19 During World War I, around 31000 men from Jammu and Kashmir served on
different fronts in the Middle East and Europe, the main portion of the recruits was from
Poonch.20The number of servicemen from Mirpur and Poonch in the Indian Army during
World War II raised drastically and out of 71,667 soldiers from the State of Jammu and
Kashmir, 60,402 were Muslim mainly from these traditional recruiting grounds. 21 These
soldiers showed great bravery and discipline, which was admired by the British officials. The
interesting thing is that this large amount of recruits concentrated in a small region of the state
was a serious threat to the army of Maharaja. They had better military capabilities and
experience than the state forces, which were comprised of only nine thousand men till 1939. 22
Although the number of State forces in 1947 was increased to eight battalions but it was
dispersed throughout the state. At the end of World War II, the servicemen from Jammu and
Kashmir returned to their backward districts. The Maharaja Hari Singh refused to accept the
Muslim soldiers in his forces, as he doubts their loyalty to him. Instead, he enhanced his
military capacity by importing Gurkhas Sikhs and Hindu soldiers outside of the state. A large
number of war veterans became unemployed so they decided to go back to farming in their
native villages. They went back with a better concept of life as fighting on a different front had
19
K. Brahma Singh, History of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles, 1820-1956: The State force
Background, (Gurgaon: Lancer International, 1990), 169.
20
G.M.D. Sufi, Kashir, Being a History of Kashmir: From the Earliest Times to Our Own,
vol.2, (Lahore: The University of the Punjab, 1949), 816.
21
Josef Korbel, Danger in Kashmir, (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1954), 54.
22
Singh, Jammu and Kashmir Rifles, 169.
27
equipped them with new ideas, valuable skills and broader experience. On their return they
observed that, “there was a tax on every hearth and every window. Every cow, buffalo and sheep were
taxed and even every wife”. 23 Interestingly these heavy taxes were only imposed on Muslims
peasants and labours, while Hindus and Sikhs were exempted from them. This was not
acceptable for any ex-servicemen of the British Indian Army who on return “was no longer so
docile to submit easily to Begaar.24 He was defiant and almost in a mood to revolt”.25It was a
big challenge for the Maharaja Hari Singh to pacify the grievances of these unemployed
fighters, more trained and experienced than the soldiers of his army. The more alarming thing
for him was that all the strength of these soldiers was concentrated in the districts closer to the
Muslim majority areas of Pakistan. From 21 to 25 April 1947 while visiting the frontier areas
of Jammu and Kashmir, he met a gathering of 40,000 ex-servicemen of the British Indian Army
at Rawalakot.26 So he decided to take serious actions against them. Firstly he compelled the
military-capable Poonchis to deposit their armaments to the police. But instead of keeping them
in the custody of the government, Jammu and Kashmir police distributed those arms among
the Hindu and Sikh population for their self-defence.27This triggered the rage of thousands of
Muslim veterans of World War II that resulted in an open armed struggle against the Maharaja
and his regime.
Heavy Taxation
The enforcement of the dual autocratic rule in Poonch not only took the autonomy of Raja
Gharana of Poonch, but it also increased the burden of taxes on Poonchis. They were “burdened
with still heavier taxes” to meet the expenses of both the Maharaja and the Raja of
23
Alastair Lamb, Incomplete Partition: The Genesis of Kashmir Dispute 1947-1948,
(Hertingfordbury: Roxford Books, 1997), 121.
24
Begaar was a device used by the Dogra regime in which poor peasants were forced to unpaid
service for the Maharaja. It was usually enforced to carry loads up the notoriously bad Gilgit road)
25
26
Singh, Jammu and Kashmir Rifles, 215.
27
28
Poonch.28After 1941, several new taxes were imposed particularly on the Muslims of Poonch.
The addition of 420,000 taxable people in the direct dominion of Jammu and Kashmir, greatly
expanded the treasury of Maharaja.29 In addition the Raja of Poonch who also liable to pay Rs.
231 as an annual tribute to the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir. A British official Richard
Symonds who was working with a group of Quakers in Punjab narrated the condition of the
tax policy on Poonch as,
“There was a tax on every hearth and every window. Every cow, buffalo and sheep was
taxed, and even every wife. Finally the Zaildari tax was introduced to pay to the cost of
taxation, and Dogra troops were billeted on the Poonchis to enforce the collection. ”30
From 1941 to 1947, numerous taxes were imposed on the Muslims of Poonch, while Hindus
and Sikhs were exempted. For instance, a Trini tax and Bakri Tax were imposed only on the
Muslims who raised livestock. The oppressive ruler not only limit heavy taxation on the animal
but human was also levied. A person was charged for having one or more wives while a widow
in the house of parents lied in a different category of tax. Similarly, the import and export of
goods were not possible without paying duties. 31The worst among them was the Zaildari Tax
in which the poor peasants were asked to pay the money to support the Zaildar (tax collector).
This discriminatory policy disgruntled the soldiers who returned from the War to their farms
as they found “‘not a land fit for heroes, but fresh taxes, more onerous than ever. If the
Maharaja’s government chastised the people of the Kashmir valley with whips, the Poonchis
were chastised with scorpions”. 32 It was unacceptable for them to pay these arbitrary and
exorbitant taxes to the tyrant ruler. In June 1947, the Muslim Poonchis launched a “No Tax”
campaign against the administration of Maharaja to resist the imposition of heavy taxes on
28
29
Richard Symonds, In the Margins of Independence: A Relief Worker in India and Pakistan
1941-1949, (Karachi, Oxford University Press, 2001), 78.
30
Korbel, Danger in Kashmir. 68.
31
Symonds, Margins of Independence, 78-79.
32
Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict, 41.
29
them.33In response to this agitation, two battalions of Jammu and Kashmir’s forces were sent
to the Poonch jagir. They first tried to relieve the leaders of the campaign through negotiation,
but the situation got worst due to the implication of the partition of India. The Poonchis showed
their aspirations by hoisting the flags of Pakistan in different areas of Poonch. This was not
tolerable for the Hindu Maharaja who was at a standstill in an agreement with Pakistan to
decide the fate of his state. To eliminate these anti-state factors, Maharaja’s forces prompted
the worst massacre of people in the Muslim majority areas of Poonch. They were given the
orders to fire at sight on any crowd of people, whole villages were set on fire, and thousands
of people were arrested for the civil disobedience movement. 34 Only on a single day of 24
August 1947, around 500 people were brutally killed. This massacre had turned the Poonchis
furious, former soldiers of the British Indian Army organised to start an armed struggle to get
rid of the oppressive regime.
Cultural and Religious Affiliations
The region constituted the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir was an unnatural unification
of several small hill states. There was not a single instance in history when all these
principalities were ruled by a single local ruler. 35 There was a huge variation among the people
of the newly emerged state. The region of Kashmir was inhabited by ethnic Kashmiris and the
majority of its population was Muslim, Jammu Province was an amalgamation of diverse
people and religious communities, while Ladakh was a mixture of Muslims and Buddhist
population. The state was not constructed on durable grounds, so its destruction was inevitable.
Exactly after 101 years of its formation and it ceased to exist anymore.
33
34
Muhammad Yusuf Saraf, Kashmiris Fight-For Freedom, Vol.2, (1947-1978), (Lahore:
Ferozsons Ltd., 1979), 848.
35
30
Table 2.236
The Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir in 1941.
Province Area Population Religious Number
(sq. miles) Composition
Jammu 12,378 1,981,433 61.19 %Muslims 1,212,405
37.13 %Hindus 7,36,861
1.41 %Sikhs 27,896
0.21 %Others (Jains, 4,270
Christians,
Buddhists etc.)
Kashmir 8,539 1,728,705 93.48 %Muslims 1,615,928
4.95 %Hindus 85,531
1.56 %Sikhs 27,001
0.01 %Others 245
Frontier 63,554 311,478 86.86 % Muslims 270,539
Districts 12.89% Buddhists 40,164
0.25 % Hindus and 775
Others
State Total 84,471 4,021616 77.06 % Muslims 3,098,872
20.46 5 Hindus 822,955
1.37 % Sikhs 54,975
1.01 % Buddhists 40,684
0.10 % Unspecified 4,130
Others
Source: Census of India 1941, Volume XXII, Jammu and Kashmir State, Part III, Village
Tables, Srinagar, R.G. Wreford, Editor, Jammu and Kashmir Government, 1942.
The inhabitants of Poonch were mainly tribal people who belonged to different ethnic groups
including; Sudhan, Rajput, Dhund Abbasi, Mughal, Gujjar etc. The Sudhans and Rajputs were
the most dominant clans while Gujjars constituted the largest population of Poonch. 37All these
tribes migrated to Poonch from different parts of Central Asia and the Sub-continent. These
Poonchi tribes had different historical, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds that preserved their
unique identities. There were also several common features like common religion, which
helped these tribes to develop harmonious relations not only with tribes of Poonch but also
36
Census of India 1941, Volume XXII, Jammu and Kashmir State, Part III, Village Tables,
Srinagar, R.G. Wreford, Editor, Jammu and Kashmir Government, 1942.
37
Dr. Mohd. Tufail, “Demography, Social and Cultural Characteristics of the Gujjars and
Bakarwals, A Case Study of Jammu and Kashmir,” Journal of Humanities and Social Science 19, no 1
(January 2014):25.
31
with the Muslims of adjoining areas of Punjab and N.WF.P. Another factor was the common
language, known as Pahari-Pothwari (a dialect of Punjabi) spo)ken in the western part of
Jammu and adjacent areas of Murree, Rawalpindi, Jhelum, etc. The speakers of this dialect
although belonged to diverse ethnic backgrounds, but commonly identified as a distinct ethno-
linguistic group known as Pahari. 38 Historically the famous uprising against the Sikh rule in
1830’s was a collective struggle of the tribes residing in the hill tracts of Rawalpindi and
Poonch. The two main reasons for this inclination were geographic location and economic
dependency. It was easier for the Poonchis to access the north western part of Punjab and
Hazara region of N.W.F.P lied on the western side of Jhelum River than the rest of the Jammu
region which was located on the eastern side of Chenab River. 39 Similarly, it was not easier for
them to reach the Valley of Kashmir due to the difficult route and harsh weather conditions.
So instead of visiting Jammu or Srinagar, they prefer to seek jobs in big economic centers of
Punjab including Lahore, Gujrat, and Rawalpindi etc.40The railway line that passed through
these areas was a big source of income for them. Similarly the Mirpuris developed cultural and
economic ties with Punjab through Jhelum town.
Considering all these aspects, it could be conclusively inferred that Poonch and Mirpur had
more inclination toward the areas which were to become Pakistan. Initially, the uprising of
Poonchis was purely against the imposition of unaccustomed taxes, which was limited to the
41
northernmost part of Poonch Jagir. But after the creation of Pakistan in August 1947, the
passion of Poonchis to eliminate the tyrant regime was increased. The Maharaja was reluctant
to accede with either of the newly formed dominions, but the Poonchis declared their fate by
38
Fayaz Ahmad Bhat and P.K Mathur, “Ethnic Plurality in Jammu and Kashmir: A Sociological
Analysis,” Man in India 91, 3-4 (July 2011): 588-593.
39
40
41
Lamb, Birth of a Tragedy, 61.
32
raising Pakistan’s flag and showing their allegiance through meetings. 42 In the meanwhile,
Maharaja and his fellow instigated some anti-Muslim which provoked the Poonchis to support
the accession with Pakistan on religious grounds. They were persuaded that, “if they did not
rise in revolt, they would be massacred or pushed into Pakistan”.43So when the Maharaja forces
tried to suppress their aspirations by using force, they got united to eradicate them.
42
Lamb, Birth of a Tragedy. 61-62.
43
Suharwardy, Tragedy in Kashmir, 21.
33
Chapter 3: Outbreak of Revolt
The uprising of local Poonchis against the tyrant rule of Maharaja Hari Singh broke out in the
spring of 1947. The epicentre of the revolt was the western part of the Poonch district including
the Tehsils of Bagh and Sudhnoti. Later on, it spread to the adjoining areas of Mirpur, where a
large number of ex-servicemen of the British Army were residing. Initially, the Poonchis
showed their resentments through civil disobedience and a no-tax campaign in July that reached
its climax in September.1The Maharaja also sniffed out the danger of any probable mutiny
during his visit to Rawalakot in April. He was stunned by seeing such a large number of trained
soldiers concentrated in a small area. After returning to Srinagar, he decided to install
additional forces in the Poonch without wasting more time. 2 A new Poonch Brigade was raised
to be deployed in the strategically important sectors in the Poonch district. He issued special
ordinances to empower his officers to deal strictly with any trouble created by the local
population. The people were compelled to serve the Dogra and Gurkha troops, by providing
them their lands and resources. The Wazir of Poonch ordered the Muslim subjects to deposit
their weapon to their neighbouring police stations, which were then redistributed among the
Sikh and Hindu citizens for self-protection.3To cover the tehsils of Bagh and Sudhnoti, a new
cantonment was established in the town of Rawalakot. To cut off the connection of Poonchis
with adjacent areas of Rawalpindi and Hazara districts, all the routes and bridges were heavily
guarded by the Dogra soldiers. This was a threatening situation for the Muslims of Poonch, as
their existence was at stake. In August, the anti-Muslim brutality of Dogra troops outnumbered
all the previous records. On a single day of 24 August 1947, there was around 500 citizen who
got killed. 4 The eruption of communal riots in Punjab badly affected the inter-religious
1
Saraf, Fight-For Freedom, Vol.2, 849.
2
3
Ibrahim Khan, Kashmir Saga, 67-68.
4
34
harmony in Jammu province. Similarly, the issuance of the “shoot at sight” ordinance on 2 nd
September, not only empowered the army officers to kill innocents but added fuel to the
fire. 5The non-Muslim civilians aided the troops in the execution of their invidious intentions.
The bands of armed Sikhs and Hindu civilians accompanied the State Forces in the mass
killings and plundering of Muslims. On the other side, thousands of demobilised Poonchi
Muslims started an open-armed resistance against the Maharaja of Kashmir. As the result of
this revolt, the State Forces were forcefully pushed out of a considerable territory.
This chapter carries the short-term causes and major events Poonch Revolt 1947.
Socio-Political Context
The elections for the Jammu and Kashmir State Assembly were held at the beginning of 1946.
A young barrister, Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan elected as a member of Praja Sabha 6 from
a collective constituency of Sudhnoti and Bagh. 7Later on, he became a prominent leader of
Poonchis in the revolt against Maharaja Hari Singh in 1947. He along with other Muslim
members of Praja Sabha diligently defended the rights of Muslims in the session of the state
assembly on budget. The Maharaja had always shown prejudiced behaviour towards his
Muslim subjects, while the extremist Hindu parties like Jammu Praja Parishad and Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh were patronised by him. 8 The majority of the Poonchis were Muslims
(around 90%), so they were deliberately kept away from economic development. The
imposition of a dual system of autocracy and heavy taxes increased their fiscal problems.
Around half a million soldiers after serving British Army in Second World War returned to
their villages. Instead of adjusting these well-trained unemployed soldiers, Maharaja recruited
Hindus and Gurkhas in his army. There well fewer economic opportunities available for them
5
Saraf, Fight-For Freedom, Vol.2, 848.
6
It was the first legislature of princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, established by Maharaja
Hari Singh in 1934. It had 33 elected seats, 30 nominated members and 12 ex-officio members
7
8
35
in their unproductive barren land. While serving during the World War on various fronts, they
had often complained to their commander about the negligence of their area by the Hindu ruler. 9
In return for their meritorious services for the British Arm, the Commander-in-Chief of India
had promised to resolve their reservations with the government of Jammu and Kashmir. The
visit of Maharaja Hari Singh to the Poonch in April was to ensure the fulfilment of that
promise. 10 But inwardly he was sincerely not considering to sort out the issue. In the
meanwhile, the British Government announced the decision of leaving India by June 1948. The
fate of the princely states was not decided till the 3rd June plan of Lord Mountbatten. It was an
upsetting situation for the local rulers of the princely states to sustain their rule, after the
departure of the British from the sub-continent. The ruler of Jammu and Kashmir was also
alarmed by this threatening situation. He needed to take immediate steps to strengthen his rule.
The biggest challenge for him was to pacify the region of Poonch situated at the frontier of the
State bordering the areas of future Pakistan. So he decided to deploy an additional army in this
army. The Poonchis were traditionally turbulent and brave people, the services in British Army
enhanced their military capabilities. It was not an easy task for the predominantly Hindu armed
forces of Maharaja to subdue them through a military campaign. Instead of appeasing his
subjects through dialogue, he decided to adopt a stiff policy towards them. A new cantonment
was established in the town of Rawalakot under the command of Chattar Singh to control the
vulnerable areas. Similarly, military posts were set up according to the strategic importance of
different places like Dothan, Mong, Dhirkot, Kohala, Lachman Pattan (now Azad Pattan),
Palandri, and Tararkhel. 11 The Police officers were given free hand to refrain the citizens from
public meetings and gatherings. Overall the strict steps taken by Maharaja to control Poonch
under his jurisdiction turned the whole region into a garrison.
9
10
11
Saraf, Fight- For Freedom, Vol.2, 848.
36
The local Muslim population particularly the Sudhans were badly affected by these new
measures, as they were not habitual of such restrictions. The troops started to camp in the fields
of farmers which caused damage to their crops. They compelled locals to dig trenches and lift
luggage of soldiers as a porter. The supply of goods from Rawalpindi and Murree was carried
out through ferries12 and bridges. But all such transportation was ceased by burning the vessels
and installing additional troops on the crossing points. The restriction on the transportation of
goods and men through the Jhelum River caused a severe impact on the lives of poor peasants,
who relied greatly on the essential commodities that came from the Pakistani area. The prices
reached the sky, e.g. in Rawalpindi, the salt was sold at 2 annas per seer 13 while in Poonch it
was Rs. 3 for one seer salt.14 The means of communication from Poonch to other parts of the
state were developed properly, so the supply of ration for the troops was also slowed down.
This shortage was also compensated by putting the burden on the poor Poonchi Muslims. The
revenue officers were directed to forcefully collect grains and other necessary items from
civilians. Initially, the helpless citizens remained quiet, when their own food storage got
emptied they showed their anger. But the administration did not pay heed to their voices.
Before the visit of Maharaja, the Hindus and Sikhs of Poonch were living in coordination with
their Muslim neighbours. But when the Dogra forces started violence on Muslims, they
completely turned a blind eye towards them. 15 The communal riots in Punjab also affected the
harmonious atmosphere of Jammu province. A handful of Hindu money-lenders and Sikh
landlords were dominating the poor Muslim peasants in terms of economy. They started to aid
12
Actually there was no vehicular bridge on river Jhelum except a foot bridge on Lachman
Pattan (now called Azad Pattan).So they relied on small locally known as ‘Shina’, made of animal skins.
Same boat was used throughout Asia and Africa for crossing rivers in the past.
13
In most part of northern India, Seer was used as a traditional unit of mass and volume.
According to the Standards of Weights and Measures Act (No. 89 of 1956), one seer is exactly equal to
1.25 kg.
14
15
37
the newly arrived Hindu troops against their Muslim neighbours. 16 The Poonch Muslims were
openly expressing their desire for the State of Jammu and Kashmir to join Pakistan as they had
a religious connection. It was not acceptable for the minorities living in Poonch, so they started
ridiculed the aspiration of Muslims. They started to give the name ‘Pakistan’ to their donkeys,
dogs, and bulls.17 On several occasions, Islamic scriptures were burnt by the authorities of
Dogra police and army. Such incidents badly hurt the sentiments of Muslims. Initially, they
were resisting the repressive measure of the ruler of state but now it took the shape of a conflict
between Muslims and non-Muslims.
Table 3.118
Muslims and Hindu in Jammu Province as percentage of their respective Districts.
Districts Muslims % in District Hindus % in District
District Population
Chenani Jagir 2,205 18.70 9,581 81.22 11,796
Jammu 170,789 39.60 248,173 57.53 431,362
Kathua 45,000 25.33 132,022 74.31 177,672
Mirpur 310,900 80.41 63,576 16.44 386,655
Poonch 379,645 90.00 37,965 9.00 421,828
Reasi 175,539 ±68.06 80,725 31.30 257,903
Udhampur 128,327 43.62 164,820 56.02 294,217
Total 1,212,405 736,862 1,98,433
Beginning of Armed Revolt

After attending the March-April Session of State Assembly at Jammu, Sardar Muhammad
Ibrahim Khan visited his constituency of Poonch on 15 June 1947. 19 He had apprehended the
secret plan of a semi-military organisation that was formed in different parts of the state to
wipe out the Muslim population. 20 Hindu extremist organizations like RSS and Praja Parishad
Party were backing up such outfits. Ibrahim Khan in his memoir Kashmir Saga narrated that
16
17
18
Census of India 1941, Volume XXII, Jammu and Kashmir State, Part III, Village Tables,
Srinagar, R.G. Wreford, Editor, Jammu and Kashmir Government, 1942.
19
20
Khan, Kashmir Saga, 56.
38
he warned his people about the conspiracy being hatched by the coalition of RSS and Dogra
troops against the Muslims of Jammu. While addressing some secret public meetings in his
hometown Rawalakot and adjacent villages, he urged the formation of an organised platform
to serve their interests. Ibrahim Khan was a well-educated man with high repute among his
people. He had foresighted the danger his people could face in the coming days. He convinced
his people to organise on military lines. His speeches resulted in the elevation of courage and
motivation in the people. They decided to secretly prepare themselves militarily for the coming
dangers. The Dogra troops stationed at Rawalakot were involved in the beating of innocent
Muslims and molestation of women. Before these events, Ibrahim Khan kept his meeting secret
but the brutality of Dogra troops crossed all the limits. In a large gathering of twenty thousand
people in Rawalakot on 19 July 1947, he openly supported the formation of Pakistan as a new
Muslim nation in their neighbourhood.21A unanimous resolution was passed to favour the
accession of Jammu and Kashmir with Pakistan. He also urged his people to get united against
the atrocities of the Dogra troops. This meeting had changed the atmosphere of the region,
where people were ready to get rid of the oppressive Hindu regime at any cost. The Muslim
Conference fully supported their ambition and agenda Ibrahim then returned to Srinagar, but
the rumour about his activities in Poonch spread .like a wildfire there. The Maharaja
Government-issued warrants of his arrest but before they could be executed, he fled to Murree
on 20th August 1947. There he tried to gather ammunition to launch an organised attack to
liberate his homeland from the clutches of the Dogra ruler.
In the meanwhile another young Poonchi, Sardar Abdul Qaiyum Khan was also mobilising
people in the tehsil of Bagh. He was an ex-Havildar clerk in the Indian army, and during his
service, he had been to Africa and Palestine. 22But he played a key role in the instigation of
21
Khan, Kashmir Saga, 58.
22
Sardar Abdul Qayyum Khan, Muqaddimah-ay-Kashmir, (Lahore: Jang Publishers, 1987), 12.
39
armed resistance against the Dogra rule. After the creation of Pakistan in August, the Muslims
of Poonch were anxious about their future under the Hindu ruler. To decide their fate, several
secret meetings were organised throughout the State. An important meeting in this regard was
held at Neelabutt near Dhirkot town on 23rd of August 1947. In this meeting, Qayyum Khan
and other leaders of tehsil Bagh not only condemned the repression of the army but also demand
the accession of Jammu and Kashmir with Pakistan. Although there were hundreds of such
meetings were held in different parts of Poonch, but this was the first meeting in which a call
for action was given to the people. Following this meeting, a peaceful demonstration was
staged to express the aspirations of joining Pakistan to the authorities. Hundreds of people
marched towards headquarter of Dogras at the town of Bagh. Most of them were unarmed
except a few carried lathis and axes. It was the first when such a large amount of people went
out to openly show their determination. In response to these demonstrators, the Dogras imposed
Section 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code.23 After this gathering of more than five people
was banned in the town of Bagh. The local leadership of Muslims breached these restrictions
and organised another public meeting at Hurabari on 26 August. It was considered a violation
of the law, so the Dogras opened up fire at the unarmed audience. On the other hand, few
Muslims also started attacking the Dogra soldiers for arms and ammunition. The government
considered it mischief of fully armed miscreants who wanted to capture the town, but it was
not the fact. The people came for peaceful protest, which turned into bloodshed.
Confrontation Begins
The Sudhan ex-servicemen from Sudhnoti organised themselves into smaller military bands to
confront directly with the Dogra army. The Sudhan tribe had a long history of hostility with
Dogras. They had never forgotten the memories of flaying alive of Sudhan elders by Dogras, a
23
Saraf, Fight- For Freedom, Vol.2, 851.
40
century ago. So this time they were motivated to take revenge for all the atrocities they had to
suffer all these years. The ex-servicemen engaged themselves in guerrilla warfare against the
supply-carrying convoys of the Dogra Army. It started a series of confrontations between the
rebel and State army at different places in Poonch. There is also a debate among historians that
who fired the first shot to start this revolt. Sardar Abdul Qayyum Khan proclaimed himself as
the Mujahid –i-Awal24 for being the pioneer of armed resistance. 25But there are several other
claimants often regarded as the first to shot fire at Dogra Army.
In response to the activities of ex-servicemen, the Maharaja ordered his army to deal with these
rebels with a ‘heavy hand’. 26The Dogra army started to target the whole villagers, “where only
a single family was involved in the revolt”. 27 They opened fire on crowds, burnt the whole
villages, looted their possessions, and arrested their leadership. A local martial law was also
imposed in which officers were given the authority to shoot at sight if they find any suspicious
person.28It was an alarming threat to the survival of Poonchis. Now they were convinced that
“if they did not rise in revolt, they would be massacred or pushed in Pakistan”.29
Role of Political Parties

All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference was the most famous political party among the
Muslims of Poonch. In the elections of 1946, Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan and Sardar Yar
Muhammad Khan from the ticket of Muslim Conference won their constituencies in Poonch
with a great majority.30 Even though the National Conference of Sheikh Abdullah had
24
In Islamic term the Mujahid is a person who strives or fights in support of Islam, while Awwal
means, the first. As many veterans of Poonch revolt considered it a Jihad (Holy War) of Muslim against
the Hindu Dogra rule, so this term get popularised.
25
Qayyum Khan, Muqaddimah-ay-Kashmir, 14.
26
S N Prasad and Dharm Pal, History of Operations in Jammu & Kashmir, 1947-48 , (New
Delhi: History Division, Ministry of Defence, Govt. of India,1987), 13
27
28
Symonds, Margins of Independence, 78.
29
30
41
undisputed popularity in the Kashmir belt but they had negligible recognition in this part of the
State. Unlike the society of Kashmir, the Jammu region was a mixture of different religious
groups. So the secular-oriented ideology of the National Conference did not get accepted there.
The Muslim Conference had successfully managed to reinforce their pro-Pakistan ideology in
Poonch. Several religious scholars and political activists like Syed Nazir Hussain Shah,
Maulana Ghulam Haider Jandalvi, Maulana Abdullah Khan Kufalgarhi, and Syed Ahmed Shah
Gardezi, etc. were the prominent leaders of the Muslim Conference in this region. Their selfless
efforts made Muslim Conference the only representative political party of Poonch Muslims.
When the atrocities of Dogra troops got out of control in Bagh and Sudhnoti tehsils, the acting
president of Muslim Conference Chaudhary Hamid Ullah himself visited Poonch. After
assessing the situation and consultation with several leaders of the Muslim Conference, he
decided to support the secretly hatched plan of Poonch Muslims. On 19 July 1947, a session of
Muslim Conference Majlis-i-Amla was held at the residence of Ibrahim Khan in Srinagar. In
this session, when Hamid Ullah proposed an opinion to keep the status of Jammu and Kashmir
as autonomous entities, the Muslim Conference members from Poonch disregarded this option.
As they were eagerly wanted the State with an 80 percent Muslim population to join Pakistan.
The political leadership of the Muslim Conference endured the torture of Dogras in response
to their activities. Most of them not only mobilise people but also take an active part in the
armed resistance.
42
Chapter 4: Consequences of Poonch Revolt
The anti-Maharaja and pro-Pakistan uprising by Muslims of western Jammu not only resulted
in the liberation of a large territory from the Maharaja’s control but also paved the path for the
circumstances that later elongated the Kashmir dispute. In addition to the upheaval of Poonchis
against the Maharaja, several other events were taking place simultaneously in other parts of
Jammu province that added fuel to the fire. Inter-religious violence erupted in the province that
triggered an organised massacre of thousands of Jammunite 1 Muslims. 2 In the meanwhile, a
Provisional Government was formed in the region liberated during the Poonch uprising. The
region was later given the name Azad Jammu and Kashmir. All these major developments
occurred during the ten-week interval between the partitions of the sub-continent on 26 October
1947. These events were mainly initiated and carried out by the local people or state subjects
of Jammu and Kashmir. Unlike the contemporary situation, at that time the major contributors
behind these decisive events belonged to Jammu province. The actions of the Jammunites’ had
a great impact in the shaping of the history of the region as well as the newly emerging states
of India and Pakistan. The most significant event among these was the revolt in Poonch, as it
was initiated independently by the indigenous people way before the Partition Plan 3 was
enacted. It was the result of the revolt that Dogra Forces lost control over a large territory of
his domain. The chaos erupted in Poonch could take the whole state into its effect. So it became
a great challenge for the Maharaja to keep his princely state in its entirety before he could
decide to either accede to India or Pakistan. It is often believed that the arrival of Pakhtoon
1
Jammunites are the inhabitants of Jammu province. They are ethnically diverse people
including Hindu Dogra, Gujjars, Mirpuris, Poonchis, and Sikhs etc.
2
Christopher Snedden, “What happened to Muslims in Jammu? Local identity, '"the massacre"
of 1947' and the roots of the 'Kashmir problem”. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies XXIV, no.
2(2001): 111.
3
On 3rd June 1947, the Viceroy, Governor General of India Lord Mountbatten announced the
partition plan carrying the division of sub-continent into two parts; India and Pakistan. The partition
was planned on a territorial-cum- communal basis.
43
tribesman from Pakistan on 22 nd October 1947, instigated the dispute of Jammu and Kashmir.
But in reality, an expedition of locals was already underway to get rid of the oppressive regime
of Hari Singh. Even the tribesmen dared to enter the princely state after inspiring by the
victories of Poonchis. 4Overall the revolt in Poonch had numerous short-term as well as long-
term effects on the history as well as the socio-political scenario of the region.
Weakening of Dogra Rule
The immediate ramification of the uprising in Poonch was the weakening of Dogra rule in the
western part of Jammu province. The violence of Dogra troops on innocent citizens was
responded greatly by the local guerrilla bands of ex-servicemen and villagers. Initially, these
scattered “village bands”5 were fighting under the local leaders who were committed to
resolving the issues of their villages. 6But the efforts of Ibrahim Khan and others united these
dispersed bands under an organised militia of 50,000 men under the title of ‘Azad Kashmir
Forces’ or ‘Azad Army’. 7A command post was established by Ibrahim Khan on the adjacent
hill station of Murree, to direct the operation of Azad Forces. It was strategically a safe place
to operate an expedition of such great significance. In September, a plan was devised to conduct
an operation to rescue the Muslim population from the claws of oppressive rule. The plan was
to liberate their areas from the Dogra Forces. To execute their plan, they started to gather arms
and ammunition. A large number of volunteers from Rawalpindi and adjacent hilly areas of
Punjab and Hazara region came forward to contribute with funds. The ‘drawl’ or Dara made
one-shot rifles were brought from North Western Frontier Province. Similarly, a small
ammunition factory was started in the village of Murree to convert Lead into bullets. In addition
to the people of Murree, the organisers of the Azad Army received assistance and aid from the
4
A. De Mhaffe, Road to Kashmir, (Lahore: Ripon Printing Press, 1948), 170.
5
6
7
44
Muslim soldiers serving in the State’s Army, ex-servicemen of the Indian army, and fighters
of the Indian National Army. To carry stuff from Murree to the bank of river Jhelum, mules
were provided by the local Tehsildar of Murree. While the transportation of weapons across
the river was carried out over the ‘shinas’, the traditional boats were made of inflated goats.
After carrying arms and ammunition to Poonch, the Azad Force started to execute their
operational plan. They divided the area of operation into two sectors; Muzaffarabad to Bhimber
and Bhimber to Jammu. The sine qua non8 of the whole strategy was to organise an army of
the people to fight against the Dogras. The majority of the Azad Force was raised in the two
tehsils of Poonch, Sudhnoti, and Bagh. While some portion was also gathered from the adjacent
areas including Kotli, Mirpur, and Muzaffarabad. In all sectors from Kohala to Mirpur, the
command of the Azad Force was given to different sector commanders. Although, the Azad
Force had a scarcity of rifles and ammunition, but the enthusiasm and dedication of the people
healed this shortage. Not only had the male members of the society, but women also actively
participated in the supply of water, food rations, and ammunition.
After the war began, the soldiers and volunteers in Azad Army showed great commitment to
achieve their cause. Even they refused to accept any wages or allowance after the end of the
war. Their hearts were filled with great valour and patriotism. They fought bravely in the
expeditions of all the fronts including Mirpur and Muzaffarabad. Although their ranks were
unified and devoted, but they lack the resources and means of communication. The Dogras had
the advantage in respect of sophisticated weapons and well-run line of communication.9 In the
earlier phase of the war, they restricted the revolutionaries away from their important strategic
posts. The deployment of additional forces also increased the strength of Dogra troops. So
initially it was a great challenge for the Azad Army to overpower the Dogras from their strong
8
‘Sine qua non’ is a Latin phrase, which means an essential condition or a thing that is
absolutely necessary.
9
45
holdings in the fronts of Bagh, Kotli, and Rawalakot. They also had to face a large big loss in
terms of causalities. Nevertheless, the civil administration in these areas was totally collapsed.
There was a chaotic situation in the whole region. Non- Muslims residents of Sudhnoti and
Bagh started abandoning their homes and took shelter in the Poonch town. 10
In the meanwhile, the Azad Force managed to overwhelm some important outposts in the
Tehsil Sudhnoti of Poonch district. This triumph strengthens their position in the Poonch sector.
In a very short period, they recruited more soldiers in their camp. The military commander of
Dogra Army Major General H.L Scott informed the Maharaja on the 22 nd of September about
the incapability of his forces to defend their possession any longer from Azad Army. 11 The
Dogra Forces were swiftly losing their control over the strategically important foot holdings in
the tehsils of Bagh and Sudhnoti. The guerrilla bands operating independently in different areas
not only liquidate the military bases of Dogras in distant areas but also forced them out to seek
shelter in their main garrisons in the towns. The revolutionary fighters besieged the garrison at
Rawalakot and cut off its all means of communication from headquarter.12Till the 27th of
October 1947, the whole Poonch jagir except the Poonch town was liberated by the Azad
Force.13 The Dogra troops were compelled to flee from Poonch as well as from Mirpur and
Muzaffarabad tehsil. There are many heroes of this war who fought with great bravery and
courage. Some of the notable commanders of the Poonch revolt include Captain Hussain Khan,
Major Khurshid Anwar, Captain Khan Muhamad, and Major General Sakhi Delair, etc. In
addition to these notable names, thousands of other Poonchis and Mirpuris fought against the
Dogra oppression and succeeded in their departure from their lands. The rule of Hari Singh
was weakened by the indigenous uprising before the arrival of tribesmen from Pakistan.
10
Saraf, Kashmiris Fight for Freedom Vol II, 863.
11
Lamb, Kashmir, A Disputed Legacy, 129.
12
13
46
Assistance from Pakistan
It is often propagated by the Indian sources that the disturbance in the State of Jammu and
Kashmir was started after the incursion of Pakhtoon tribesman14 from the NWFP and FATA
on 22nd October 1947. In reality, the Azad Army had already conquered a large part of western
15
Jammu before the tribesman arrived. The significance of the resistance instigated by the
indigenous people always undermines as most accounts written on the origin of the Kashmir
dispute suggest that the arrival of tribesmen actually originated the whole dispute. Even though
the success was accomplished by the Azad Force, what were the circumstances that encouraged
Pakhtoon tribesman to influx the dwindling princely state of Jammu and Kashmir? As already
discussed, that the people of the western part of Jammu and the adjacent areas of Pakistan have
had a close familial, economic, cultural, and geographical linkage for centuries. When the
atrocities of Dogra troops started against the Muslims of Poonch, they decided to send their
families to their relatives in Rawalpindi and Jhelum. When the leaders of revolutionaries
Muhammad Ibrahim Khan and Abdul Qayyum Khan visited Murree and asked for help from
their Muslim neighbours in raising an army against the Hindu Maharaja, they were generously
helped by them. But the claim that the anti-Maharaja uprising in Poonch was instigated by the
Pakistanis is not correct as the locals had enough capability and military experience to fight
their war themselves. All the assistance they received was from the common people, as the
government of Pakistan was fully indulged in the post-partition economic, administrative, and
social settlements.16
The influx of tribesmen from Pakistan was a turning point in the episode of the whole crisis in
Jammu and Kashmir. After the eruption of a pro-Pakistan insurgence in western Jammu, the
14
The tribesmen who entered Jammu and Kashmir were not belong to a single tribe instead
they were all of them including Mohmads, Wazirs ,Mehsuds, Afridis etc.
15
16
47
non-Muslim population of the region felt threatened about their existence. There were reports
that the bands of Hindu and Sikh organisations were planning a mass-scale killing of Muslims
in Muzaffarabad.17The pan-Hindu Maharaja was also patronising such elements. Moreover, he
had also decided to accede his State with India in April 1947 if he failed to sustain its
independence.18 The rebellion in Poonch had frightened him to achieve his goal. This decision
was not acceptable for the Muslim subjects which constitute the majority of the state
population.
This situation was also alarming for the leadership of the Muslim League, as they wanted the
state of Jammu and Kashmir to accede to Pakistan based on its geographical location and
religious affiliations. The regional ally, Muslim Conference also alarmed about the solemnity
of the deteriorating conditions by writing to Prime Minister Liaqat Ali Khan as, "if, God forbid,
the Pakistan Government or the Muslim League do not act, Kashmir might be lost to them". 19
After realising the seriousness of this issue, Liaqat decided to instigate an organised revolt in
Kashmir. Under the supervision of a Punjabi politician Mian Iftikharuddin, a secret operation
was started by Liaqat Ali Khan to accomplish their goal. In addition, Pakistan also cut off all
the supplies of food and other essential items to the state. After considering the plans of Sardar
Shaukat Hayat Khan and Colonel Akbar Khan, a task was given to the commander of the
Muslim League Guard, Major Khurshid Anwar to mobilise the tribes of the Frontier region to
initiate a Jihad in Kashmir. 20 Interestingly, till that time the leaders of the Azad Force were
fully unaware of any assistance from the Pakhtoon tribesmen. 21The Maharaja’s government
was already staggering due to the ongoing revolt in Poonch and the blockade of food and
17
Saraf, Fight for Freedom Vol II, 889.
18
Prem Shankar Jha, “"Response (to the reviews of The Origins of a Dispute: Kashmir 1947)",
Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, (March 1998), 36.
19
Srinath Raghavan , War and Peace in Modern India , ( London :Palgrave Macmillan, 2010)
, 103
20
Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India, 105.
21
48
supplies from Pakistan. Now the reports of Pakhtoon tribesman attack on his State drove him
to the wall. The Pakhtoon nationalist often criticised the government of Pakistan for
mobilisation of tribesmen as a tactic to divert their attention from Pakhtunistan or Pakhtunistan.
But their actual motivation was credited to the Muslim League leaders like Pir Sahib of Manki
Sharif and Khan Abdul Qayyum Khan, who convinced them to fight a holy war against the
non-believer to liberate their Muslim brothers. The arrival of these tribesmen from porous
borders like Mirpur and Muzaffarabad was a big strike to the Dogra troops. In a very short
time, they managed to liberate a large territory. By the 25 th of December 1947, they reached
the outskirts of Srinagar.22 But instead of progressing further they lost their concentration and
indulged in plundering and looting. They not only looted the possessions of non- Muslims but
they also snatched the ornaments from their ears of alive Muslim women. This misbehaviour
by tribesmen is still considered as the black episode in the history of Jammu and Kashmir.
After negotiating with the leadership of the Indian government, Maharaja Hari Singh signed
an instrument of accession with India on the 26 th of December 1947. After this, the Indian
troops properly landed to rescue the dwindling control of Dogra troops over the State of Jammu
and Kashmir.
Massacre in Jammu
The Partition plan on one side brought joy as it was a declaration of ending the foreign rule
from the sub-continent, but on the other hand a series of communal riots and violence erupted
from Bengal to Punjab. 23The most affected region of this violence was Punjab in which all the
communities including Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs became the victim of these riots. Hundreds
and thousands of people lost their lives while more were compelled to displace from their
houses. Millions of Muslims from Eastern Punjab migrated to West Punjab, while the Sikhs
22
Saraf, Fight for Freedom Vol II, 903.
23
Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh, The Partition of India, (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2009), 67.
49
and Hindus were moving eastwards from newly born Pakistan to India. 24 Being adjacent to
Punjab, the Jammu province also caught the fire of these violent activities. Some migrants from
East Punjab traveled through the route that goes from Sialkot that passes through Jammu to
Eastern Punjab. On the way, they told the traumatic stories of the brutal massacre of Hindus
and Sikhs by Muslims of Western Punjab. These stories ignited the sentiments of Jammunites
who were already furious with the Muslims due to the revolt of Poonchis. According to
Australian historian Ian Copland, the massacre of Muslims in Jammu was occurred to take
revenge for the uprising in Poonch. 25
In mid-August 1947, a series of inter-religious riots started in Jammu province. Although all
the communities were affected by this violence and brutality but its impact was more observed
in the Hindu majority districts of Jammu, so it turned out as a massacre that was committed by
Hindus and Sikhs against Muslims. The bands of pan-Hindu and Sikh organisations like
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSSS) and Akali Dal initiated a brutal genocide of Muslims
in the Jammu City. 26 After killing they plundered their possession and put their houses on fire.
It was also reported that the Maharaja Hari Singh not only assisted this massacre of Muslims
in Jammu but it was actually instigated and organised by his administration. The uprising in
Poonch was so obnoxious was him that he attempted to completely eliminate the Muslims and
change the demographics of Jammu.27 The killings happened in such a large number that the
24
Farooq Ahmad Dar, Communal Riots in the Punjab: 1947,(Islamabad : National Institute of
Historical and Cultural Research , Centre of Excellence , Quaid-i-Azam University,2003),139.
25
Ian Copland, State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely India, c. 1900–1950,
(London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 143.
26
Luv Puri, Across the Line of Control: Inside Pakistan-administered Jammu and Kashmir,
(London: C. Hurst & Co., 2012), 25-26.
27
Ilyas Ahmad Chattha, “Partition and Its Aftermath: Violence, Migration and the Role of
Refugees in the Socio-Economic Development of Gujranwala and Sialkot Cities, 1947-1961”PhD diss.,
(Centre for Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies, School of Humanities, University of the Southampton,
2009), 179.
50
ratio of killings only in Jammu City was more than that killing in Punjab. 28 Nevertheless, the
newspaper of that time did not report those killing on such a large scale.
Table 4.129
Violence against Muslims in Jammu Province reported by several Englishmen
Inct Date (1947) Location Total Women PE Survived
Muslims separated Taken
Killed
1 20 October Near Kathua 8,000 No No 40
2 20 October Akhnur Bridge 15,000 No No 100
3 22 October Sambha 14,000 All women No 15
4 23 October Maogoan 25,000 All women Yes 200
5 5 November Jammu City 4,000 Young Women Yes 900
6 6 November Jammu City 2800 No No 3
7 9 November To Suchergarh 1,200 Seven Yes 1,193
Total 70,000 2,448
Remarkably, this violence broke out only in Jammu, while Kashmir remained peaceful. The
reason behind this contrast was the demographic distribution of Jammu province. The eastern
Jammu was a Hindu majority area while the western Jammu had a Muslim population in
majority. So there was a clear polarity in the aspirations and political inclinations of both
communities. The Muslims of Jammu wanted the state of J&K to join Pakistan while the
Hindus and Sikhs were in the favour of joining the state with India. After these killings, the
Muslims of western Jammu became courageous to defend themselves against the atrocities of
Dogra. One of the factors behind tribal invasions was also the massacre of Muslims in Jammu.
Similarly, the inspiration to form their own government was also to protect the life and rights
of Jammunite Muslims.
Snedden, “What Happened to Muslims in Jammu?” 112.

28
Based on ‘Englishmen’s Account of Kashmir Muslims Plights’, Civil and Military Gazette,
29
18 December, 1947.
51
Formation of Azad Kashmir Government
The turmoil in Poonch started after the refusal of paying tax to the government of Maharaja
had transformed into an organised revolt. The war which was initially started by disorganised
bands of local leader was turned into a war between two armies, in which one was guarding
the control of dynastic rule while the other had taken up the arms to eradicate that rule.
Regardless of these intention, the revolutionaries were not clear about the fate of their revolt.
The leadership of Muslim Conference was already confiscated by the Dogra Forces. Those
who managed to escape like Ibrahim Khan were busy in the organisation of the military. So, it
was an ambiguity about the political settlement after defeating the Dogras. The Azad Kashmir
Army was rapidly defeating the Dogras on different fronts. After liberating a large territory in
the western part of Jammu, a Provisional Government was formed by Muslim Conference on
24th October 1947. It was for the first time when a ‘parallel’ to that of the government of Dogras
was formed after 1846.30 The formation of the Provisional Government of Azad Jammu and
Kashmir was a momentous step of revolutionaries of Azad Kashmir Forces and the All Jammu
Kashmir Muslim Conference. The capital of this government was established in the small town
of Palandri in the Poonch district. While Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan was nominated as
the first president of this government.
30
52
Conclusion
The upheaval of Poonchi Muslims against the rule of Maharaja Hari Singh in 1947 was one of
the main cause behind the origination of the Kashmir Dispute. In response to the imposition of
heavy taxation, a ‘no tax’ campaign was started by the Poonchis in the early 1947.Instead of
resolving the legitimate demands of state’s subjects, the Dogra monarch decided to supress
their peaceful demonstrations by using force. The Dogra troops started an indiscriminate
violence over the innocent villagers of Poonch. As the situation got worse, the leadership of
Poonchis decided to organise an army to retaliate against the oppressive regime. The peaceful
non-cooperation agitation was transformed into a violent struggle. The skirmishes between the
state forces and insurgents took the shape of an organised revolt. The state forces failed to
protect their possession from the revolutionary army of the indigenous people.
Irrespective of this continuous deterioration, Maharaja relied on the strength of his own forces
to control the disobedient people of his realm. The revolt remained an internal affair of the state
till the arrival of Pakhtoon tribesmen from NWFP on 22nd of October 1947.To defend the
aggression of outsiders, Maharaja compelled to sign an instrument of accession with India on
26 October 1947.1 On the very next day, the first battalion of Indian troops was landed in to
protect the Srinagar Airport. The arrival of Indian troops on the soil of Kashmir was enough to
ignite the powder keg. The founding father of Pakistan ordered to start a war over Kashmir,
but the British commanding officers of Pakistan Army refused to enter their soldier in Jammu
and Kashmir. After passing some time, a direct war between India and Pakistan started in
Kashmir that lasted till 1 st of January 1949. After the negotiated ceasefire, the issue of
Kashmir’s accession was taken into United Nations for meditation. Irrespective of several
1
Jha, Origin of a Dispute, 69.
53
resolutions were adopted by United Nations in last 72 year, the possession of the erstwhile
princely state of Jammu and Kashmir is still a protracted dispute between India and Pakistan.
Regardless of the fact that the Kashmir was a Muslim majority province, it remained peaceful
throughout the phase of rebellion. The revolt was centred in the Muslim majority districts of
western part of Jammu province particularly in Poonch. There are several reasons that this anti-
Maharaja agitation was started and strengthen only in this part of the state and not elsewhere.
Firstly, the geography of Poonch played a key role in this respect. Being a distant principality
of Jammu and Kashmir, it was always a challenge for the government in Srinagar to govern
this area. The difficult terrain and weather conditions of Poonch developed the adaptability
among the residents to face harsh conditions. This made them favourable to perform hard
labour and serve in army. The second reason is the accumulation of a large number of ex-
servicemen of British Indian Army in this small area. Among several tribes resided in Poonch,
the Sudhans were most famous for their bravery and martial abilities. During the World War I
and World War II, around 40,000 to 60,000 Poonchis were recruited in the British Army. The
majority of these soldiers belonged to Sudhan tribe. After returning back to their villages, they
observed the inhumane attitude of government towards them. They refused to pay heavy
taxation and doing free labour for the Dogra administration. The third reason was the execution
of dual autocracy in Poonch by Maharaja Hari Singh in 1940. Poonch remained an internal
jagir of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir since 1846. The Poonchis were enjoying more
autonomy in separate rule. But when the status of jagir was taken back, their autonomy was
lost. They were put under the burden of double taxes, one tax for the central government while
the other tax to the Raja of Poonch. There were already little opportunities for Poonchis to earn
their livelihood. This was unacceptable for them to give tax, when they had very less for them.
The fourth and foremost reason the political aspirations of the Poonchis. They had more
inclination to join the newly established Muslims majority dominion Pakistan than to remain
54
under the rule of a Hindu monarch. The revolt which was initially started against the oppression
of the Maharaja was now added up with the desire to join their state with Pakistan. In this way,
the revolt in Poonch took a new shape.
The historical significance of Poonch revolt regarding the origination of Kashmir dispute could
not be neglected. It is often misunderstood that the arrival of Pakhtoon tribesmen actually
started the disturbance in Jammu and Kashmir, but the fact is that the tribesmen dared to attack,
after knowing about the victories of Azad Forces. This study also defies the misconception that
the dispute was instigated by the interferences from outsiders either from India or Pakistan.
Instead it was initiated by the indigenous people of Jammu and Kashmir. The Azad Army who
fought to liberate their territories only received assistance and aid from common people Punjab
and Hazara region. Otherwise all the efforts were carried out by the local leadership like Sardar
Muhammad Ibrahim Khan and Sardar Abdul Qayyum Khan. They gathered the distorted bands
under a single platform and provided them a direction to execute their plans. It was the
consequence of their efforts that the Dogra troops lost their control and retreated.
55
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58

Poonch Revolt Genesis of An Unending Crisis

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Poonch Revolt 1947: Genesis of an Unending Crisis

Ossama Bin Mushtaq

Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

Ossama Bin Mushtaq

Dr. Farooq Ahmad Dar

my undergraduate degree program he remained my inspiration. He is so kind and

i-Azam University, Seminar Library Department of History, Seminar Library Department of

Pakistan Studies Quaid-i-Azam University, Research Institutes such as Institute of Regional

the necessary material which proved very helpful for my work.

who forget their history, history forgets them.

inspiration for me in every field of life.

observing this derogatory behaviour of Maharaja’s administration they initiated an agitation

posing serious threats to global peace and security.

Initially, it was a peaceful agitation but turned into armed resistance.

the desire to join Pakistan.

of India, Pakistan, and China.

they had never happily accepted foreign rule over them.

role of the Poonchis is needed to be discussed

the Dogra rule?

Muslims and Hindus of Jammu province?

before the arrival of outsiders from India and Pakistan?

Scope and Significance

investigation of the whole episode of agitation.

intervention of administration of Pakistan.

wide and important phase of history.

the narratives given by different schools of thought.

elucidate their significance.

descriptive and analytical.

and west to conquer Kashmir.11

the 12th century A.D.

by their strength. Internecine fighting, corrupt officials, incompetent leadership, religious

people of this region were civilized in the past.

The arrival of Islam in Poonch

Shah (r.1389-1413) and Zain-ul-Abideen (r.1418-1470) are considered remarkable in this

family upheld friendly relations with them

supremacy over Poonch along with other hill states.20

Dogra Rule in Poonch

demolition of Poonch Jagir. It was then made a district of Jammu Province.

managed to govern the region for one hundred years.

traditions.29Throughout history, this tribe showed great resistance to foreign intruders

Role of Khan Muhammad Khan

of the Poonch Rebellion in 1947.

endured this setup with a low spirit.

intervene in the administration of Jammu and Kashmir. A ‘Council of Administration’ was

Rise of Political Consciousness

were not aware of their

the state level.

Poonchis recruitment in British Indian Army

and his regime.

tax policy on Poonch as,

rid of the oppressive regime.

Cultural and Religious Affiliations

language, known as Pahari-Pothwari (a dialect of Punjabi) spo)ken in the western part of

economic ties with Punjab through Jhelum town.

soldiers concentrated in a small area. After returning to Srinagar, he decided to install

under his jurisdiction turned the whole region into a garrison.

harmonious atmosphere of Jammu province. A handful of Hindu money-lenders and Sikh

between Muslims and non-Muslims.

Beginning of Armed Revolt

liberate his homeland from the clutches of the Dogra ruler.

claimants often regarded as the first to shot fire at Dogra Army.

Role of Political Parties

triggered an organised massacre of thousands of Jammunite 1 Muslims. 2 In the meanwhile, a