Culture, Economics, and Natural Resources

BRUNEI’S CULTURE

Islam is the official state religion of Brunei, and about two-thirds of

Bruneians are Muslims. Buddhists (mainly Chinese) make up about 13% of Brunei’s
population; Christian are 10%.
Visitors should dress modestly.
Shoes must be removed when entering mosques and Muslim homes.
Some Bruneians do not shake hands with people of the opposite sex.
It is impolite to point with the index finger (the right thumb should be used instead).
Food may be served without cutlery: eat using the right thumb should be used instead).
It is widely regarded as discourteous to refuse refreshments or to eat in public during Ramadan.
Visitors should note that there are severe penalties for all drug offences, and that the legal
system in Brunei is partly based on Shariah Law and can, occasionally, apply to non-Muslims,
including visitors.
Dress is informal except for special occasions
Women should ensure that their head, knees and arms are covered.

Language in Brunei

• Malay is the official Language. English is widely used and Chinese dialects are also
spoken.

Economy of Brunei

 A small and wealthy country, is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship,

government regulation and welfare measures, and village traditions. It is almost entirely
supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas, with revenues from the petroleum sector
accounting for over half of GDP. Per capita GDP is high, and substantial income from overseas
investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all
medical services and subsidizes food and housing

 The government has shown progress in its basic policy of diversifying the economy away from
oil and gas. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world
economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it has taken steps to become a
more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 APEC (Asian Pacific Economic
Cooperation) forum. Growth in 1999 was estimated at 2.5% due to higher oil prices in the
second half.

 Brunei is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia, averaging about 180,000 barrels per
day (29,000 m3/d). It also is the ninth-largest producer of liquefied natural gas in the world.

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  Oil and natural gas account for almost all exports. Since only a few products other than
petroleum are produced locally, a wide variety of items must be imported. Brunei statistics
show Singapore as the largest point of origin of imports, accounting for 25% in 1997. However,
this figure includes some transshipments, since most of Brunei's imports transit Singapore.
Japan and Malaysia were the second-largest suppliers. As in many other countries, Japanese
products dominate local markets for motor vehicles, construction equipment, electronic
goods, and household appliances. The United States was the third-largest supplier of imports
to Brunei in 1998.

 Brunei's substantial foreign reserves are managed by the Brunei Investment Agency (BIA), an
arm of the Ministry of Finance. BIA's guiding principle is to increase the real value of Brunei's
foreign reserves while pursuing a diverse investment strategy, with holdings in the United
States, Japan, western Europe, and the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
countries.
 The Brunei Government actively encourages more foreign investment. New enterprises that
meet certain criteria can receive pioneer status, exempting profits from income tax for up to
5 years, depending on the amount of capital invested. The normal corporate income tax rate
is 30%. There is no personal income tax or capital gains tax.
 One of the government's most important priorities is to encourage the development of Brunei
Malays as leaders of industry and commerce. There are no specific restrictions of foreign
equity ownership, but local participation, both shared capital and management, is encouraged.
Such participation helps when tendering for contracts with the government or Brunei Shell
Petroleum.
 Companies in Brunei must either be incorporated locally or registered as a branch of a foreign
company and must be registered with the Registrar of Companies. Public companies must
have a minimum of seven shareholders. Private companies must have a minimum of two but
not more than 50 shareholders. At least half of the directors in a company must be residents
of Brunei.
 The government owns a cattle farm in Australia that supplies most of the country's beef. At
2,262 square miles (5,860 km2), this ranch is larger than Brunei itself. Eggs and chickens are
largely produced locally, but most of Brunei's other food needs must be imported. Agriculture
and fisheries are among the industrial sectors that the government has selected for highest
priority in its efforts to diversify the economy.
 Since 2012, the Bruneian gross domestic product has been decreasing gradually. The Bruneian
government has put in place several steps to stem the decline of the country's economy.

Livestock’s

Bruneian farmers keep different types of livestock such as cattle and buffalo. Because Brunei
is a Muslim nation, in 1993 the government made it illegal for farmers to rear pigs. The most common
variety of poultry kept in Brunei is chicken which is kept for both meat and eggs. Brunei achieved self-
sufficiency in egg production, and it is considered to be nearly self-sufficient in the production of
poultry.

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 Natural Resources of Brunei

Land Resources

Estimates from the World Bank indicate that arable land in Brunei makes up 2.7% of the
country's total area. In 1996, the Bruneian agriculture sector contributed roughly 5% to the country's
gross domestic product. In 1980, due to the low quantities of food produced in Brunei, the nation was
forced to import close to 80% of its food crops.
The Bruneian government estimates that the country is close to being self-sufficient in the
production of vegetables. Rice is one of the most important food crops in Brunei due to the large
quantities of rice the Bruneian people consume. Despite its importance, only 1% of the rice eaten in
the country is grown within its borders. The government of Brunei has taken several steps to
modernize the country's farming sector such as introducing technology and irrigation schemes.
The Bruneian government is also actively encouraging farmers to grow citrus fruits, particularly
for the export market. Despite the measures that the government has put in place, the country's
agricultural sector has failed to grow. The lack of growth in Brunei's agricultural sector is because most
Bruneian people are not interested in working in the sector. According to the Bruneian labor
department, close to 4.5% of the Bruneian labor force worked in the country's agricultural sector. The
lack of interest is due to the low salaries that the Bruneian farming sector earns.

Forests

Data indicates that close to 72% of Brunei's total area was covered with forests in
2015. Since 2004, the amount of land in Brunei covered with forests has been declining significantly.
The decline in Brunei's forest cover is due to the need for land for other purposes. There are several
types of forests in Brunei such as lowland forests and peat swamp forests.
Mangrove forests are also widespread in Brunei, especially along the country's coast. The Bruneian
government estimates that peat swamp forests occupy roughly 15% of the country's total area.
Historical evidence indicates that mangrove forests previously covered most of the areas
currently covered by peat swamp forests. The most common forest variety of forest in Brunei is the
mixed dipterocarp forest. The Bruneian government estimates that the mixed dipterocarp forests
cover roughly 33% of the country's entire area. Several experts consider the forests in Brunei to be
among some of the best preserved in the world. The Bruneian forests are believed to play a significant
role in regulating the global climate. Due to the importance of forests in Brunei, the Bruneian
government has invested significantly in protecting the forests.

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 Brunei Jungle - Primary Rainforest Paradise

Beautiful Scenery

Brunei has been blessed with a variety of beautiful sites that draw visitors to the nation.
Brunei is famous for tourists due to the vast biodiversity within its borders. Brunei's forests are
particularly popular with eco-tourists. One of Brunei's premier tourist destinations is the Ulu
Temburong National Park. The park is also commonly referred to as the Faithful Park which is popular
because it was the nation's first park. The park is often referred to as Brunei's green jewel.
Several rivers flow through the Faithful Park with the major ones being the Belalong River and
the Temburong River. Brunei also has some historical sites that attract vast numbers of tourists with
the major one being the Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque.

Temburong bridge worth 1.7 Billion Dollar Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque

Oil

Brunei's most critical natural resource is oil as the sector contributes massively to the
country's economy. The oil sector has been the most crucial sector in Brunei for close to 80 years. Oil
exploration in Brunei began in the 19th century, and in 1899 the country's first oil well was drilled in
Bandar Seri Begawan. At the time six corporations were involved in the exploration of oil in Brunei.
Royal Dutch Shell, one of the companies involved in exploration for oil in Brunei. Due to the
low amount of oil that the companies discovered, they withdrew from Brunei and by 1918 only the
Royal Dutch Shell Corporation was actively involved in oil exploration in Brunei. Brunei's first
commercially viable oil field was the Seria field which was located on the country's western edge.

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 For a significant portion of Brunei's modern history, the field was the only commercially viable
oil field in the country. With the discovery of the field, several other companies began exploring for oil
in Brunei and from 1914 to 1960, close to 50 oil explorations were carried out in the country although
none of them was successful. By the early 1940s, the field produced roughly 17,000 barrels of oil each
day. Brunei achieved peak oil production during the late 1970s when the nation produced roughly.

China-Built Brunei Oil Refinery in 2019

Natural Gas

Apart from oil, Brunei also has significant deposits of natural gas and the nation is
1,341,957.3 cubic feet of oil each day. home to one of the largest natural gas processing plants in the
world. Most of Brunei's natural gas is for export and is primarily sold to Japan. Brunei also sells vast
quantities of natural gas to South Korea.

Brunei LNG Senderian Berhad

Cambodia’s Culture

Cambodia is some country rich in culture and customs, and it is often the people and
their traditions that capture visitors’ hearts. It pays well to learn a little about these ahead of your
holiday to make the most out of your time in the Kingdom of Wonder. Here are 11 things you should
know about Cambodian culture.

Courtship, Marriage and Divorce

In Cambodia, premarital sex is deplored. The choice of a spouse is a complex one for the young
male, and it may involve not only his parents and his friends, as well as those of the young woman,
but also a matchmaker. In theory, a girl may veto the spouse her parents have chosen. Courtship
patterns differ between rural and urban Khmer; romantic love is a notion that exists to a much greater
extent in larger cities. A man usually marries between the ages of nineteen and twenty-five, a girl
between the ages of sixteen and twenty-two. After a spouse has been selected, each family
investigates the other to make sure its child is marrying into a good family. In rural areas, there is a
form of bride-service; that is, the young man may take a vow to serve his prospective father-in-law for
a period of time.
The traditional wedding is a long and colorful affair. Formerly it lasted three days, but in the
1980s it more commonly lasted a day and a half. Buddhist priests offer a short sermon and recite

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prayers of blessing. Parts of the ceremony involve ritual hair cutting, tying cotton threads soaked in
holy water around the bride's and groom's wrists, and passing a candle around a circle of happily
married and respected couples to bless the union. After the wedding, a banquet is held. Newlyweds
traditionally move in with the wife's parents and may live with them up to a year, until they can build
a new house nearby.
Divorce is legal and relatively easy to obtain, but not common. Divorced persons are viewed
with some disapproval. Each spouse retains whatever property he or she brought into the marriage,
and jointly-acquired property is divided equally. Divorced persons may remarry, but the woman must
wait ten months. Custody of minor children is usually given to the mother, and both parents continue
to have an obligation to contribute financially toward the rearing and education of the child. The
divorced male doesn't have a waiting period before he
can re-marry.

Social Organization

Khmer culture is very hierarchical. The greater a person's age, the greater the level of respect
that must be granted to them. Cambodians are addressed with a hierarchical title corresponding to
their seniority before the name. When a married couple becomes too old to support themselves, they
may invite the youngest child's family to move in and to take over running the household. At this stage
in their lives, they enjoy a position of high status.

Legally, the husband is the head of the Khmer family, but the wife has considerable authority,
especially in family economics. The husband is responsible for providing shelter and food for his family;
the wife is generally in charge of the family budget, and she serves as the major ethical and religious
model for the children, especially the daughters. Both husbands and wives are responsible for
domestic economic tasks.

Customs

In Khmer culture a person's head is believed to contain the person's soul --therefore
making it taboo to touch or point your feet at it. It is also considered to be extremely
disrespectful to point or sleep with your feet pointing at a person, as the feet are the lowest
part of the body and are considered to be impure.

When greeting people or showing respect in Cambodia people do the "sampeah"

gesture, identical to the Indian namaste and Thai wai.

Customary Cambodian teachings include: that if a person does not wake up before
sunrise he is lazy; you have to tell your parents or elders where you are going and what time
you are coming back home; close doors gently, otherwise you have a bad temper; sit with your
legs straight down and not crossed (crossing your legs shows that you are an impolite person);
and always let other people talk more than you.

In Cambodia it is not polite to have eye contact with someone who is older or someone
who is considered a superior.

Khmer Clothing

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 Clothing in Cambodia is one of the most important aspects of the culture. Cambodian fashion
is divided by the people's differing castes and social classes. Cambodians traditionally wear a
checkered scarf called a "Krama". The "krama" is what distinctly separates the Khmer (Cambodians)
from their neighbors the Thai, the Vietnamese, and the Laotians. The scarf is used for many purposes
including for style, protection from the sun, an aid (for your feet) when climbing trees, a hammock for
infants, a towel, or as a "sarong". A "krama" can also be easily shaped into a small child's doll for play.
Under the Khmer Rouge, krama of various patterns were part of standard clothing

Cambodians are resilient

Faced with any challenge, Cambodians have the innate ability to pick themselves up, dust
down and carry on. Evidence of this can be seen in the country’s recent tragic history with the Khmer
Rouge. While the horrors will certainly never be forgotten, and scars will be carried for generations,
the country has quickly rebuilt itself back up from the war and has
paved a promising path ahead.

Cambodians are gentle

Another trait ingrained in Cambodians is their gentle nature. They are kind, caring, sweet and
always wear a smile – even in the direst of disasters, making them a little easier to deal with. As a
deeply Buddhist country, the philosophy of being caring and compassionate forms part of daily life in
Cambodia.

Cambodians are family orientated

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 Family comes first, second and third in Cambodia, with life revolving around the home.
Families also tend to be large, with siblings, aunties, uncles, cousins and other distant relatives coming
together during large celebrations, such as Pchum Ben and Khmer New Year, to celebrate.

Cambodians love to learn

While a middle-class is emerging, life remains tough for many Cambodians, who sit way below
the poverty line. Education, especially in the provinces, is basic. However, this doesn’t stop
Cambodians though, who will teach themselves everything and anything in a manner of innovative
ways. Ask the majority of youngsters where they learned English, Japanese, painting, DJing, playing
musical instruments – the list goes on – eight times out of 10, the answer will be on YouTube.

Cambodians are religious

Buddhism rules in Cambodia, with 97% of the population following Theravada Buddhism. And
the majority of Cambodians practice their religion, including younger generations. Monks are
respected, pagodas litter the country, images of Buddha hang in homes above offerings, and temples
are attended during religious holidays.

Cambodians are superstitious

Superstition almost runs parallel to religion in Cambodia, with the belief o f spirits and
superpowers running rife – a factor that perhaps explains Cambodians’ obsession with horror films.
Blessings are given before new businesses open, fortune tellers predict the lucky day for couples to
wed, caged songbirds are released for a small sum of riel for good luck – the list goes on.

Cambodians are Traditional

Cambodia is still a very traditional country. While this

is changing with each generation, for now it remains steeped in traditions that both young and old live
by. This is something worth remembering as a visitor. They are generally modest people so being
overly affectionate in public, flashing way too much flesh and drunken brawls in the street will be
frowned upon.

Cambodians exude national pride

Cambodians are proud of their country, their history and their culture. As home to Angkor Wat
and the birthplace of the great Angkor Empire, which ruled over many parts of Southeast Asia during
its peak from the 11th- to 13th-centuries, locals love their unique and special heritage.

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 Economy of Cambodia

Agriculture

Agriculture is the traditional mainstay of the Cambodian

economy. Agriculture accounted for 90 percent of GDP in 1985 and employed approximately 80
percent of the work force. Rice is the principle commodity.

Major secondary crops include maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, groundnuts, soybeans,
sesame seeds, dry beans, and rubber. The principal commercial crop is rubber. In the 1980s it was an
important primary commodity, second only to rice, and one of the country's few sources of foreign
exchange.
Although Cambodia exports mainly garments and products from agriculture and fisheries, it is
striving to diversify the economy. There is some evidence of expansion in value-added exports from a
low starting point, largely thanks to the manufacture of electrical goods and telecommunications by
foreign multinationals implanted in the country. Between 2008 and 2013, high-tech exports climbed
from just US$3.8million to US$76.5 million.
It will be challenging for Cambodia to enhance the technological capacity of the many small
and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) active in agriculture, engineering, and the natural sciences.
Whereas the large foreign firms in Cambodia that are the main source of value-added exports tend to
specialize in electrical machinery and telecommunications, the principal task for science and
technology policy will be to facilitate spillovers in terms of skills and innovation capability from these
large operatorstowards smaller firms and across other sectors

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 Tourism

In the 1960s, Cambodia was a prominent tourist destination in the Southeast Asian
region. Due to protracted periods of civil war, insurgencies, and especially the genocidal regime of the
Khmer Rouge (see Khmer Rouge Genocide), Cambodia's tourism industry was reduced to being
virtually non-existent. Since the late 1990s, tourism is fast becoming Cambodia's second largest
industry, just behind the garment manufacturing. In 2006, Cambodia's tourism sector generated a
revenue of US$1.594 billion, which made up approximately 16% of the country's GDP.
The tourism industry in Cambodia has been perpetuated by the development of important
transportation infrastructure; in particular Cambodia's two international airports in Phnom Penh and
Siem Reap respectively. To the Cambodian economy, tourism has been a means for accumulation of
foreign currency earnings and employment for the Cambodian workforce, with about 250,000 jobs
generated in 2006. Meanwhile, challenges to the industry include a leakage of revenue to foreign
markets due to a dependence on foreign goods as well as the prevalence of the Child sex tourism
industry

Siem Reap

Cambodia’s economic growth rate increased by about 10% each year between 2004 and 2008,
but in 2009 the growth rate saw a decline because of the global recession. However, the country
managed to improve its economic status in 2010 and 2011 mainly through its renewed exports and
tourism sector. The country’s GDP as of 2011 was $33.89 billion

Natural Resources of
Cambodia

Cambodia’s key natural resources include gemstones, gas, oil, phosphates, manganese, iron
ore and timber.

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 In 2010, the country’s industrial mineral sector produced an increasing amount of crushed
stone and sand and gravel. These minerals were consumed by the country’s construction industry,
and limestone was consumed domestically for the production of
cement.

Industrial Minerals

In 2010, an agreement was signed by the national company Chip

Mong Group with Siam Thailand’s City Cement Plc. to construct a cement factory in Cambodia’s
Province of Kampot. This new facility, that will be the country’s second cement factory, was estimated
to produce 1 to 1.5 Mt of cement annually. The feasibility study of this new plant reached its final
stage in 2011 and will be completed after a few months. A period of two years has been
scheduled for the construction of this new plant.

Metals

In 2010, a bauxite exploration program scheduled for two years was started by the
Vietnam National Coal and Mineral Industries Group (Vinacomin).
In the same year, Australia’s Indochine Mining Ltd. started two copper and gold exploration
projects in Cambodia. These projects were the Ratanakiri project in Rotanokiri and the Kratie project
in Province of Kracheh.
The Okvau gold project in Cambodia identified a gold mineralized system within the tenement
area. A number of Provinces in the eastern part of the country was considered to be suitable for the
exploration of base metals and gold. Seven exploration licenses in these Provinces were owned by
Southern Gold in 2010.

Fossil Fuels

The offshore oilfield Block A, located off the cost of Cambodia, was controlled by the Chevron
Corp of the Unites States. Three exploration wells were drilled by the company, which unfortunately
resulted in no proven reserves.
In 2010, JOGMEC and the Cambodian National Petroleum Authority signed an agreement to
jointly operate the country’s oil and gas sector. As part of this agreement JOGMEC decided to discover
oil reserves by surveying an area covering 6,500 km2 located in the Tonle Sap basin.
Cambodia’s environment provides natural resources including forests, waterways, plants and
wildlife. Natural resources also include minerals, energy and extractives. The environment is varied,
covering at least seven distinct landscapes across the country. Just under two-thirds of Cambodia’s
population depend on agriculture, forest products and fisheries for their livelihoods,1 so the
management of the environment and natural resources is of great importance. Cambodia’s
environment is also considered a resource for the world. Part of the Burma Indochina Hotspot,
Cambodia is a treasure house of biodiversity. So far, around 8,260 species of plant, 874 species of fish,
500 species of bird and more than
250 species of amphibian and reptile have been identified.2 On the Red List of the IUCN
(International Union for Conservation of Nature), 264 species are listed as threatened in Cambodia.3
However, economic development has led to significant environmental changes since the 1990s.
Although Cambodia’s geography is dominated by the low-lying central plains that make up about
three-quarters of the country, there are several other distinct landscapes: forested highlands
(including the Cardamon, Dangrek and Chhlong mountains; flooded forest; the Tonle Sap lake and
Mekong river system; the eastern plains or highlands; central forest; the coastal region that includes

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mangrove wetlands; and islands of the Gulf of Thailand. With about two-thirds of Cambodia—
including the Tonle Sap—sitting in the Mekong basin, it’s environment and ecosystems contribute
significantly to the health of the whole Mekong region, and especially the Mekong Delta. From as early
as 2001, the FAO has highlighted changes to the Tonle Sap ecosystem brought on by siltation, agro-
chemicals, other pollution, changes to hydrology, irrigation and transportation, as well as the fact that
these changes impact the broader Mekong system.4 This highlights some of the main challenges facing
Cambodia’s environment and natural resources as the country’s economy develops. The growing and
increasingly urban population, who are earning more and demanding a more modern life-style, are
putting pressure on land, food resources and transportation needs.

CULTURES OF INDONESIA

Indonesia exhibits a rich diversity of cultural practices and products. The official language of
Indonesia is known as Indonesian or 'Bahasa Indonesian'. Indonesian is a standardized dialect of the
Malay language and was formulated at the time of the declaration of Indonesian independence in
1945. Malay and Indonesian remain very similar.
Although the official language, in reality it is most of the population's second language.
Due to the sheer size and fractured, island make-up of the country most people speak regional dialects
such as Minangkabau or Javanese. These will usually be spoken at home and in the local community
but at work or at school Indonesian is used.

There’s no such thing as an ‘Indonesian Culture’

There’s no such thing as an ‘Indonesian

Before we get into anything further, this is an important disclaimer. ‘Indonesia’ is a singular
term that names a particular nation, but there’s nothing uniform about its culture. There are at least
300 ethnic groups in Indonesia, each with their own set of customs and distinctive cultural objects.
That doesn’t mean there aren’t any similarities or tendencies between one culture to the other, but
when reading this phrase keep in mind the diversity that comes with it. Often what considered as
Indonesia’s culture is in fact an image of a
dominant one or reflects an amalgamation of certain similar cultures.

Families are as close as they come

No matter how old or independent they are, Indonesians tend to keep tight relationships with
members of their family. For many Indonesian youths, moving out of parents’ house is simply not a
thing, even when they already have a stable income of their own. Many choose to live under their
parents’ roof unless they absolutely have to (many Indonesians leave their hometown to get a job in
the city). And it’s not necessarily a sign of dependency, it just shows the values and principles the
nation has when it comes to family.
Some households even consist of extended family — you’ll see grandparents, aunties, uncles,
and nieces living together or staying in the same neighborhood just to be close to each other.

Religious commitments come first

When in Indonesia, you’ll see Balinese present their offerings first thing in the morning, or
employees dropping everything for prayer time. No matter what religion they uphold, Indonesians are

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generally very spiritual. They take their religious practices very seriously, and that is reflected in daily
rituals, ceremonies, even the grandness of their places
of worship.

There are six religions in Indonesia

Indonesia is notorious with its huge Muslim population; the largest in the world despite being
a secular country by law. But Islam is just one of six official religions acknowledged in the country —
Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. In Bali, for example, the
dominant religion is Hinduism, and there are localities where there are more Christians than Muslims.

Traditional belief systems

Indonesia’s diversity extends to the variety of belief systems as well. M any communities still
live traditionally and still uphold the religions and practices of their ancestors, often unique to the
locality. But to categorize, many belief systems draw from animism, dynamism, and totemism. In some
communities, those beliefs interact with traditions or influenced by another mainstream religion,
resulting in a myriad of unique practices.

Putu Bagus Susastra / Culture Trip

Indonesians are collective

Since its earliest history, Indonesians have always been communal. Farmers work
together to cultivate their lands and manage resources, villages keep close-knit communities and take
care of each other, and cultural values push forward principles of collectivism. Even in modern settings
like the office workplace and modern communities, you’ll see the inclusiveness and friendliness of
Indonesians.

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 Indonesians love spicy, savory food

The archipelago is rich with herbs and spices, which shape traditional recipes to utilize the
abundance of those ingredients. In fact, many Indonesian dishes may come out strong to tourists’
tongues. Recipes do vary from one locality to another, according to the main crops in the area.
Javanese, for instance, tend to like sweeter meals due to the abundance of cane and palm sugar. But
many other locales like Padang, Manado, and Bali, sure do not hold back on their chili and spices.

A complete Indonesian meal © keem1201 / Pixabay

Every place has a legend

It’s fascinating to learn the geological processes that make mountains, hills, and rivers. But
Indonesians go beyond tectonic plates and erosion to explain how natural landmarks came to be. In
most places, you can talk to the locals and dig stories of gods, spirits, royals, or hermits that contribute
to the forming of a particular spot like natural features, temples, or other cultural landmarks.

Prambanan Temple, Indonesia © Berry/Flickr

Indonesians celebrate everything

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 From a child’s first step on the ground to certain months of pregnancy, many cultures in
Indonesia has special ceremonies for even the tiniest milestones. Many cultures also make a huge deal
out of life events like weddings and funerals, mixing them with mesmerizing traditional customs and
celebrations. There are also communal celebrations like a myriad of different ceremonies of harvest
or thanksgiving, and special dates associated
with legends or history.

Indonesians are traditional

And no, we’re not talking about those living in traditional remote villages. Many Indonesians
who find themselves in modern settings still find ways to integrate their traditions and cultural values
into the contemporary lifestyle. Some companies still consult traditional almanacs or spiritual elders
to determine a good day to do business, and many young professionals still throw traditional
ceremonies for their weddings, whether out of the family’s demands or out of their own volition, but
the traditions live on.

Traditional parade in Indonesia © AQanta S Sutarjo/Flickr

Indonesians love making and performing arts

Indonesia’s rich culture begets so many inspired works of art — paintings, scu lpture,
music, dance, theatre, and more. From the ancient times to contemporary era, Indonesian artists keep
drawing inspiration from the archipelago’s culture, values, and nature, ensuring the art scene stays
alive and progressing.

Indonesia’s Economy

The economy of Indonesia is the largest in Southeast Asia and is one of the emerging market
economies of the world. As an upper-middle income country and member of the G20 Indonesia is
classified as a newly industrialized country. It is the 16th largest economy in the world by nominal GDP
and the 7th largest in terms of GDP (PPP). Estimated at US$40 billion in 2019, Indonesia’s Internet
economy is expected to cross the US$130 billion mark by 2025. Indonesia depends on domestic market
and government budget spending and its ownership of state-owned enterprises (the central
government owns 141 enterprises). The administration of prices of a range of basic goods (including
rice and electricity) also plays a significant role in Indonesia's market economy. However, since the
1990s, the majority of the economy has been controlled by individual Indonesians and foreign
companies.

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 In the aftermath of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the government took custody of a significant
portion of private sector assets through the acquisition of nonperforming bank loans and corporate
assets through the debt restructuring process and the companies in custody were sold for privatization
several years later. Since 1999 the economy has recovered, and growth has accelerated to over 4–6%
in recent years.
In 2012, Indonesia replaced India as the second-fastest-growing G-20 economy, behind China.
Since then, the annual growth rate has fluctuated around

Indonesia’s Natural Resources

Indonesia has abundant mineral resources, including tin, gold, natural gas, coal, nickel, and
copper. Silver, bauxite, and petroleum are also available in smaller quantities.
Globally, the country is:
A leading producer of copper, nickel, and gold.
A leading exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG).
The second-largest producer of tin

The key natural resources of the country include silver, coal, fertile soil, natural gas, petroleum,
gold, bauxite, tin, copper, timber, and nickel. Indonesia is a globally leading exporter of tin and thermal
coal. The mining industry in the country makes up 11.9% of its GDP. In 2010, foreign investment in the
mining sector exceeded $2.2 billion. Indonesia’s GDP is $1.139 trillion as of 2011.

Lao’s Culture

Laos developed its culture and customs as the inland crossroads

of trade
and migration in Southeast Asia over millennia. As of 2012 Laos has a population of roughly 6.4 million
spread over 236,800 km2 (91,400 sq miles), yielding one of the lowest population densities in Asia. Yet
the country of Laos has an official count of over forty-seven ethnicities divided into 149 sub-groups
and 80 different languages. The Lao Loum have throughout the country's history comprised the ethnic
and linguistic majority. In Southeast Asia, traditional Lao culture is considered one of the Indic cultures
(along with Burma, Thailand and Cambodia).
Despite its small population, Laos has no less than 68 tribal groups. About half of the population
in Laos are Lao Loum, "lowland Lao" who live in the river plains and mostly along the Mekong region.
Officially, this group includes the Lao Tai, who are subdivided into numerous subgroups. The Lao
Theung (20-30%), or "upland Lao", live on mid-altitude slopes (officially defined as 300-900m), and are
by far the poorest group, formerly used as slave labor by the Lao Loum. The label Lao Sung (10-30%)
covers mostly Hmong and Mien tribes who live higher up in the mountains and which have been
moving into Laos due to suppression in China about 200 years ago. Due to the lack of land and the
warmer climate, the Lao Sung (e.g. Hmong) have been living in rougher mountain areas since then.
They are also very known in the neighboring countries as well. There are also an estimated 2-5%
Chinese and Vietnamese, concentrated in the cities living in Laos. And it’s getting more, especially
Chinese people who come to invest and do trade or transfer forest into plantations!

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 Lao culture is a bit conservative, easygoing, and family and friend centered. The name of the
game is enjoyment and ease of life. While some parts of the culture might seem counter-intuitive to
the western mind, these tips will help you navigate the sabai, sabai Lao life.

Freedom of expression

Criticism of the Lao government is not

tolerated by citizens and you’ll be hard pressed to find Lao people who are open about their opinions
of communism, the party, or the seemingly infinite layers of bureaucracy. Instead, expect idioms and
euphemism to stand in for any direct criticism. If you criticize your own government, you might be met
with wide eyes. You’re better off to not talk about the Lao government at all.

The flag of Laos © Christian Haugen / Flickr

Sabai sabai or take it easy

Time is more of a suggestion in Laos. Don’t be surprised if waiting staff, hotel staff and store
clerks take their good old time and provide less than ideal customer service. If you’re meeting a Lao
friend, don’t be surprised if they flake on you or make you wait. And don’t be surprised if they bring
another friend or two along. It’ll be less of a headache if you forget about making plans ahead of time
all together and embrace the spirit of living in the moment.

You’re Fat

While talking about sex or dropping the F bomb or wearing a bikini is not appropriate in Lao
culture, talking about someone’s physical appearance is fair game. Expect to hear a lot of comments
about your looks, especially if you’re taller, blonder, fatter, skinnier, or have more facial hair than the
average Lao person. It’s totally normal for a Lao person to talk about how fat or skinny they are
compared to you. You might even get your love handles pinched.

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 Be aware your size may be commented on © Vicky7777 / Pixabay

The Lao calendar

Being primarily Buddhist, Laos has two calendars: The Gregorian calendar used for
business and the lunar calendar used for holidays and festivals. Pi Mai, or Lao New Year in the fourth
lunar month of 2018 marked the beginning of 2561 in the Buddhist calendar. The Boun Bung Fai rocket
festival is in the fifth lunar month. Boun Khao Phansa, at the start of the three-month long Buddhist
Lent is in the seventh lunar month. Bout That Luang is in the 12th lunar month.

Muan Baw? (Are you happy?)

Lao culture is centered on the pleasures of life:

eating, drinking, sleeping and chatting with friends. Work obligations rarely take priority over
socialization. It’s common to be asked if meals, weekend activities, weddings and whatever you’re
doing right now is “muan,” or enjoyable. When asked, always answer in the affirmative, regardless of
what you really think. The Lao avoid stress, do enough to get by and prioritize laughter with friends
and hanging out with family over achieving success or riches.

Wedding

If you’re are lucky enough to be invited to a Lao wedding, go! They are “the more the merrier”
type events and it’s not uncommon to attend your neighbor’s niece’s wedding or your co-worker’s
cousin’s wedding having never met the couple before. A baci ceremony is followed by a family-style
sit-down lunch or dinner and lots of Lao line dancing, some speeches and photos. Beer with ice and
Lao whisky will be free flowing and guests come and go as they please.

Lao Sin

Step foot in Laos and you’ll see women wearing calf-length tubular skirts. The sin sits high on
the waist, has a hook closure and a decorative, often embroidered foot, or bottom. Schoolgirls wear
navy or black sins, government employees wear khaki sins and matching tops every Monday, and all
women will wear sins to weddings or temple functions. Weaving and embroidery patters will vary by
geographic location and ethnicity of the weaver, but the basic shape remains.
.

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 Buddhist Precepts

Buddha preached not to take life, steal, commit adultery, lie, and take intoxicants. Laos
has a very low theft rate and Lao people are some of the most honest and trustworthy when it comes
to others’ money and property. While the divorce rate is low, it’s not unheard of for a husband to take
a “mia noy” meaning “little wife” or mistress. Some non-Buddhist ethnic minorities practice polygamy,
and many Buddhists drink copious amounts of Beer Lao, bending the intoxicants rule.

Gender Bending Khatoeys

Laos is particularly accepting of the gay

community, including transgender individuals and cross dressing. Khatoeys or Ladyboys can be seen
working in hotels or restaurants, often with a full face of makeup, wig and enviable manicure. As part
of the nightlife scene, Ladyboys in Laos aren’t as likely to be sex workers as those in Thailand. That
being said, don’t accept solicitations for sex as prostitution (as well as consensual premarital sex
between a foreigner and Lao) is illegal in Laos. Public displays of affection are culturally inappropriate
in all contexts, even holding hands or a peck on the cheek can make locals uncomfortable, so save it
for after hours.

Ladyboys © Unknown / WikiCommons

What’s your Suu Lin

While Lao people are given a multi -syllabic formal first name when they’re born, they
often go by their one-syllable Suu Lin, or “play name.” Lao people sometimes have different nicknames
in different social circles and its not uncommon to never learn your friends’ full given names.
Nicknames are given to babies to ward off evil spirits and are often unflattering,

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with literal translations of “fat,” “wide,” “small,” or “eye.”

Stop, Look and Listen

Lao drivers are erratic, accidents are all too common, drunk driving is rampant and
motorbike drivers can often be seen driving the wrong way on a one-way street, on the sidewalk, right
up into a building or through the market. Be vigilant about your surroundings and don’t assume that
drivers see you or that they will yield or slow down if they do. Same goes for crosswalks: look both
ways and don’t assume that just because you have the light in your favor, someone else won’t run a
red light.

Sisavangvong Road in Luang Prabang, Laos © Jakub Hałun / WikiCommons

Economy of Laos

The economy of Laos is a rapidly growing lower -middle income developing economy.
Being one of four remaining socialist states, the Lao economic model resembles the Chinese socialist
market and/or Vietnamese socialist-oriented market economies by combining high degrees of state
ownership with an openness to foreign direct investment and private ownership in a predominantly
market-based framework.
The government of Laos, one of the few remaining one-party communist states, began
decentralizing control and encouraging private enterprise in 1986. Economic growth averaged more
than 6% per year in the period 1988-2008, and Laos' growth has more recently been amongst the
fastest in Asia, averaging more than 7% per year for most of the last decade. Nevertheless, Laos
remains a country with an underdeveloped infrastructure, particularly in rural areas. It has a basic, but
improving, road system, and limited external and internal land-line telecommunications. Electricity is
available to 83% of the population. Agriculture, dominated by rice cultivation in lowland areas,
accounts for about 20% of GDP and 73% of total employment. Recently, the country has faced a
persistent current account deficit, falling foreign currency reserves, and growing public debt.
Laos' economy is heavily dependent on capital-intensive natural resource exports. The economy
has benefited from high-profile foreign direct investment in hydropower dams along the Mekong River,
copper and gold mining, logging, and construction, although some projects in these industries have
drawn criticism for their environmental impacts.
Despite the global financial crisis, the Lao economy has performed relatively well. The GDP has
reported stable growth at above 7 percent in 2009 and it is projected to continue growing steadily in
the coming years. A large part of this growth comes from increased foreign investment flows in
industrial and agricultural sectors including hydropower and mining as well as industrial forestry and
agricultural crop plantation and tourism.
The agriculture and forestry sector saw average growth of 4.1 percent annually over the period
2005 to 2010, accounting for 30.4 percent of total GDP, while industry sector (mining and hydropower)
grew by 12.5 percent annually over the same period, accounting for 26 percent of total GDP. The
service sector also grew by 8.4 percent per year over the same period, accounting for 37.2 percent of
GDP.

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 The Lao economy will continue to benefit from international aid and from foreign investment in
hydropower and mining. Construction will be another strong economic driver, especially as
hydroelectric dam and road projects gain steam. In late 2004, Laos gained Normal Trade Relations
status with the United State, allowing Laos-based producers to benefit from lower tariffs on exports.
Laos is taking steps to join the World Trade Organization in the next few years; the resulting trade
policy reforms will improve the business environment. On the fiscal side, a value-added tax (VAT)
regime, slated to begin in 2008, should help streamline the government’s inefficient tax system.
In addition, the first Lao stock market, a joint venture between the Lao government and Korean
Stock Exchange is expected to officially open on 10 October 2010. The stock market would be a source
of long-term funding for investment and business.

Lao Natural
Resources

Laos features a diversity of landscapes and ecosystems. The country is landlocked and heavily forested,
with 80% of land cover featuring hilly or mountainous terrain, and the remaining 20% comprising
plateaus and lowland valleys along the Mekong floodplain.

Land and Minerals Resources

Forest (including primary and potential forests) covers the majority of land area in the country
(>80%). 10% of total land is used for agriculture, while arable soil for cultivation is responsible for less
than 7% of total area.
Laos has rugged mountainous terrain with rich mineral resources. Crucial minerals previously
exploited include copper, gold, iron and silver, while other minerals for commodities are coal, gypsum,
lead, potash, sapphire, tin and zinc. The mining and quarrying industry is important to the
development of infrastructure and the economy by providing resources and generating revenues from
investments, contributing roughly 10,500 billion kip to the total GDP in 2017, a 7% increase from 2013.

Forest resources

As of 2015, Laos has approximately 13.2 million hectares of forest area. Mixed deciduous forest is the
most dominant, accounting for about 9.4 million hectares. The other types of forest include dry
dipterocarp, dry evergreen, coniferous and mixed coniferous and broadleaved forest. Besides these,
there are also unstacked forest of regenerating vegetation and bamboos (27.30% of total area). Forest
resources are crucial to economic development and livelihoods in Laos. The forestry rents contributed
3.8% to GDP in 2016.5 Forest also provides invaluable non-timber forest products (NTFPs), which
sustain food, medicine and income for subsistence in rural areas.

Water resources

It is estimated that surface and groundwater flows from Lao watersheds, including vast
areas of land with low productivity, contribute 35% of the total average flow of the Mekong River, with
80% of these flows supplied during the wet season.
The Mekong is the main river of the country, with a total distance of 1,860 km flowing from north
to south, forming a long border with Thailand. Laos is estimated to take up 25% of Mekong basin,

Module 1 21
which supplies 270 billion m³ of fresh water per year nationwide. There are 39 tributaries and sub-
tributaries in the Mekong basin in Laos. Water provides the country with resources for irrigation,
fisheries, plantations, livestock, and hydropower potential (~ 23,000 MW in capacity), as well as urban
and rural water supply. With a huge volume of fresh water, solely 5.7 billion m³ has been used annually.
Water is predominantly used for agriculture (82%), followed by industry (10%), and the rest for
household purposes. Wetlands are also a significant environmental resource for Laos. There are 30
major wetland sites comprising in total one million hectares. Of these, the Beung Kiat Ngong wetlands
in Champasak and the Xe Champone Wetlands in Savannakhet are the two wetlands designated as
Ramsar wetlands of international importance in Laos.

Mountainous landscape in Laos. Photo by Erdmann-Crew (Pixabay) taken on January 16, 2016.
Licensed under CC0 1.0.

Loss of Biodiversity

Laos is one of the most biodiverse countries in Southeast Asia. Surveys haveidentified
247 animal species including rare species like the Saola (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis), and the Giant
Muntjac (Megamuntiacus vuquangensis). More than 481 species of fish have been identified in Laos,
including 22 exotic species. However, it has been recognized that the country’s biodiversity has been
negatively impacted by deforestation. Biodiversity has also been impacted by the trade of
economically valuable wildlife from Lao forests to Vietnamese and Chinese markets, as well as the
illegal transit of wildlife from South Africa through Laos to Vietnam and China. Other drivers of
biodiversity loss include destructive logging techniques and the construction of roads that facilitate
increased access to forested areas by wildlife hunters.

Minerals

Some of Laos' most important natural resources are its minerals which include coal,
copper, and gold. The mining industry is one of Laos' most important industries as it contributed
approximately 7% of the country's GDP in 2012. During the 21st century, the Laotian mining industry
has attracted investment from foreign companies leading to the sector's growth. Some of Laos' most
important mines include the Sepon mine and the Hongsa mine. The Sepon mine is one of the most
important gold mines globally as its gold reserves are estimated to weigh more than 7.6 million ounces.

Module 1 22
 Malaysia’s Culture

A Multi-Cultural Society
Malaysia is a multi-cultural society. The main ethnic groups are the native Malays as well as
large populations of Chinese, and Indians. When visiting the country, it is clear that the ethnicities
retain their religions, customs and way of life. The most important festivals of each group are public
holidays.
Although growing up, children are educated in the same schools and will eventually work in
the same offices, few marry outside their own ethnicity. Families tend to socialize within their own
ethnic group – all part of retaining their individual traditions and lifestyles. Despite the ethnic
differences there are commonalities culturally speaking.
Group Orientation
The family is considered the center of the social structure. As a result, there is a great emphasis
on unity, loyalty and respect for the elderly. The family is the place where the individual can be
guaranteed both emotional and financial support. When one member of the family suffers a financial
setback, the rest of the family will contribute what they can to help out. Families tend to be extended,
although in the larger cities this will naturally differ.
The Concept of Face
Malays, Chinese and Indians all strive to maintain face and avoid shame both in public and
private. Face is a personal concept that embraces qualities such as a good name, good character, and
being held in esteem by one's peers. Face is considered a commodity that can be given, lost, taken
away, or earned. On top of this face also extends to the family, school, company, and even the nation
itself.

The desire to maintain face makes Malaysians strive for harmonious relationships.
Face can be lost by openly criticizing, insulting, or putting someone on the spot; doing
something that brings shame to the group; challenging someone in authority, especially if this is done
in public; showing anger at another person; refusing a request; not keeping a promise; or disagreeing
with someone publicly. Conversely, face can be saved by remaining calm and courteous; discussing
errors or transgressions in private; speaking about problems without blaming anyone; using non-
verbal communication to say "no"; and allowing the other person to get out of the situation with their
pride intact.
The Malays, who account for over half the Malaysian population, play a dominant role
politically and are included in a grouping identified as bumiputra. Their native language, Bahasa
Malaysia, is the national language of the country. By definition of the Malaysian constitution, all
Malays are Muslims. The Orang Asal, the earliest inhabitants of Malaya, formed only 0.5 percent of
the total population in Malaysia in 2000, but represented a majority in East Malaysia, Borneo. In
Sarawak and Sabah, most of the non-Muslim indigenous groups are classified as Dayaks, and they
constitute about 40 percent of the population in the state. Many tribes have converted to Christianity.
The 140,000 Orang Asli, or aboriginal peoples, comprise a number of different ethnic communities
living in peninsular Malaysia.
As of 2013 most Muslim Malaysian women wear the tudung, a type of hijab. This use of the
tudung was uncommon prior to the 1979 Iranian revolution, and the places that had women in tudung
tended to be rural areas. The usage of the tudung sharply increased after the 1970s. as religious
conservatism among Malay people in both Malaysia and Singapore increased.
Several members of the Kelantan ulama in the 1960s believed the hijab was not mandatory.
By 2015 the Malaysian ulama believed this previous viewpoint was un-Islamic.
By 2015 Malaysia had a fashion industry related to the tudung. By 2015 Muslim Malay society
had a negative reaction to Muslim women who do not wear tudung.

Module 1 23
 Norhayati Kaprawi directed a 2011 documentary about the use of tudung in Malaysia, "S. pa
Aku?" ("Who am I?"). It is in Malay, with English subtitles available.

“ Tudung”
Hari Yara

Economy of Malaysia

The economy of Malaysia is the sixth largest in Southeast Asia according to the International
Monetary Fund 2020. It is also the 39th largest economy in the world.
Malaysia has a newly industrialized market economy, which is relatively open and state-
oriented. The Malaysian economy is highly robust and diversified with the export value of high-tech
products in 2015 standing at US$57.258 billion, the second highest after Singapore in ASEAN. Malaysia
exports the second largest volume and value of palm oil products globally after Indonesia.
Since gaining independence in 1957, Malaysia has successfully diversified its economy from
one that was initially agriculture and commodity-based, to one that now plays host to robust
manufacturing and service sectors, which have propelled the country to become a leading exporter of
electrical appliances, electronic parts and components.
Malaysia is one of the most open economies in the world with a trade to GDP ratio averaging
over 130% since 2010. Openness to trade and investment has been instrumental in employment
creation and income growth, with about 40% of jobs in Malaysia linked to export activities. After the
Asian financial crisis of 1997-1998, Malaysia’s economy has been on an upward trajectory, averaging
growth of 5.4% since 2010, and is expected to achieve its transition from an upper middle-income
economy to a high-income economy by 2024.
However, the COVID-19 (coronavirus) pandemic has had a major economic impact on Malaysia,
particularly on its vulnerable households. With less than 1% of Malaysian households living in extreme
poverty (according to the official national poverty line), the government’s focus has shifted toward
addressing the well-being of the poorest 40% of the population (“the bottom 40”). This low-income
group remains particularly vulnerable to economic shocks as well as increases in the cost of living and
mounting financial obligations.
Income inequality in Malaysia remains high relative to other East Asian countries but is
gradually declining. While income growth for the bottom 40 has outpaced the top 60 over much of
the last decade, the absolute gap across income groups has increased, contributing to widespread
perceptions of the poor being “left behind.” Following the removal of broadbased subsidies, the
government has gradually moved toward more targeted measures to support the poor and vulnerable,
mainly in the form of cash transfers to low-income households.

Malaysia’s near-term economic outlook will be more dependent than usual on government
measures to sustain private sector activity as the shock of COVID-19 reduces export-led growth, and
as a depleted fiscal space limits public investment-led expansion. Over the longer term, as Malaysia
converges with high-income economies, incremental growth will depend less on factor accumulation
and more on raising productivity to sustain higher potential growth. While significant, Malaysia’s

Module 1 24
productivity growth over the past 25 years has been below that of several global and regional
comparators. Ongoing reform efforts to tackle key structural constraints will be vital to support and
sustain Malaysia’s development path.
According to the World Bank’s Human Capital Index, Malaysia ranks 55th out of 157 countries.
To fully realize its human potential and fulfil the country’s aspiration of achieving the high-income and
developed country status, Malaysia will need to advance further in education, health and nutrition,
and social protection outcomes. Key priority areas include enhancing the quality of schooling to
improve learning outcomes, rethinking nutritional interventions to reduce childhood stunting, and
providing adequate social welfare protection for household investments in human capital formation.

Natural Resources of Malaysia

Malaysia is rich in mineral resources, and mining (including petroleum extraction) accounts for a
significant portion of GDP, although it employs only a tiny fraction of the workforce. The major metallic
ores are tin, bauxite (aluminum), copper, and iron. A host of minor ores found within the country
include manganese, antimony, mercury, and gold. Tin is found largely in alluvial deposits along the
western slopes of the Main Range in Peninsular Malaysia, with smaller deposits on the east coast of
the peninsula; its production formed one of the pillars of the country’s economic development in the
mid-20th century. Malaysia’s bauxite production is centred near Johor at the south end of the
peninsula, while the country’s copper comes from western Sabah.

Malaysia’s most economically significant natural resource is tin; its tin deposits are the most
extensive in the world. Other important natural resources are bauxite, copper, gold, iron ore, natural
gas, petroleum, and timber.
Malaysia is the world’s leading tin producer and an important producer of other nonenergy
minerals including bauxite, coal, copper, gold, and iron. However, mining has declined in its
contribution to the economy and labor force. From 1980 to 2005, the percentage of the labor force
employed in mining and quarrying fell from 1.6 percent to an estimated 0.4 percent, and as a
percentage of gross domestic product mining and quarrying declined from 10.1 percent to 6.7 percent.
Until recently Malaysia was reliant tin, palm oil, rubber. Rare-earth producing countries include
Russia, Malaysia, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Rare earths are 17 minerals used in the manufacture of
hybrid cars, weapons, flat-screen TVs, mobile phones, mercuryvapor lights, and camera lenses. China
has about a third of the world's rare earth reserves but supplies about 90 percent of what is
consumed. It has placed restrictions on exports, sparking causing among manufacturers from Japan
to the U.S.

Module 1 25
 Myanmar Culture

Language

Myanmar (Burmese) is the country's official language, though English is spoken in

large towns and by elderly folk. There are also many languages and dialects among the 135 different
national races.
The modern alphabet consists of 33 letters (consonants) and 12 basic vowels (sequential
extensions result in 21 vowels) which are combined with various symbols (4 in basic, 11 in total
consonant combination symbols) to indicate the tones.

People

Myanmar is a union of over 100 national races with their own languages and dialects, The
major races are Bamar, Chin, Kachin, Shan, Kayah, Kayin, Mon and Rakhine.
Myanmar embraces all the national races. The population of Myanmar is 51 million with the
Bamar, the majority race making up about 70%.

Religion

Buddhism is the predominant religion of Myanmar and Theravada Buddhism is

embraced by about 80% of the population. The local temple is central to every community, and is also
a traditional place of education.
Every male person is expected to temporarily don the monk's robes at least once in his lifetime
usually as a young man. There is freedom of worship for other religions: Christianity, Islam, Hinduism
and Animism.
Neat and respectful dress should be worn in all religious shrines. It is not considered polite to
visit religious monuments in shorts, miniskirts or hot pants. Though shoes can be worn in temple
compounds, they should be removed before entering the chapel of the principal Buddha image.
Indeed, all Buddha images are regarded as sacred, regardless of size, age or position, and
should all be shown due respect. Buddhist monks are not allowed to touch or be touched by a woman,
or accept anything from a woman's hand.

Module 1 26
 Social

Names are preceded by a number of different titles. Ko is the

general title for an adult male. U (pronounced oo) precedes an older or well-respected man's name,
while Aung is used for younger men. A woman's name is preceded by Daw. A handshake is considered
an acceptable form of greeting.
Shoes are usually removed before entering a traditional home, though this may no longer be
expected in modern city residences. Displaying the soles of the feet is considered offensive, as is
pointing feet at people or objects or touching people on the head. Public displays of affection between
men and women are frowned upon. Small presents are acceptable and appreciated, although never
expected.

Dance
Main article: Dance in Burma
Dance in Burma can be divided into dramatic, folk and village, and nat dances, each having distinct
characteristics. Although Burmese dance has been influenced by the dance traditions. (yodaya aka), is
also popular in Myanmar, Yodaya is the named that was given by Burmese for Thailand. The yodaya
dance is only dance with yodaya for entertaining the royal families at royal court, it retains unique
qualities that distinguish it from other regional styles, including angular, fast-paced and energetic
movements and emphasis on pose, not movement.[

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 Music
Main article: Music of Burma

Two female musicians play the saung at a performance in Mandalay.

Various types of Burmese music use an array of traditional musical instruments, assembled in
an orchestra known as hsaing waing[7] which the Burmese saing saya Kyaw Kyaw Naing has made more
widely known in the West. Traditional folk music is atypical in Southeast Asian music, as it is
characterised by sudden shifts in rhythm and melody as well as change in texture and timbre.[8] An
instrument unique to Burma is the saung-gauk,[7] an arched harp that can be traced to pre-Hittite
times.

Classical traditions of Burmese music are found in the Mahagita, an extensive collection of
classical songs and are typically divided into indoor and outdoor ensembles. These songs tend to be
about various legends in Pali and subsequently in Burmese intermingled with Pali, related to religion
or the power and glory of monarchs, and then the natural beauty of the land, forests and the seasons,
eventually feminine beauty, love, passion and longing, in addition to folk music sung in the paddy fields.
Pop music, both adopted and homegrown, however, dominates the music of Burma today.

Customs

The "traditional" Burmese greeting is mingalaba (မင်္ဂလာပါ, from Pali maṅgala and roughly

translated as 'auspiciousness to you'); this is, however, a comparatively recent form of greeting,
originating in the 1960s as a replacement in schools for the English language greeting "Good
morning/afternoon, teacher" in the newly nationalised missionary schools.[9] Greetings such as "Have
you eaten?" (ထမင်း စာ်းပပပြီ်််းပပလလြီ ်ာ်််း Htamin sa pi bi la) and "How are you?" (နေေ ်ာင်း လာ်း

Module 1 28
Nei kaung la) are still common. "Hello" is also a popular greeting nowadays, whereas it used to be
confined to answering the phone.

Economy of Myanmar

The economy of Myanmar (also known as Burma) is an emerging economy with a nominal
GDP of $69.322 billion in 2017 and an estimated purchasing power adjusted GDP of $327.629 billion
in 2017 according to World Bank. For the 2018 estimate, GDP per capita in Myanmar will be $6,509 in
PPP per capita and $1,490 in nominal per capita.
Nearly half of Myanmar’s economic output—notably all large industrial enterprises, the
banking system, insurance, foreign trade, domestic wholesale trade, and nearly all the retail trade—
was nationalized in 1962–63. Agriculture and fishing were left in the private sector. In 1975–76,
however, the government reorganized nationalized corporations on a more commercial basis and
instituted a bonus system for workers. The overall economic objectives of self-sufficiency and the
exclusion of foreign investment also were revised. Foreign investment was permitted to resume in
1973, although only with the government. Following a military coup in 1988, both foreign and
indigenous private enterprise was encouraged.
Myanmar also has an extensive informal economy. Considerable quantities of consumer goods
are smuggled into the country, and teak and gems are exported both legally and illegally. In addition,
northern Myanmar is one of the largest producers of opium in the world.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing together

constitute the largest contributor to Myanmar’s economy. About half of all agricultural land in
Myanmar is devoted to rice, and to increase production the government has promoted multiple
cropping (sequential cultivation of two or more crops on a single piece of land in a single year), a
system that is easily supported by the country’s climate. As a whole, the sector accounts for nearly
one-half of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and employs about two-thirds of the labour
force.

Myanmar may be divided into three agricultural regions: the delta, where cultivation of rice in
flooded paddies predominates; the largely irrigated dry zone, an area primarily of rice production but
where a wide variety of other crops also are raised; and the hill and plateau regions, where forestry
and cultivation of rice and other crops through shifting agriculture are most important.

A major enterprise in Myanmar is tobacco production, consisting of government-owned

factories, which manufacture cigarettes, and cottage industries, which produce cheroots (a type of
small cigar). Other important industries include steel processing, the manufacture of nonelectrical
machinery and transportation equipment, and cement production. Textile factories have been

Module 1 29
established in Yangon, Myingyan, and other cities, but growth of the industry has been hindered since
the late 20th century by intermittent sanctions by foreign governments. Myanmar also produces
lumber, paper, processed foods (mainly rice), and some pharmaceuticals. Cottage industries are
encouraged by subsidies.

Natural Resources of
Myanmar

Myanmar has plenty of natural resources include natural gas, petroleum, timber and valuable
minerals such as gold, tin, rubies and jade. Although Myanmar has abundance of natural resources, its
development has never been on the right way due to lack of proper economic growth, extensive
poverty, military dictatorship and prolonged civil war.
In the early 1960s, Myanmar was the richest country in Asia with wealthy natural resources,
but then it closed its economy to the outside world and is now the poorest country in the region.
However, Myanmar has now opened up its economy to the outside world once again, and will soon
regain its former glory.
On June 28, Natural Resource Governance Institute (NRGI) has unveiled that Myanmar’s oil
and gas, various minerals, precious stones and gems are a failing grade for mismanagement according
to the 2017 Resource Governance Index (RGI). Myanmar performed extremely poorly across all four
components studied (institutional and legal setting, reporting practices, safeguards and quality
controls, and enabling environment) and scored lowest out of 58 countries included in the index.
Despite gradual improvements in oil, gas and mining sector governance since 2013, the country lacks
a strong legal framework or the capacity to implement laws and regulations. Myanmar lacks strong
management in the natural resource sector. It needs greater transparency and sustainable natural
resource management for the development of Myanmar’s natural resources
Many international investors have cast their eyes on Myanmar’s abundant natural resources
for commercial exploitation. This has prompted international pundits and commentators to speak
about a “gold rush” unfolding in the country. Other experts clearly state that there is “no treasure
trove waiting to be released here,” and highlight the difficulties facing investors due to the lack of high-
quality geological and geophysical data.

Today, Myanmar’s natural resources include oil and gas, various minerals, precious stones and
gems, timber and forest products, hydropower potential, etc. Of these, natural gas, rubies, jade, and
timber logs are the most valuable and currently provide a substantial proportion of national income.
To date, there has been a very low level of systematic exploration of Myanmar’s natural resources due
to lack of modern survey techniques. Although all resource sectors have different development
strategies, an overall strategy – particularly in the energy sector – might be described as “more and
quickly.” Since it was clear that reform was in process after the 2010 election, investors have flocked
to Myanmar looking for opportunities, particularly in the energy and mining sectors. Late in 2012, a
new foreign investment law was finally passed, after much debate, on the extent of possible foreign
ownership and investment restrictions. The 1994 mining law has yet to be reformed, and many
investors consider that a change of signature bonuses and the terms of productionsharing contracts
will be necessary before interesting in this sector.

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 Philippine Culture

Despite a string of largely unsympathetic rulers, the turbulent history of the Philippines has
nonetheless managed to produce a friendly, resilient, family-oriented, deeply religious and artistic
population, most of whom are indigenous, Spanish or of mixed heritage.
The culture of the Philippines comprises a blend of traditional Filipino and Spanish Catholic
traditions, with influences from America and other parts of Asia. The Filipinos are family oriented and
often religious with an appreciation for art, fashion, music and food.
Filipinos are also hospitable people who love to have a good time. This often includes getting
together to sing, dance, and eat. The annual calendar is packed with festivals, many of which
combine costumes and rituals from the nation’s pre-Christian past with the Catholic beliefs and
ideology of present day.
The Philippines is one of the richest countries and cultures that every Filipino citizen enjoys
and values. But over the decades, it seems that Filipinos have changed very quickly. This may be due
to modern technology and science or from modern thinking gained from the widespread influence of
the United States and other foreign countries.
Surely you too can say that Filipinos used to be and now are making a huge difference.
1.) THEN: Serenade(Harana)
In the daytime, it was not uncommon for villagers to hear the young man's voice as he held
his beloved girl. It is a declaration of the young man to his determined maiden of his love. Young
woman's singing is often answered by the girl through singing. With the young man patiently
accompanying the sweet remark, he gains the love of the girl he loves.
NOW: TEXTMATES OR CHATMATES Nowadays, it is only normal for teens to be adults who
want to seduce them by chat or text. Many have become lovers in this way.

2.) THEN: CHILDREN Obey and Respectful to their Parents.

Pagmamano (raising the hand to touch to your forehand) is a common practice of Filipinos to
show respect for the elderly. It refers to taking the hand of the elder and applying it to the forehead,
at the same time saying 'mano PO'. It is a sign of respect. NOW: KILLJOY AND TECHNOLOGY
Most teenagers today do not listen to their parents.

3.) THEN: MARIA CLARA THE WOMEN

In the past, the Filipino girl was inherently virtuous, modest, well-respected, and polite and
most of all not punished. Being a Filipino woman means that a girl possesses the virtues, the beautiful,
the submissive, the loving, and the other morals that make up the woman's chastity.
NOW: Most women are LIBERATED
Perhaps as a result of modernization, young women are compelled to play with men. If men
and women used to stick their hands together, they would have to get married, now even in bed or to
have sex that they do not have to marry.

Module 1 31
 Filipinos are very Resilient

In ti mes of calamities and catastrophes, Filipinos always manage to rise above the
challenge. Instead of wallowing, they manage to pick themselves up and smile.

Sins take part in clearing

operations as part of cash-for-work scheme,
Tacloban, Philippines © Roland Nagy/Alamy

Filipinos take pride in their Families

4.) THEN: The family eats together

The complete family dining table at each meal is one of the best practices of Filipinos.
The happy story is one of its bearings.
NOW: PHYSICALLY PRESENT BUT MENTALLY ABSENT TO THE FOOD
The true spirit of family communication is slowly dying out because dad, mom, sister and older
brother, and youngest don't leave the phone and other gadgets even in the face of hunger. Neglected
children are an unpleasant thing as a result.

5.) THEN: STREET GAMES

In the past, young people often made happy memories and experiences on the street while
playing picket, Chinese garter, kettle, trumpet, and more. This is where good friendships and healthy
bodies develop.
NOW: VIDEO GAMES Computers, tablets, selfies are the playground of young people. Obesity
will be the result.
In the Philippines, it is family first. So whether you are part of the immediate family or you
belong to the third or fourth generation, you are treated as a family member. Sometimes, even the
closest of friends are considered family, too.

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 Large extended family in Luzon,
Philippines © Art Phaneuf / Alamy Stock
Photo

Filipinos are very religious

In all corners of a Filipino house, you can find brazen images of crosses and other
religious paraphernalia. They go to church every Sunday, or sometimes even twice or three times a
week.

Santo Nino devotees attend mass by

the thousands © Jacob
Maentz / Alamy Stock Phot

Filipinos are very Respectful

From the moment they are born into this world, they are already taught how to be respectful
by using these simple catchphrases—po and opo, words that end sentences when addressing elders.
They have a culture of pagmamano, which is where they raise the backs of the hands of their elders
to their foreheads as a sign of respect.

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 Young boy plays in school grounds,
Banaue, Philippines © Asia Images /
Alamy Stock Photo

Filipinos help one another

More popularly known as bayanihan, Filipinos help one another —without expecting
anything in return —so that undertaking their tasks and responsibilities become much easier.
Sometimes this is called “community spirit.”

Bayanihan hopping spirit house sculpture

by Alwin Reamillo, Philippines
© Richard Milnes / Alamy Stock Photo

Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebrations-ever

Even as early as August, you can hear Christmas songs and jingles being played in the malls or in the
restaurants in the Philippines. The mood becomes festive, with many people shopping and in good
spirits. Christmas celebrations last until around the first or
second week of January.

Christmas display,
Mactan International Airport, Cebu,
Philippines © Thomas Cockrem /
Alamy Stock Photo

Economy of Philippines

The Philippines is one of the most dynamic economies in the East Asia
Pacific region. With increasing urbanization, a growing middle class, and a large and young population,
the Philippines’ economic dynamism is rooted in strong consumer demand supported by a vibrant
labor market and robust remittances. Business activities are buoyant with notable performance in the

Module 1 34
services sector including the business process outsourcing, real estate, and finance and insurance
industries.
Sound economic fundamentals and a globally recognized competitive workforce reinforce the
growth momentum. Having sustained average annual growth of 6.4% between 2010-2019 from an
average of 4.5% between 2000-2009, the country is on its way from a lower middle-income country
with a gross national income per capita of US$3,850 in 2019 to an upper middle-income country (per
capita income range of US$4,046–$12,535) in the near term.

Real economic growth, however, has been challenged by the COVID-19

(coronavirus) outbreak and the strict community quarantine measures imposed in the country.
Growth is now projected to contract in 2020, driven by significant declines in consumption and
investment growth, and exacerbated by the sharp slowdown in exports, tourism, and remittances.
Nevertheless, economic growth is expected to rebound gradually in 2021-2022 assuming a
containment of the virus domestically and globally, and with more robust domestic activity bolstered
by greater consumer and business confidence and the public investment momentum.
In recent years, the Philippine economy has made progress in delivering inclusive growth,
evidenced by a decline in poverty rates and its Gini coefficient. Poverty declined from 23.3% in 2015
to 16.6% in 2018 while the Gini coefficient declined from 44.9 to 42.7 over the same period. The
ongoing increasing trend in real wages, which is expected to have a positive impact on household
incomes—particularly those from the lower income groups—will be hampered by the impact of the
COVID-19, with negative consequences also for poverty
reduction in the Philippine.

Economy of Philippines

Made up of more than 7,100 islands, the Philippines is the third -largest English -
speaking country in the world. The island nation lies in the South China Sea and serves as the
crossroads of the Orient. This country is well known for its popular tourism spots and its varied culture
stemming from occupation of several different nations over the centuries. But it is also a land of rich
natural resources that help sustain the nation and make it an important economy in the region.

The Ocean

Being surrounded by the ocean, it is no surprise that the Philippines relies on the waters as an
important natural resource. There are more than 640,000 square miles of territorial waters in the
Philippines and within these waters, there is an abundance of marine life and materials that are
valuable to the nation's people and those across the world. At least 65 species of the 2,400 available
species in Filipino waters have solid commercial value, and the crabs, seaweed, pearls and other ocean
treasures make the sea among the top resources for this archipelago.

The Minerals

The Philippines is not a petroleum-rich country, but the land is still full of many valuable
minerals. There are an estimated 21.5 billion metric tons of metal deposits in the Philippines and 19.3
billion metric tons of nonmetal minerals in the ground. Nickel is the most abundant deposit in the
Philippines, while iron and copper are also present in significant amounts.

The Crops

The volcanic history of the archipelago combined with the wide plains available throughout
the nation make the Philippines a prime spot for growing crops for domestic use and export. The

Module 1 35
Central Luzon, Cagayan Valley and Negros are among the many places with fertile soil in the Philippines.
This land is the nation's primary source of livelihood. The chief crops of the nation include rice, corn,
sugarcane, abaca and tobacco, according to the Philippine History website. The rice and corn are used
domestically, but the rest is used as a major export. The Philippines also exports a number of
pineapples and bananas.

The Flora

The tropical climate in the Philippines makes it an ideal location for flowers and plants. The
islands have more than 2 million species of plants, and several of them are found nowhere else on the
planet. Much of the flora in the Philippines, while diminished by over harvesting, is used as an
important natural resource as ingredients in commercially exported products.

Culture of Singapore

Culture in Singapore is largely defined by peace, justice, and social and religious harmony. The
saying that Singapore is a “fine” city, not only refers to its cleanliness or its quality of life. In fact, to
ensure safety and order in the state, the government has prohibited various things. If you don’t want
to pay a heavy fine or even spend time in jail, you should avoid the following:
• chewing gum
• spitting
• littering
• jay walking
• dancing on counters or tables at a bar
• smoking indoors
• drinking and driving
• public drunkenness
• taking drugs
Keep in mind that the last point is particularly serious. It is enough to carry even a small amount
of specific drugs to face the death penalty. You can learn more on limitation of civil freedoms in
Singapore from our guide.

A country of Many Beliefs

The religious culture in Singapore is just as diverse as the population. Singaporeans learn about
the religious customs and traditions of other population groups early on. On the list of public holidays
in Singapore are Christian, Muslim, and Indian holidays, among others. The state is home to ten major
religions, including Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity. Some people even accept
more than one faith. However, discrimination in Singapore is still a problem at times.
While exploring the culture in Singapore, you will soon find, that many of the most beautiful and
fascinating buildings in the state are religious. While some of them are open to the public, it is
important that you abide by certain rules before entering a place of worship:
• Take off your shoes before you enter a mosque or a temple.
• Wash your feet and hands before entering a Hindu temple.
• Dress appropriately! Women are expected to cover their hair or parts of their body before
entering a mosque or a temple.
• Make sure that taking pictures is allowed before getting out your camera.
• A religious building is no place for a picnic! Don’t eat or drink there.

Module 1 36
 • Bring along food or flowers to Hindu and Buddhist temples as an offering for the gods.

Linguistic Affiliation

Singapore is a multilingual state. The national language is Malay, and the four official languages
are Malay, English, Indian (Tamil), and Chinese (Mandarin). English is the administrative language and
the medium of instruction in schools. Pupils also choose one of the "mother tongues": Malay, Tamil,
and Chinese. There are various subdialects of the different languages.

Economy of Singapore

Is an Asian nation with one of the highest ranked economies in the world. In 2018, Singapore's
GDP was the 41st highest in the world at $349.659 billion while its per capita GDP was the 8th highest
in the world at $61,766. At the time of its independence, Singapore's economy was one of the lowest
ranked in the world having GDP per of $516. The country's unemployment rate and illiteracy rates
were also extremely high. The government of Singapore put in place several measures to grow the
country's economy such as establishing the Economic Development Board and emphasizing the proper
utilization of the country's natural resources. Some of Singapore's most important natural resources
include arable land, the country's beautiful scenery, and fish.
Food in Daily Life. - Rice, fish, chicken, and vegetables are the staples. When these ingredients
are mixed with a rich variety of spices, chilis, coconuts, lime, and tamarind, the variations are endless.
Food is often eaten outside the home in food centers where food is cheap, tasty, and freshly made.
There are many cafés, coffeehouses and teahouses, and formal restaurants. Forks and spoons are used,
but Chinese food is eaten with chopsticks, and Indian and Malay food may be eaten with the hand.
The three main meals are breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Most meals are eaten hot. Malays do not eat
pork, Indians do not eat beef, and many Buddhist Chinese are part-time vegetarians. Many people do
not drink alcohol.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. - Special dishes are eaten during the major
ceremonial occasions of all three ethnic groups, but none are connected to national celebrations.
Basic Economy. - Singapore has a fully developed industrial international economy. The
country depends heavily on imports, as there are few natural resources on the island. There has been
a consistent surplus in the overall balance of payments. There is a large degree of state control of the
economy.
Land Tenure and Property. - There is a large degree of private ownership of houses and
apartments. Land tenure is firmly regulated by the government and there are government plans for
the use of every inch of the island's territory. Foreigners usually are allowed only to lease land, but
they may buy apartments.
Commercial Activities, Major Industries, and Trade. - Manufacturing is the most important
economic sector, followed by financial and business services, commerce, transportation, and
communications. Production is mainly for export. The main exports are electronics, refined petroleum
products, natural rubber, and palm oil. The main trading partners are Malaysia, the European Union
(EU), the United States, Hong Kong, and Japan.
Division of Labor. - About two-thirds of the resident population is employed. Only 0.2 percent
of the members of the workforce are employed in the primary sector, and about 37 percent of
employed persons work in commerce and finance and the business sector. Twenty-three percent work
in manufacturing, 21 percent in other services, and 18 percent in transportation and communications
and construction. The unemployment rate has long been below 3 percent but increased during the
recent economic downturn. Chinese are overrepresented in professional, technical, administrative,
and managerial jobs, whereas Malays are the most underrepresented in highly skilled jobs, with
Indians in the middle. The substantial numbers of foreign workers are overrepresented in production
and related work.

Module 1 37
 Challenges Facing Singapore’s Economy

Despite the strength of Singapore's economy, it faces several problems with one of the most
important ones being unemployment among the residents. The government of Singapore has put in
place several measures to increase the number of jobs in the country and reduce the unemployment
rate.

Natural Resources of
Singapore

Beautiful Scenery
One of Singapore's most important natural resources is its beautiful scenery that attracts large
numbers of tourists to the country. Some of Singapore's most beautiful locations include the Bay East
Garden, Sentosa Island, and Pulau Ubin which is commonly referred to as Granite Island which is
popular with tourists mainly because of the wide variety of wildlife in the area.

Bay East Garden

The most popular destination in the Granite Island is the Chek Jawa Wetlands which covers an
area of 0.386 square miles and is considered to be one of the most precious ecosystems in Singapore.
In 2000, the Chek Jawa Wetlands had been selected as the site of a development project; however,
after its ecological significance was discovered, the development project was halted. The Bay East
Garden is popular with tourists because of the unique plants within the garden. Singapore is also home
to the tallest indoor waterfall in the world.

Module 1 38
 Singapore is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world and it attracted more
than 17 million visitors in 2017. The tourism sector is one of Singapore's most essential industries as it
employs a significant number of people and contributes tremendously to the country's GDP. At the
time, most of the tourists who visited Singapore came from other Asian countries such as China,
Indonesia, and Malaysia. Visitors from European countries such as the United Kingdom and Germany
also made up a significant portion of the tourists who visited Singapore. The government of Singapore
has put in place several measures to grow the country's tourism sector such as the establishment of
the Singapore Tourism Board to
advertise the state as a tourism destination.

Culture of Thailand

The culture of Thailand has evolved greatly over time, from its relative isolation during the Sukhothai
era, to its more contemporary Ayutthaya era, which absorbed influences from all over Asia. Limited
Indian, Chinese, Burmese and other Southeast Asian influences are still evident in traditional Thai
culture. Buddhism, Animism and Westernization also play a significant role in shaping the modern
culture.
Thai national culture is identified differently throughout regions in Thailand where it also integrated
different regional cultures such as the Lanna, Isan, including Chinese origin, Portuguese origin, Persian
origin, and in the reign of King Chulalongkorn in the late-19th century, European trend of nationalism
has begun to insert greater influence into Thai culture. However, the promotion of civic culture
reached its peak after the Siamese revolution of 1932 where series of authoritarian regimes began to
insert greater control over people's culture and lifestyles, especially under the regime of Field Marshal
Plaek Phibunsongkhram. Present day Thailand has a culture that is a combination of various local
rituals from different parts of the country, along with Buddhist values and oriental trends like in many
parts of Asia. Monarchy and royal institution of Chakri dynasty remain highly revered according to
original Siamese culture, whereas societal values in Thailand tend to be more collectivist and
religiously secular than in other Southeast Asian cultures which have undergone influences from
western colonization.

Family Matters

Family almost always comes first in Thailand, with a much greater emphasis placed on the
extended family than it typically is in western countries. If you’re shocked by the number of siblings a
Thai person has, it’s highly likely many of those are cousins—there’s no word in Thai for cousin and
people refer to cousins as their brothers and sisters.
It’s normal for extended families to live close to each other, with many Thais maintaining
strong links with their home villages even if they move away for work. It’s fairly common for children
to be raised by grandparents or aunts and uncles if their parents need to work elsewhere, such is the

Module 1 39
role of extended family in everyday life. Younger members of the family are expected to help take
care of older members. This can be financially, or by doing a range of chores.

Sisters, cousins,
or friends? © Trevor Soh / Flickr

Status is Important

Although it may not be immediately apparent, status is a huge thing in Thai culture. Age, family
connections, job types, education, and income levels are all contributing factors to a person’s
perceived status in society. Status is not fixed, as in some cultures; a Thai can gain or lose status if their
circumstances change. Thais perform different versions of the wai depending on a person’s status, and
there are social rules concerning who should offer the first wai. Status is important when a group of
people are socialising together—it’s traditional for the highest earner to foot the bill.

Thai dancers showing the

wai © mary wareham / Flickr

When talking with each other, Thais have words that indicate a person’s age, using pee before
an older person’s name to show respect, and nong for somebody younger than them. Things aren’t
always quite so simple, though, as a younger person may be referred to as pee if they have a higher
status, for example through marriage or by way of their profession. These small social rules are easy
to miss by an outsider but are tightly woven into the fabric of Thai culture.

Loss of Face and Respect are big Deals

Module 1 40
 Respect, shame, and the concept of face are important in Thailand, perhaps more so than in
many western countries. The use of language and the wai are just a couple of ways for Thais to show
respect. It’s considered bad form and disrespectful to visit somebody’s home without taking at least a
small gift. Not removing shoes before entering a home is also a big sign of disrespect. Disrespecting
someone, in a variety of ways, can cause a person to lose face, that is, to be embarrassed or shamed
publicly. Yelling at somebody in public is another way of causing that person to lose face.

There can be strong repercussions for causing loss of face, with violence an extreme example
of what can happen. It’s not uncommon for Thai people, particularly in rural areas, to deal with
perceived injustices according to social norms (and outside of legal frameworks), with individuals,
families, or communities dishing out punishments as they see fit.

Patriotism is Huge

National pride is very much part of the Thai psyche. The country clings to pride that it’s the
only nation in Southeast Asia to have never been colonised by European countries. The national
anthem is played twice a day, with the expectation that people will stop and stand until the song has
finished. The national flag is flown in many places, raised with the national anthem each morning and
lowered again in the evening. The King’s anthem is played before movies start in cinemas. Many Thais
profess an enduring love for their country, extending to religion and the monarchy. While foreigners
are generally welcome in Thailand, they will always be on the fringes, even if only slightly.

No Worries

Thais rarely display strong negative emotions, with bouts of anger, tantrums, and public crying
somewhat unusual. This doesn’t mean they aren’t displayed in private, or that the emotions aren’t
there, simply that a person does not want to lose face by showing their feelings in public. Thais are
often seen as being super laidback because of this.

Sitting calmly © Alexis Gravel / Flick

A common phrase heard many times each day is mai bpen rai, which translates loosely as no
worries, or no problem. You spilt your drink? Mai bpen rai. You failed an exam? Mai bpen rai. You ran
someone over with your bicycle and broke their leg? Mai bpen rai. A close relative just died? You got
it … Mai bpen rai.
Foreigners sometimes take this as meaning that Thais don’t really get ruffled, take offense, or
take things too seriously. Don’t abuse the notion that Thais are a completely carefree group, though,
as underneath, they often do care, but have been conditioned to respond in such a way.

Smiles can have many meanings

Module 1 41
 Connected to above, many people think Thailand a warm, happy, and welcoming nation
because of the constant smiles. Indeed, Thailand is known as being the Land of Smiles! Smiles don’t
always show happiness, though, and are sometimes used as a mask. That’s not to detract from the
fact that many Thai people are, in fact, kind, welcoming, hospitable, and lovely, but to show that a
smile may not be quite what you think it is.

A big, beaming Thai smile

© Davidlohr Bueso / Flickr

Superstitions are rife

Often connected to the belief of ghosts and spirits, Thailand is a land of superstitions. It is
customary for people to consult a fortune teller or monk for an auspicious date before arranging a
wedding, buying a home, test driving a car, and other situations.

The tradition of giving newborn babies a nickname originated from a desire to trick malevolent
spirits who may want to steal the baby away. Traditionally, people avoided complimenting parents on
their new baby too, fearing making the child seem too desirable to the spirits. There are superstitions
related to spirits housed inside the body of dolls, not cutting children’s hair if they are sick as a baby,
male and female twins, animals, dreams, and more.

Statues depicting Thai ghosts

\ © Sarah Williams

Monks are Highly Respected

You’re sure to see many monks during your time in Thailand, both inside the temples and
outside on the streets, on buses, at festivals, and in a variety of everyday settings. Monks are highly
revered and respected in Thai culture and disrespecting a monk is a huge no-no.

There are designated seats on public transport for monks, for example, and people should
always give up their seat to a monk if no other is available. Females, especially, should be careful of
their actions around monks. As well as not touching a monk or directly handing things to them (females
should put any offerings etc. on a monk’s dish rather than into their hands), women shouldn’t sit next

Module 1 42
to a monk or their belongings. If you act inappropriately around a monk in Thailand, you can be sure
that regular people around you will quickly point out your errors with disapproval.

Thai monks walking along the

street © Akuppa John Wigham
/ Flickr

Body Awareness

Thais place importance and significance to different parts of the body. The head is seen as the
most spiritual part of the body and you should never touch a person’s head … although, most people
wouldn’t go around touching strangers’ heads in any case! This goes for children too—an affectionate
ruffling of the hair could cause offence to Thai parents.

Man and child in

Thailand © Mark Fischer
/ Flickr

Thais are not overly touchy-feely in general. It’s not so common to see Thais holding hands,
hugging, or otherwise touching in public, and kissing and other public displays of affection are a big
no.

Although it’s preferable to walk around two people, rather than cutting between them, if you
must pass between two people you should stoop slightly so that your head is lower than theirs. It is
also polite for Thais to stoop slightly when walking past somebody they know has a higher social status
than them.

Module 1 43
 The feet are seen as dirty and symbolically low. You should never touch somebody with your
foot, sit with the sole of your foot pointing outwards, or point your foot at a person or a Buddha image.
Even crossing your legs can cause some people to inwardly wince. This means no holding doors open
with your feet, pushing your bag along with your feet, or otherwise using your feet in place of your
hands. There are many times when you should take off your shoes too.

Pile of shoes in Thailand

© Eddy Milfort / Flickr

Pointing with a finger is also seen as impolite, as is beckoning somebody with a crooked finger.
Thais will often use their lips to point, pushing out the lips to indicate a direction.
Alternatively, use the whole hand, with all fingers outstretched, to point. To beckon somebody, the
palm should be face down with all fingers extended and the action from the wrist.
Thais are generally very tolerant and understand foreign visitors will sometimes make a faux
pas. As long as it’s not something major, like showing disrespect to the religion or monarchy, yelling in
public, or walking around semi-naked, many Thais will overlook cultural differences.

Flower garlands and

flag on a Thai boat
© Anthony Tong Lee
/ Flickr

Economy of Thailand

The economy of Thailand is dependent on exports, which accounts for more than twothirds of
the country's gross domestic product (GDP). Thailand itself is a newly industrialized country, with a
GDP of 16.316 trillion baht (US$505 billion) in 2018, the 8th largest economy of Asia, according to the
World Bank. As of 2018, Thailand has an average inflation of 1.06% and an account surplus of 7.5% of
the country's GDP.The Thai economy is expected to post 3.8% growth in 2019.Its currency, the Thai
Baht, ranked as the tenth most frequently used world payment currency in 2017.
Thailand has had 19 military coups since becoming a constitutional monarchy in 1932. The
period since 2006 has been particularly turbulent and ultimately resulted in a 2014 coup led by former

Module 1 44
army commander and current Prime Minister Prayut Chan-ocha. National legislative elections held in
March 2019 solidified the power of the junta-aligned Phalang Pracharat party and will likely result in
ongoing military influence and policy continuity. After the death of long-ruling and much-loved King
Bhumibol Adulyadej, his son, King Maha Vijiralongkorn, was crowned in May 2019. Thailand’s free-
enterprise economy benefits from relatively well-developed infrastructure. Exports of electronics,
agricultural commodities, automobiles and parts, processed foods, and other goods account for about
two-thirds of GDP.
Thailand is the second largest economy in Southeast Asia after Indonesia, and with an upper-
middle income status, serves as an economic anchor for its developing neighbor countries. The
country's economy appears resilient and, according to IMF, is expected to advance at a moderate pace
despite domestic political uncertainty. Public investment is projected to remain a key driver, increasing
over the next few years, in line with the government’s infrastructure plans to attract private
investment and a continued improvement of tourism sector. The year 2018 marked the best results
since the arrival in power of the military-led government in 2014, but economic growth decreased in
2019 to an estimated 2.4%, due to a global slowdown and elevated trade tensions between the United
States and China. According to the updated IMF forecasts from 14th April 2020, due to the outbreak
of the COVID-19, GDP growth is expected to fall to -6.7% in 2020 and pick up to 6.1% in 2021, subject
to the post-pandemic global economic recovery.

Natural Resources of Thailand

Thailand is a South East Asian country with a population of over 68 million. The country’s
physiography is highly diversified. However, the predominant features are mountain terrains. The
capital city and largest city in Thailand is Bangkok. Its official language is Thai with the dominant
religion being Buddhism. The country borders Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia, Gulf of Thailand,
and the Andaman Sea. The country has abundant natural resources including minerals, forests,
arable land, and fish.

Mining in Thailand

Some of the mineral resources mined in Thailand

include coal, natural gas, gold, fluorite, lead, manganese, rubber, limestone, basalt, niobium, zinc, tin,
tungsten, gypsum, and lignite. For many years, Thailand was a major producer of tin. However, the
country currently focuses more on gold mining than tin. Thailand’s leading coal producer is Banpu PCL
located in Bangkok. Natural gas is also an important natural resource in Thailand. Its deposits were
discovered offshore in the 1970s; reducing Thailand’s dependence on imported petroleum due to its
high expenditure. After Canada, Thailand is the world’s second largest exporter of gypsum. This
mineral is mainly consumed by the construction sector. In 2015, Thailand produced 12,500 metric tons
of gypsum

Forestry

About 28% of Thai land is forested with the most valuable forest product being hardwood. In
the past, Thailand exported a popular tropical hardwood known as teak. However, following
uncontrolled logging, the government declared logging illegal in 1989.
Consequently, the country designated 25% of the land area for protected forests as well as 15% of the
land for timber production. Besides elephants being tourist attractions in Thailand, they are also
trained to facilitate logging in the timber industry. They drag logs, pile them and hoist them onto trucks.

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These Thai elephants are capable of listening to and obeying simple commands. Nonetheless, with the
depleted teak forests, the elephants have become less useful in the timber industry.

Agriculture

Up until the mid-20th century, Bangkok was typically an agricultural country. However, with
residents migrating from the rural areas to the capital and other major cities, farming became less
popular. Nonetheless, agriculture is still an important economic activity in Thailand. Arable land
composed of rich alluvial soil is found along the Chao Phraya. Rice is the most significant commercial
crop grown in Thailand. In fact, the country is among the world’s leading rice producers. Over 60% of
the13 million Thai farmers cultivate rice in almost half of the country’s cultivated land. The second
important crop is rubber which is mainly cultivated on plantations in the Malay Peninsula. Other crops
grown in Thailand include cassava, sugarcane, maize, soybeans, coffee, pineapples, coconuts, and
kenaf. Thailand produces two million tonnes of palm oil annually making it stand out as the 3rd largest
producer of palm oil in the world. Most of the extraction mills and palm plantations are found in South
Thailand. Coconut plantations cover one million rai of Thai land. The farms produce about 800 million
coconuts yearly which are mostly for local consumption. Thailand is also the second largest producer
of sugarcane after Brazil. It produces approximately 90 million tonnes of sugarcane annually.

Besides crop farming, Thailand's residents also engage in insect ranching and dairy farming.
Dairy farming is so successful that it produces 2,800 tonnes of milk daily. Subsequently, one million
tonnes of milk are produced annually. 40% of the milk caters to the government’s school milk program
established in 1985 while 60% of the milk is for commercial purposes. According to FAO, there are
over 20,000 insect farmers in 53 out of the 76 provinces of Thailand. However, these are small-scale
farmers whose total production cannot sufficiently meet the demand for edible insects and fortified
products made out of insects.

Fishing in Thailand

Thailand has several important fishing areas which include sea fishing as well as freshwater
fishing. Fishing largely contributes to the economy of Thailand both as a tourist attraction and the
fishing industry as the country exports fish products. Popular fish in Thailand are prawns, shellfish,
Giant Mekong catfish, red tail catfish, giant snakehead, Siamese carp, Arapaima, Wallagonia, and
Barramundi among others. Top fishing spots in the country include Shadow Lake, Bungsamran Lake,
Jurassic Fishing Park, Khao Laem Dam, and Shadow Lake.

Culture of Vietnam

The culture of Vietnam is one of the oldest in Southeast Asia, with the ancient Bronze age
Đông Sơn culture being widely considered one of its most important progenitors. Although
geographically Southeast Asian and part of the ASEAN bloc, Vietnamese culture was heavily influenced
by Chinese culture in terms of politics, government, social and moral ethics, and art due to 1000 years
of Chinese rule. Vietnam is considered to be part of the East Asian cultural sphere together with Korea,
Japan and Greater China.
In traditional Vietnamese culture, kinship plays an important role in Vietnam. Whilst Western
culture is known for its emphasis on individualism, Vietnamese culture places high value on the roles
of family. For specific information, see Vietnamese pronouns.

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 The traditional Vietnamese wedding is one of the most important traditions in Vietnamese
occasions. Regardless of Westernization, many of the age-old customs practiced in a traditional
Vietnamese wedding continue to be celebrated by both Vietnamese in Vietnam and overseas, often
combining Western and Eastern traditions.
In the past, both men and women were expected to be married at young ages. Marriages
called contractual marriages were generally arranged by the parents and extended family, with the
children having limited input on the matter. In modern Vietnam, this has changed, as people freely
choose their own marriage partners.

The family of a Vietnamese bride line up

to welcome
her groom at their betrothal ceremony

Wake When a person passes away in Vietnam, the surviving family

holds a wake ceremony or vigil that typically lasts about five to six days,
but may last longer if the surviving family is waiting for other traveling relatives. The body is washed
and dressed. A le ngam ham, or chopstick, is laid between the teeth and a pinch of rice and three coins
are placed in the mouth. The body is put on a grass mat laid on the ground according to the saying,
"being born from the earth, one must return back to the earth." The dead body is enveloped with
white cloth, and placed in a coffin. Finally, the funeral ceremony is officially performed.

Decorations placed around

a coffin at a home funeral in
Da Nang

Superstition

Because of the skepticism surrounding science in parts of the country, Vietnamese

philosophies for life generally rely on emotions or the words of their forefathers. For example, in their
twelve-year lunar calendar many of the years are considered incompatible, meaning a traditional
Vietnamese man could not marry a woman born in the wrong year because it would break the family
ties with his parents and relatives. Duck foetus eggs are also meant to bring good luck; but eating them
in odd numbers will reverse the process and send the bad
luck tumbling back!

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 Martial Arts

The Vietnamese martial arts tradition was born of the constant need for defence against
foreign invaders. Ironically, it was also heavily influenced by China during its ongoing occupation, but
over time the Vietnamese have developed their own distinct styles. ‘Vovinam’ was founded in Hanoi,
and practitioners can be recognised by the blue uniforms they wear. It is most famous for its scissor
kick, classically used to dismount attackers on horseback. ‘Vo Binh Dinh’ practitioners wear distinct
black uniforms and owe their reputation to the legendary warrior king, Quang Trung. Traditional
wrestling is also considered an ancient martial arts tradition and is practiced during Tet.

Religion

Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism are known in Vietnam as the ‘triple religion’, and all three
are prevalent in Vietnamese culture. However, Vietnam owes much of its belief system to folk tales
and in the traditional sense, is one of the least religious countries in the world. Its people turn to the
worship of gods, goddesses and ancestors for guidance, and are the only known collection of people
to have a god of the kitchen. It is also believed that failing to conduct proper rituals upon death will
create ‘hungry ghosts’, so the spirit world is commonly considered to be of great importance.

Festivals

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 Tet, meaning ‘festival of the first day’, is the lunar New Year and the biggest festival in Vietnam.
It is a celebration of renewal and hope, and the majority of Vietnam closes for a week to honour it (see
‘Tet’). Hoi An holds a Full Moon Festival once a month on the eve of each full moon during which
lanterns are lit all over the city. Most Vietnamese festivals involve offerings to the spirit world,
celebrations of life or commemorations of the dead, and so weddings and funerals in Vietnam are both
joyous occasions – you might not quite be sure which one you’re watching!

Clothing

A tight-fitting silk tunic called ‘Ao Dai’ is the Vietnamese national dress for women – it was
briefly banned following the fall of Saigon, but is now made in white for schoolgirls and is designed to
accentuate womanly curves whilst covering the whole body. Dresses are commonly made of silk or
cotton and sandals are made of old tire rubber. The national dress for men is similar, but it is lose-
fitting and shorter in length.

Economy of Vietnam

The economy of Vietnam is asocialist-oriented market economy, which is the 36th-

largest in the world as measured by nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and 23rd-largest in the
world as measured by purchasing power parity (PPP). Vietnam is a member of AsiaPacific Economic
Cooperation, Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the World Trade Organization.
Since the mid-1980s, through the Đổi Mới reform period Vietnam has made a shift from a highly
centralized command economy to a mixed economy that uses both directive and indicative planning
through five-year plans with support from an open market-based economy. Over that period, the
economy has experienced rapid growth. In the 21st century, Vietnam is in a period of being integrated
into the global economy. Almost all Vietnamese enterprises are small and medium enterprises (SMEs).
Vietnam has become a leading agricultural exporter and served as an attractive destination for foreign
investment in Southeast Asia. In the current period, Vietnam's economy relies largely on foreign direct
investment to attract the capital from overseas to support its continual economic rigor. Foreign
investment on the luxury hotel and sector and resorts will rise to support high-end tourist industry.
Vietnam is a densely populated developing country that has been transitioning since 1986 from the
rigidities of a centrally planned, highly agrarian economy to a more industrial and market based

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economy, and it has raised incomes substantially. Vietnam exceeded its 2017 GDP growth target of
6.7% with growth of 6.8%, primarily due to unexpected increases in domestic demand, and strong
manufacturing exports.
Vietnam has a young population, stable political system, commitment to sustainable growth,
relatively low inflation, stable currency, strong FDI inflows, and strong manufacturing sector. In
addition, the country is committed to continuing its global economic integration. Vietnam joined the
WTO in January 2007 and concluded several free trade agreements in 2015-16, including the EU-
Vietnam Free Trade Agreement (which the EU has not yet ratified), the Korean Free Trade Agreement,
and the Eurasian Economic Union Free Trade Agreement. In 2017, Vietnam successfully chaired the
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Conference with its key priorities including inclusive growth,
innovation, strengthening small and medium enterprises, food security, and climate change. Seeking
to diversify its opportunities, Vietnam also signed the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for
the Transpacific Partnership in 2018 and continued to pursue the Regional Comprehensive Economic
Partnership. To continue its trajectory of strong economic growth, the government acknowledges the
need to spark a ‘second wave’ of reforms, including reforming state-owned enterprises, reducing red
tape, increasing business sector transparency, reducing the level of non-performing loans in the
banking sector, and increasing financial sector transparency. Vietnam’s public debt to GDP ratio is
nearing the government mandated ceiling of 65%.
In 2016, Vietnam cancelled its civilian nuclear energy development program, citing public concerns
about safety and the high cost of the program; it faces growing pressure on energy infrastructure.
Overall, the country’s infrastructure fails to meet the needs of an expanding middle class. Vietnam has
demonstrated a commitment to sustainable growth over the last several years, but despite the recent
speed-up in economic growth the government remains cautious about the risk of external shocks.

Natural Resources of Vietnam

Vietnam is located in Southeast Asia. The country is well endowed with a variety of minerals, including
some that have not been developed. The primary Vietnam natural resources include coal, bauxite,
timber, offshore oil, and precious metals such as gold and copper, among others. High amounts of
natural minerals available, has resulted in a high level of mining and quarrying activities that take place.
For instance, mining and quarrying accounted for almost a tenth of the country’s economy in 2003,
engaging nearly 1% of the total workforce. Vietnam mainly exports petroleum and coal; however,
other minerals such as bauxite, iron, gold, and zinc, among others, are also mined. The country has
embarked on exploiting oil and other minerals through state-owned organizations. Here are some of
the
Vietnam natural resources:

COAL

Coal is the second mostcrucial mineral fuel produced in Vietnam. It is the primary
fuel used in thermal power plants and manufacturing, as well as a cooking fuel for urban and rural
populations. Coal is also a valuable export commodity. Vietnamese anthracite coal accounts for about
a third of total anthracite coal traded in the world. Japan and Western Europe are the leading
importers of Vietnamese coal, which has high heat content and low ash, nitrogen, phosphorus, and
sulfur content, thus meeting strict environmental protection rules in these countries. Between 2002
and 2005, coal output doubled from 16 Mts to 32 Mts, and demand is expected to grow strongly for
both internal use and exports. It is estimated that Vietnam would start importing coal as early as 2015.

As with oil and natural gas, price and cost data used in the estimation of coal wealth are obtained
from the World Bank. Production volumes are from national statistics. The baseline estimated value
of coal is US$115 per capita. Consequently, other mineral fuels have recorded a significant increase in

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prices over the last five years, and between 2001 and 2005, the coal prices doubled, on average. Thus,
given robust demand and likely price scenarios, we also consider a high price high production volume
scenario for coal, which takes 2005 prices and values as the basis of future rents. In this high price and
volume scenario, coal wealth triples in value to US$305 per capita.

Bauxite

Just like coal, Vietnam is ranked third when it comes to the largest bauxite reserves. The largest
reserves are found within the Tay Nguyen Central highlands. This resource is primarily used in the
production of aluminum. According to the Vietnamese government, there is an estimated 5.4 billion
tons of bauxite reserves. However, despite the tremendous amounts of the resource, the country’s
annual production is expected to stand at 30,000 tons. In 2007, the government bauxite mining plan
was to start a further six projects in Dak Nong and Lam Dong areas. These projects would produce
600,000 tons annually, with the plan costing the country close to 16 billion
dollars.

Oil

Oil production is expansive within Southeast Asia; however, Vietnam is

among the top three leading producers of oil in the region. The government solely controls oil
production in the country with state-owned PetroVietnam being a monopoly. Oil is a significant
contributor to the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) as well as its annual budget with 20% and
25%, respectively. Over the years, there has been an increase in the production of oil. For instance,
the total output in 2016 was 7.3% more compared to 2015.

Natural Gas

Since the production of natural gas began in Vietnam, the activity proliferated in the early 2000s.
Moreover, between 2000 and 2005, gas production incredibly quadrupled. Being among the vital
Vietnam natural resources, the gas produced is widely used in industrial consumptions. However, the
largest fraction of the gas produced is utilized for domestic purposes, especially the fueling of electric
power plants.
Conservative estimates put proven natural gas reserves at around 190 billion cubic meters. On the
other hand, oil would require a supplementary exploration and discoveries as it could significantly
increase proven reserves. If so, natural gas would play an essential role in Vietnam’s development,
meeting its growing energy needs. The value of natural gas wealth in Vietnam is estimated by using
the price and cost data, which can be accessed at the World Bank. The price data is based on several
sources, such as the Global Commodity Markets and the Statistical Review of World Energy. the
country managed to produce a staggering 376.81 billion cubic feet of natural gas, which helped the
country to raise $22 billion in revenue.
The production of oil and gas has seen the country become a significant importer of technology and
equipment. Usually, Vietnam’s natural resources are controlled by the government; however, this
trend has recently changed as oil and gas being opened to foreign firms.
Tax Increases
In recent years, the Ministry of Finance in Vietnam looked for endorsement to increase taxes on the
country’s primary natural resources. A portion of the items to get the tax raise range from iron from
12% to 15%, gold from 15% to 20%, and bronze from 13% to 18%. Other natural resources that were
influenced include coal, sand, and valuable stones, for example, rubies and precious stones. The new
tax increase could discourage outside direct speculation, which had just diminished by 19.4% in 2017.
South Korea had the most significant new interest in Vietnam at US$1.1 billion.

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