2018 End Semester Paper Sub code- ECE 302

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GITAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

GITAMUNIVERSITY

Rushikonda, Visakhapatnam – 530 045 (AP)

ECE 702 Wind Analysis and Design of Tall Structures

What are different types of towers? Explain the design of tower in step by step procedure.
Sol) Different Types of Towers:
Load on tower
The loading capability of a tower depends on the structure of the tower. The more surface
area of equipments (eg. antennas), coaxial cables, brackets and other equipment
mounted on the tower and exposed to the wind, the more robust tower is required.
The wind load is proportional to the area of the exposed structure and distance from the
attachment to the ground. Curved and perforated shapes (grids and trusses) offer less wind
resistance and are therefore preferred to achieve a low wind load. Solid dishes are quite
vulnerable to wind load and should be avoided in windy environments.
Tower footprint
The footprint of a tower is the amount of free space on the ground that is required.
Depending on the structure of the tower, it requires more or less space for installation. For
tall guyed masts (> 30m), each guy anchor is typically 10-15m from the base of the mast.
For a mast with 3 guy wires per level, that results in a footprint of approx. 90 – 200 m2.
Height of tower
Adding guys cables to a structure will allow higher height.
“The smaller the tower base, the more costly to purchase and install the tower”. Monopoles
have the smallest footprint of all towers, and are hence the most expensive towers. It is
followed by self supported towers and then guyed masts which require the largest
footprints. Depending on the tower type, certain tools, machinery and cranes are needed
to assemble the tower which must be taken into consideration in the final budget.
Other factors to be considered in design:
• Mean aerial height for each aerial system
• Directions for the various directional antennas,

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• Wind drag on each element of the array and dependent on wind direction, size,
weight and disposition of all feeders and cables,
• The permitted angular rotations in azimuth and elevation of each aerial above which
the broadcast signal is significantly reduced,
• The need for all-weather access to some of the aerials,
• Atmospheric ice formation on the structure and aerials and its likelihood to occur with
high wind,
• The available ground area and access to the site,
• The geological nature of the site,
• The overall cost of land, foundations and structure,
• The cost and implications of future maintenance or structural replacement.
Towers and Masts are typically tall constructions specially designed to support the phase
conductors and shield wires of transmission lines, antennas for radio communication
(television, radio, GSM and Internet traffic), floodlight projectors, wind turbines or platforms
for inspection. Towers and masts may also be required to raise antennas above tree lines
and roof tops for line of sight connections. The characteristic dimension of a tower is its
height. The terms “tower” and “mast” are often used for the same type of structure. In order
to avoid confusion, a tower will be considered as a self supporting structure while a mast is
supported by stays or guys. There are three most common types of towers/masts that are
used today:
• Monopoles
• Self supporting towers
• Guyed masts.
A mast is a single legged structure, where as a trestle has two supporting legs. A tower ups
the number of legs to three or more.

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MAST TRESTLE
Load on tower
The loading capability of a tower depends on the structure of the tower. The more surface
area of equipments (eg. antennas), coaxial cables, brackets and other equipment
mounted on the tower and exposed to the wind, the more robust tower is required.
The wind load is proportional to the area of the exposed structure and distance from the
attachment to the ground. Curved and perforated shapes (grids and trusses) offer less wind
resistance and are therefore preferred to achieve a low wind load. Solid dishes are quite
vulnerable to wind load and should be avoided in windy environments.
Tower footprint
The footprint of a tower is the amount of free space on the ground that is required.
Depending on the structure of the tower, it requires more or less space for installation. For
tall guyed masts (> 30m), each guy anchor is typically 10-15m from the base of the mast.
For a mast with 3 guy wires per level, that results in a footprint of approx. 90 – 200 m2.
Height of tower
Adding guys cables to a structure will allow higher height.
“The smaller the tower base, the more costly to purchase and install the tower”. Monopoles
have the smallest footprint of all towers, and are hence the most expensive towers. It is
followed by self supported towers and then guyed masts which require the largest

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 2018 End Semester Paper
footprints. Depending on the tower type, certain tools, machinery and cranes are needed
to assemble the tower which must be taken into consideration in the final budget.
Other factors to be considered in design:
• Mean aerial height for each aerial system
• Directions for the various directional antennas,
• Wind drag on each element of the array and dependent on wind direction, size,
weight and disposition of all feeders and cables,
• The permitted angular rotations in azimuth and elevation of each aerial above which
the broadcast signal is significantly reduced,
• The need for all-weather access to some of the aerials,
• Atmospheric ice formation on the structure and aerials and its likelihood to occur with
high wind,
• The available ground area and access to the site,
• The geological nature of the site,
• The overall cost of land, foundations and structure,
• The cost and implications of future maintenance or structural replacement.
6.a) what is cross arm to ground clearance in a tower?
Sol)
Cross Arms of a transmission line:
Cross arms of transmission tower hold the transmission conductor. The dimension of cross
arm depends on the level of transmission voltage, configuration and minimum forming
angle for stress distribution.
The portion from bottom cross arms up to the ground level is called transmission tower body.
This portion of the tower plays a vital role for maintaining required ground clearance of the
bottom conductor of the transmission line.

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To determine the actual transmission tower height by considering the above points, we
have divided the total height of tower in four parts,

• Minimum permissible ground clearance (H1)

• Maximum sag of the conductor (H2)
• Vertical spacing between top and bottom conductors (H3)
• Vertical clearance between ground wire and top conductor (H4).

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What are the IS codes useful for the design of tower?

Sol) Codal provisions in design of communication towers

The following are the steps involved in design of communication tower.

• Selection of configuration of tower

• Computation of loads acting on tower
• Analysis of tower for above loads
• Design of tower members according to codes of practices.

Wind load on tower

The wind load on tower can be calculated using the Indian standards IS: 875(Part 3)-
1987[3].

Force coefficient for lattice towers of square or equilateral triangle section with flat
sided members for wind blowing against any face shall be as given in Table 30 of
IS:875(Part-3)-1987.

Force coefficients for lattice towers of square section with circular members and
equilateral triangle section with circular members are as given in tables 31 and 32 of
IS: 875(Part-3)-1987 respectively.

Table 2 of IS:875(Part-3)-1987 gives the factors to obtain design wind speed variation
with height in different terrains for different classes of structures such as class A, class
B, class C.

According to the clause 5.1 of IS-802(Part-1/sec2)[5] the estimated tensile stresses on

the net effective sectional areas in various members shall not exceed minimum
guaranteed yield stress of the material. However in case the angle section is
connected by one leg only, the estimated tensile stress on the net effective sectional
area shall not exceed Fy, where Fy is the minimum guaranteed yield stress of the
material. For structural steels confirming to IS-226[6] and IS 2062[7] the yield strength
is 250 MPa. Generally yst25 grade tubes confirming IS-1161[8] are used for tower
members.
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As per IS-802 part1/sec2 estimated compressive stresses in various members shall not
exceed the values given by the formulae in clause 5.2.2. of IS-802 code.

As per clause 7.2 of IS-802( Part1/sec2) Gusset plates shall be designed to resist the
shear, direct and flexural stresses acting on the weakest or critical section. Re –
entrant cuts shall be avoided as far as practical. Minimum thickness of gusset shall
be 2mm more than lattice it connects only in case when the lattice is directly
connected on the gusset outside the leg member. In no case the gusset shall be less
than 5mm in thickness.

Explain different bracing systems in a steel tower?

Sol) A braced frame is a structural system, which is commonly used in structures subject to
lateral loads. The addition of a bracing frame increases a structure's stability against
lateral loads such as wind pressure and seismic loading. The members in a braced
frame are generally made of structural steel, which can work effectively both in tension
and compression.

The beams and columns that form the frame carry vertical loads, and the bracing system
carries the lateral loads. Braced frames reduce lateral displacement, as well as
the bending moment in columns, they are economical, easily erected and have
the design flexibility to create the strength and stiffness required.

The positioning of braces, however, can be problematic as they can interfere with the
design of the façade and the position of openings. Buildings adopting high-tech or post-
modernist styles have responded to this by expressing bracing as an internal or external
design feature.

Bracing systems The resistance to horizontal forces is provided by two bracing systems:

Vertical bracing

Bracing between column lines (in vertical planes) provides load paths for the transference
of horizontal forces to ground level. Framed buildings required at least three planes of
vertical bracing to brace both directions in plan and to resist torsion about a vertical axis.

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Horizontal bracing

The bracing at each floor level (in horizontal planes) provides load paths for the
transference of horizontal forces to the planes of vertical bracing. Horizontal bracing is
needed at each floor level, however, the floor system itself may provide sufficient
resistance. Roofs may require bracing.

Types of bracing

Single diagonals

Trussing, or triangulation, is formed by inserting diagonal structural members into

rectangular areas of a structural frame, helping to stabilise the frame. If a single brace is
used, it must be sufficiently resistant to tension and compression.

Cross-bracing

Cross-bracing (or X-bracing) uses two diagonal members crossing each other. These only
need to be resistant to tension, one brace acting to resist sideways forces at a time
depending on the direction of loading. As a result, steel cables can also be used for cross-
bracing.

However, this provides the least available space within the façade for openings and results
in the greatest bending in floor beams.

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K-bracing

Braces connect to the columns at mid-height. This frame has more flexibility for the provision
of openings and results in the least bending in floor beams. K-bracing is generally
discouraged in seismic regions because of the potential for column failure if the
compression brace buckles.

V-bracing

This involves two diagonal members extending from the top two corners of a horizontal
member and meeting at a centre point at the lower horizontal member, in the shape of a
V. Inverted V-bracing (also known as chevron bracing) involves the two members meeting
at a centre point on the upper horizontal member.

Both mean that the buckling capacity of the compression brace is likely to be significantly
less than the tension yield capacity of the tension brace. This can mean that when the
braces reach their resistance capacity, the load must instead be resisted in the bending of
the horizontal member.

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Eccentric bracing

This is commonly used in seismic regions and allows for doorways and corridors in the
braced bays. It is similar to V-bracing but instead of the bracing members meeting at a
centre point there is space between them at the top connection. Bracing members
connect to separate points on the beam or girder. This is so that the 'link' between the
bracing members absorbs energy from seismic activity through plastic deformation.
Eccentric single diagonals can also be used to brace a frame.

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