CHAPTER 2 “Concerns for man himself and his fate must always form the chief interest of scientific

ys form the chief interest of scientific endeavour…

in order that the creation of our mind shall be a blessing and not a curse to mankind”
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES Albert Einstein

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this lesson, the student will be able
1. Define and Identify an Ecosystem, a Biogeochemical Cycle.
2. Define and Explain the flow of nutrients of each of the processes involved in the Biogeochemical cycles.
3. Explain the impact that humans have on the biogeochemical cycles.

2.1 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

ECOSYSTEM AND BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Solar energy, the cycling of matter, and gravity sustain the earth’s life.

Unlike the one-way flow of energy, matter is recycled within and between ecosystems. Elements, chemical
compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to another and from one part of the biosphere
to another through cycles that connect living things to the earth.

An ecosystem includes all of the living (biotic) things (plants, animals and organisms) in a given area, interacting
with each other, and also with their non-living (abiotic) environments (weather, earth, sun, soil, climate,
atmosphere).

An ecosystem survives by a combination of energy flow and matter recycling.

On the basis of habitat of the living organisms, it has been classified as-
I. Natural Ecosystem- studies under natural conditions.
Terrestrial Ecosystem- Grassland, forest, deserts etc.
Aquatic Ecosystem- Fresh water and Marine like lakes, ponds, ocean etc.

II. Artificial Ecosystem-

Formed artificially by man.
For example- crop lands like wheat, maize and rice fields.

The biogeochemical cycle refers to the movement of elements and compounds moving continuously between
Earth and its organisms.

A way to remember this is to break apart the word 'biogeochemical' into pieces.
bio, involves biological organisms, like bacteria, plants, and animals.
geo, involves geological processes, like weathering of rocks.
chemical processes, such as the formation of molecules.

Biogeochemical cycles connect living things to the earth.

The biogeochemical cycle involves the movement of elements and compounds among four major systems:
(1) land and soil (lithosphere),
(2) organisms (biosphere),
(3) air (atmosphere) and
(4) the ocean (hydrosphere).

The four elements that cycles and make up 95% of living things are:
• carbon,
• oxygen,
• hydrogen and
• nitrogen.
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The two other important elements that also cycles are:

• sulfur, and
• phosphorus

These elements are constantly being cycled through living and non-living organic matter.

Biochemical cycles are basically of two types:

a) Gaseous cycles like carbon (as carbon dioxide), oxygen, nitrogen, etc.

In gaseous cycles, the elements have a main reservoir in the gaseous phase, and the reservoir pool is
the atmosphere or water. The bio genetic materials involved in circulation pass through a gaseous phase
before completing the cycle.

b) Sedimentary cycles like sulfur, phosphorus, etc.

In sedimentary cycles, the elements main reservoir pool is lithosphere and the bio genetic materials
involved In circulation are non-gaseous. The sedimentary cycles are usually very slow as the elements
may get locked up in rocks and go out of circulation for long periods.

THE WATER (Hydrologic) CYCLE:

The movement of water between different reservoirs on the earth, underground and in the atmosphere is known
as the water cycle.

1. To a large degree, availability of water determines the diversity of organisms in an ecosystem. Water
is crucial to Life. Cells contain 70 - 90 % water, and water provides the aqueous environment in which
most of life's reactions occur.

2. The availability of WATER is one of the key factors that regulates the productivity of terrestrial (land)
ecosystems.

3. Bodies of water such as lakes, rivers, streams, and the oceans contain a substantial percentage of the
Earths water. The atmosphere also contains water in the form of:
water vapor
some water found below ground known as ground water.

Processes of the Water Cycle:

i. EVAPORATION: from lakes, rivers, and oceans.
ii. TRANSPIRATION: from plants and trees.
iii. CONDENSATION: Cloud Formation
iv. PRECIPITATION: Rain, Snow, Sleet, Hail.
v. RUN OFF, or RETURNED back into the Cycle.
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We alter the water cycle by:

• Withdrawing large amounts of freshwater from the ground causing salt water to contaminate
reservoir.
• Withdrawing large amounts from rivers and streams changes flow of nutrients
• Clearing vegetation causes eroding soils that clogs streams.
• Polluting surface and underground water.
• All of this contributes to climate change.

THE CARBON CYCLE

1. Together, photosynthesis and cellular respiration form the basis of the carbon cycle. Carbon is found
in all of the major macromolecules (carbohydrates, nucleic acids, proteins and lipids) which are
necessary for all living systems.

2. The Earth's atmosphere contains carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2). There are five major
reservoirs of carbon:
• the atmosphere
• the terrestrial biosphere
• oceans
• ocean sediments and
• the earth's interior.

Processes of the Carbon Cycle:

I. Photosynthesis: During photosynthesis, plants and other autotrophs use CO2 along with water and
solar energy, to build organic molecules (carbohydrates), thus storing the carbon for themselves
and other organisms.
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𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑆𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑟 + 𝑂2

II. Cellular Respiration: Both autotrophs and heterotrophs use oxygen to break down carbohydrates
during cellular respiration. Consumers obtain energy-rich molecules that contain carbon by eating
plants and animals.

Autotrophs are those organisms that are able to make energy-containing organic molecules
from inorganic raw material by using basic energy sources such as sunlight. Plants are the
prime example of autotrophs, using photosynthesis.
These organisms which feed on others are called heterotrophs.

III. Volcanic Eruptions and geothermal vents: carbon from deep within the earth's interior is brought
back to the surface during eruptions of steam, gasses and lava.

IV. Decomposition: Carbon is returned to the environment through decomposers and cellular
respiration (breathing releases CO2 back to the atmosphere).

V. Combustion: When wood or fossil fuels are burned, the chemical reaction releases carbon dioxide
back into the atmosphere.

VI. Deposition: Coal, petroleum, and calcium carbonate rock are deposited in sediment and
underground. Calcium carbonate deposits are eroded by water to form carbon dioxide. Large
amounts of carbon are tied up in wood, only returning to the atmosphere when wood is burned.
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CARBON CYCLE SUMMARY

• Is an atmospheric cycle.
• Carbon is required for formation of organic compounds in living things.
• C in carbon dioxide in atmosphere and in water is moved to C in glucose by photosynthesis by
producers.
• C in glucose is moved to C in carbon dioxide by cellular respiration.
• C in glucose is moved to C in organic molecules by synthesis reactions in living things.
• C in organic molecules is moved to C in carbon dioxide by combustion.
• C in organic molecules in organisms is moved to C in fossil fuels over millions of years by
pressure, heat, and bacterial action.
• C in limestone (CaCO3) is released slowly to C in carbon dioxide when exposed to oxygen
and/or water.
• Largest reservoir of carbon - sedimentary rocks (limestone)
• Second largest reservoir of carbon - ocean (dissolved carbon dioxide), living things in ocean.
• In water:
CO2 + H2O → HCO3 – (bicarbonate ions) + CO32– (carbonate ions)
Ca2+ + CO32– → CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) in shells/skeletons of aquatic organisms
CaCO3 → buried, long period of time, pressure→ limestone

Human Impact:
• Removal of vegetation reduces absorption of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis from
atmosphere. Increases atmospheric CO2.
• Burning of fossil fuels increases atmospheric CO2.
• Increase in atmospheric CO2 leads to increased Greenhouse Effect→ Global Warming.
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THE NITROGEN CYCLE

ALL organisms need nitrogen, an important nutrient, to make proteins and nucleic acids.
Most nitrogen is found in the atmosphere (80%) as N2, and most living things cannot use it. ALL organisms
rely on the actions of bacteria that are able to transform nitrogen gas into a usable form.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Cyanobacteria and Rhizobium) play a key role in the nitrogen cycle. They live in
the soil and in the roots of some kinds of plants, such as beans, peas, clover, and alfalfa. These bacteria
have enzymes that can break the atmospheric N2 bonds. Nitrogen atoms are then free to bond with
hydrogen atoms to form Ammonia (NH3).
Processes of the Nitrogen Cycle:
i. NITROGEN FIXATION is the conversion of nitrogen gas to ammonia; Ammonia can be absorbed
by plants from the soil, and used to make proteins, and enter the food web for consumers.
ii. ASSIMILATION: Consumers obtain nitrogen from the plants and animals they eat by digesting the
food's proteins and using it to make their own proteins.
iii. AMMONIFICATION.
Decomposers return the nitrogen from the remains of dead plants and animals back to the soil.
Nitrogen is also returned from animal and plant waste by decomposers (dung, urine, leaves and
bark).
Through ammonification, nitrogen that would be lost, is recycled back into the ecosystem.
iv. DENITRIFICATION
Denitrification occurs when anaerobic bacteria (chemoautotrophs) break down nitrates and
release nitrogen gas back into the atmosphere.
v. NITRIFICATION
Bacteria convert ammonia into nitrogen compounds that plants can utilize more easily
Autotrophs (plants) are therefore DEPENDENT on nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and all other
organisms are DEPENDENT on autotrophs!
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NITROGEN CYCLE SUMMARY

• Is an atmospheric cycle.
• Plants and animals cannot use free nitrogen gas in the atmosphere. They must have nitrogen in
"fixed" form. Nitrogen is required for proteins, nucleic acids in living things.
• Free N2 in atmosphere is "fixed" by nitrogen-fixing bacteria to NH3 (ammonia):
N + 3H2 → 2NH3
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria live in nodules on the roots of leguminous plants (soybeans, peas,
clover, and alfalfa.)
• Water in the soil reacts with ammonia to form NH4+ (ammonium ion)
• Another species of bacteria can perform nitrification once ammonium has formed: NH4+ → NO2-
(nitrite; toxic) →NO3- (nitrate; plant nutrient)
• Assimilation - absorption of ammonia, ammonium ion, nitrate for use by plants to make nucleic
acids, proteins
• Animals get fixed nitrogen by eating plants or other animals.
• Plants and animals are broken down by still other bacteria that convert nitrogen containing
organic molecules in organisms to an inorganic form of nitrogen (ammonia or ammonium ion)
= ammonification
• Once this ammonia has formed, still another group of bacteria can perform denitrification: NH3
or NH4+ → NO2– and/or NO3– → N2 and N2O (nitrous oxide)
• Nitrogen is often limiting factor in plant growth because ammonia, ammonium ion, nitrate are
water-soluble: can be leached from soil.

Human Intervention:
• In the atmosphere:
N2 + O2→ 2NO (nitric oxide) produced when burning fuel or forests.
(Heat combines N2 and O2 present in atmosphere)
NO + O2 → NO2 (nitrogen dioxide gas)
NO2 + H2O → HNO3 (nitric acid - dissolved in water causes acid deposition)
• N2O (nitrous oxide) released from decomposition of fertilize and waste.
• Excess nitrogen added to aquatic systems by runoff of artificial fertilizer, farm waste, discharge
of sewage. This stimulates growth of algae. Breakdown of algae by aerobic decomposers
depletes water of oxygen.
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SULFUR CYCLE
Sulfur and its compounds are required by plants and animals for synthesis of some amino acids and
proteins. Some sulfur bacteria act as a media for exchanges of sulfur within the ecosystem. The sulfur cycle
shows the circulation of sulfur and its compounds in the environment.

1. The sulfur oxidation is shown in the upper half of the cycle.

2. The lower section shows the conversion of sulphates into plant and cellular proteins and the decay of the
dead plant and animal material by bacterial action.

3. In polluted water under anaerobic conditions hydrogen sulphide is produced by bacteria giving deposits
of iron sulphide.

4. In unpolluted water under aerobic condition the sulfur bacteria transform sulphides into sulphates for
further production of proteins.

SULFUR CYCLE SUMMARY

• Is an atmospheric cycle.
• H2S (hydrogen sulfide) and SO2 (sulfur dioxide) released into atmosphere from natural
(volcanoes) and non-natural sources.
H2S + O2 → SO2
SO2 + O2 → SO3 (sulfur trioxide) or
SO2 + H2O → H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) ----> acid deposition, sulfur returned to water and soil, taken
up by plants, animals.
Human intervention:
• Sulfur-containing coal, when burned, releases SO2 .
• Other industrial processes.
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PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
1. Phosphorus is the key to energy in living organisms, for it is phosphorus that moves energy from ATP
to another molecule, driving an enzymatic reaction, or cellular transport.
2. The keystone of getting phosphorus into trophic systems is plants. Plants absorb phosphorous from
water and soil into their tissues, tying them to organic molecules. Once taken up by plants, phosphorus
is available for animals when they consume the plants.
3. When plants and animals die, bacteria decompose their bodies, releasing some of the phosphorus back
into the soil. Once in the soil, phosphorous can be moved 100s to 1,000s of miles from where they
were released by riding through streams and rivers.
4. In some cases, phosphorous will travel to a lake, and settle on the bottom. There, it may turn into
sedimentary rocks, limestone, to be released millions of years later.

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE SUMMARY

• Phosphorus is required in the form of phosphate ions for nucleic acids, ATP, phospholipids in
cell membranes, bones, teeth, shells of animals.
• PO43– = Phosphate
• Is a sedimentary cycle - does not include the atmosphere.
• Phosphate on land and in ocean sediment released by weathering into water and taken up by
plants. Can be limiting factor for plant growth - is present in artificial fertilizer.
• Animals get phosphorus by eating plants or other animals.
• Decomposition changes organic molecules with phosphorus back into phosphate which
dissolves in water which returns the phosphorus to ocean sediment or deposited as rocks.
Human intervention:
• Mining of phosphate for fertilizers and soap causes disruption to ecosystems.
• Removal of phosphorus from ecosystems by cutting down of vegetation. Most of phosphorus
is taken up as biomass.
• Excessive phosphate in runoff from fertilizer, discharge of sewage, farm waste causes growth
of algae, etc. (same problem as nitrogen).