Refrigeration and Air-

conditioning
MEng- 5212
 Introduction
• Refrigeration: The process of removing heat, and
the practical application is to produce or maintain
temperatures below the ambient.
• Air-conditioning: A form of air treatment whereby
temperature, humidity, ventilation, and air
cleanliness are all controlled within limits
determined by the requirements of the air
conditioned enclosure.
• Ventilation is supply of fresh air or extraction of
used air without conditioning
Refrigeration systems
-Vapour cycle
- Gas cycle
Vapour cycle refrigeration system:

• Vapour Compression Refrigeration (VCR): uses

mechanical energy
• Vapour Absorption Refrigeration (VAR): uses thermal
energy
Vapour Compression Refrigeration
• Highly compressed fluids tend to get colder when
allowed to expand
• If pressure change is high enough
• Compressed air hotter than source of cooling
• Expanded gas cooler than desired cold
temperature
• advantages of Vapour Compression
Refrigeration

• Lots of heat can be removed (lots of

thermal energy to change liquid to
vapour)
• Heat transfer rate remains high
(temperature of working fluid much lower
than what is being cooled)
Comparison between gas cycles and vapor
cycles
• Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized into gas
cycles and vapour cycles.
• In gas cycles, heat rejection and refrigeration take
place as the gas undergoes sensible cooling and
heating.
• In a vapour cycle the working fluid undergoes phase
change and refrigeration effect is due to the
vaporization of refrigerant liquid.
• Vapour cycles can be subdivided into:
 vapour compression systems,
 vapour absorption systems,
 vapour jet systems etc
vapour compression cycle
• The basic refrigeration cycle (Figure below) makes use of
the boiling and condensing of a working fluid at different
temperatures and, therefore, at different pressures.

• Figure Evaporation and condensation of a fluid

• Heat is put into the fluid at the lower temperature and pressure and
provides the latent heat to make it boil and change to a vapour.
• This vapour is then mechanically compressed to a higher pressure
and a corresponding saturation temperature at which its latent heat
can be rejected so that it changes back to a liquid.

• Figure Complete basic cycle

The Carnot refrigeration cycle
• Carnot refrigeration cycle is a completely
reversible cycle
• It is used as a model of perfection for a
refrigeration cycle operating between a
constant temperature heat source and sink.
• It is used as reference against which the real
cycles are compared
• the basic Carnot refrigeration system for pure
vapour consists of four components:
compressor, condenser, turbine and
evaporator.
• the cycle involves two isothermal heat transfer processes
(processes 4-1 and 2-3) and two isentropic work transfer
processes (processes 1-2 and 3-4).
• Heat is extracted isothermally at evaporator temperature
Te during process 4-1, heat is rejected isothermally at
condenser temperature Tc during process 2-3.
• Work is supplied to the compressor during the isentropic
compression (1-2) of refrigerant vapour from evaporator
pressure Pe to condenser pressure Pc, and work is
produced by the system as refrigerant liquid expands
isentropically in the turbine from condenser pressure Pc
to evaporator pressure Pe.
• All the processes are both internally as well as externally
reversible, i.e., net entropy generation for the system and
environment is zero.
Applying first and second laws of thermodynamics to the Carnot
refrigeration cycle,
• Schematic of a carnot • carnot refrigeration cycle T-s
refrigeration system diagram
• for the reversible, isothermal heat transfer processes 2-3
and 4-1,

• where Te and Tc are the evaporator and condenser

temperatures, respectively,

• the Coefficient of Performance (COP) is given by:

 • Fig. Pressure-enthalpy diagram
• CoP can also be expressed as:
• Therefore , the coefficient of performance of a refrigeration
machine is the ratio of the energy removed at the evaporator
(refrigerating effect) to the energy supplied to the compressor.
• The best possible performance giving the highest COP would be
obtained from a system operating on a Carnot cycle. Under such
conditions the refrigeration cycle would be thermodynamically
reversible, and both the expansion and compression processes
would be isentropic.
• Dry compression with a single compressor is possible if the
isothermal heat rejection process is replaced by isobaric heat
rejection process.
• Similarly, the isentropic expansion process can be replaced by an
isenthalpic throttling process.
• A refrigeration system, which incorporates these two changes is
known as Evans-Perkins or reverse Rankine cycle. This is the
theoretical cycle on which the actual vapour compression
refrigeration systems are based.
• Standard Vapour
compression
refrigeration system
Actual vapour-compression cycle
• An ideal, simple, reversible vapour-compression cycle is not a
practical proposition. The departure from reversibility arises from the
irreversible nature of the throttling expansion process, pressure
losses in the evaporator, condenser and pipelines, heat transfer
through finite temperature differences and a measure of
irreversibility in the compression process.

• Fig. Simple saturation refrigeration cycle on a temperature-entropy

diagram
• There is more than enough
heat transfer surface in the
condenser to change the
refrigerant from a
superheated vapour to a
saturated liquid. In this case
the liquid is sub-cooled to a
temperature less than its
saturated temperature for the
prevailing pressure.
• A consequence of this is that
any loss of position head
(because the condenser
might be at a lower level than
the expansion valve), or any
frictional pressure drop in the
liquid line, is less likely to • Fig. Pressure-enthalpy diagram of a
simple, actual, vapour-compression
cause the liquid to flash to gas cycle showing superheat at evaporator
before it reaches the outlet and sub-cooling at condenser
expansion valve. outlet.
Standard Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
(VCRS)
• the standard single stage, saturated vapour compression
refrigeration system consists of the following four processes:
• Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of saturated vapour in
compressor
• Process 2-3: Isobaric heat rejection in condenser
• Process 3-4: Isenthalpic expansion of saturated liquid in expansion
device
• Process 4-1: Isobaric heat extraction in the evaporator
• By comparing with Carnot cycle, it can be seen that the standard
vapour compression refrigeration cycle introduces two
irreversibilities: 1) Irreversibility due to non-isothermal heat
rejection (process 2-3) and 2) Irreversibility due to isenthalpic
throttling (process 3-4).
• As a result, one would expect the theoretical COP of
standard cycle to be smaller than that of a Carnot system
for the same heat source and sink temperatures. Due to
these irreversibilities, the cooling effect reduces and work
input increases, thus reducing the system COP.

• Fig. Comparison between Carnot and standard VCRS

Analysis of Standard Vapour Compression
Refrigeration System (VCRS)
• A simple analysis of standard vapour compression refrigeration
system can be carried out by assuming:
 a) Steady flow;
 b) negligible kinetic and potential energy changes
across each component, and
 c) no heat transfer in connecting pipe lines. The steady
flow energy equation is applied to each of the four
components.
• Evaporator: Heat transfer rate at evaporator or
refrigeration capacity, 𝑄 is given by:
• where 𝑚 is the refrigerant mass flow rate in kg/s, h1 and h4 are
the specific enthalpies (kJ/kg) at the exit and inlet to the
evaporator, respectively
• (h1 − h4 ) is known as specific refrigeration effect or simply
refrigeration effect, which is equal to the heat transferred at the
evaporator per kilogram of refrigerant.
• The evaporator pressure Pe is the saturation pressure
corresponding to evaporator temperature Te, i.e.,

• where h2 and h1 are the specific enthalpies (kJ/kg) at the exit and
inlet to the compressor, respectively.
• (h 2 − h1 ) is known as specific work of compression or simply work of
compression, which is equal to the work input to the compressor per
kilogram of refrigerant.
• Condenser: Heat transfer rate at condenser, 𝑄𝑐 is given by:

• where h3 and h2 are the specific enthalpies (kJ/kg) at the exit and
inlet to the condenser, respectively.
• The condenser pressure Pc is the saturation pressure corresponding
to condenser temperature Tc , i.e.,

• Expansion device:

• The exit condition of the expansion device lies in the two-phase

region, hence applying the definition of quality (or dryness fraction),
we can write:
• where x4 is the quality of refrigerant at point 4, hf,e,
hg,e, hfg are the saturated liquid enthalpy,
saturated vapour enthalpy and latent heat of
vaporization at evaporator pressure, respectively.
• The COP of the system is given by:
• where is called as volumetric refrigeration
𝐾𝐽
effect ( 3 of refrigerant)
𝑚
Use of Pressure-enthalpy (P-h) charts:

Fig. Standard vapour compression refrigeration cycle

on a P-h chart
ACTUAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
• An actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle differs from the ideal
one in several ways, owing mostly to the irreversibilities that occur in
various components.
• Two common sources of irreversibilities are fluid friction (causes
pressure drops) and heat transfer to or from the surroundings. The T-
s diagram of an actual vapor compression refrigeration cycle is shown
below:
• Note: The compression process in the ideal cycle is internally
reversible and adiabatic, and thus isentropic. The actual compression
process, however, involves frictional effects, which increase the
entropy, and heat transfer, which may increase or decrease the
entropy, depending on the direction.
• Therefore, the entropy of the refrigerant may increase (process 1-2)
or decrease (process 1-2’) during an actual compression process,
depending on which effects dominate.
• The compression process 1-2’ may be even more desirable than the
isentropic compression process since the specific volume of the
refrigerant and thus the work input requirement are smaller in this
case.
• Therefore, the refrigerant should be cooled during the compression
process whenever it is practical and economical to do so.
• Thermostatic expansion valve is the most versatile expansion valve
and is most commonly used in refrigeration systems. A thermostatic
expansion valve maintains a constant degree of superheat at the
exit of evaporator; hence it is most effective for dry evaporators in
preventing the slugging of the compressors since it does not allow
the liquid refrigerant to enter the compressor.

• Fig. Schematic of a Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TEV)

Refrigerants
• if operating pressures are high, then the materials
comprising the refrigeration system will be heavy and the
equipment expensive. The refrigerant containers will also
be heavy, and this will increase the cost of transport.
• Sub-atmospheric operating pressures, on the other hand,
mean that any leakage will result in air entering the system.
• Comparative performance of refrigerants evaporating at 5°C and condensing at
40°C
• considerations when choosing a refrigerant for a
particular vapour compression cycle are:
• the heat transfer characteristics,
• inflammability,
• toxicity,
• chemical reaction with metals,
• tendency to leak and leak detectability,
• behaviour when in contact with oil,
• availability and the cost.
• The general concern about the ozone depletion and
global warming effects of the refrigerants
commonly in use has stimulated searching for
alternative, more acceptable refrigerants.
• Among those considered are: well-established
refrigerants such as ammonia (provided proper
safety measures are adopted), hydrocarbons (also
requiring safety precautions) and mixtures of two or
more refrigerants, which introduce unusual effects
and are incompatible with conventional mineral oils
for lubrication of the compressor.
Ozone depletion effects
• The refrigerants that have been widely used in air
conditioning and other applications comprise
molecular combinations of chlorine, fluorine, carbon
and hydrogen.
• Fully halogenated refrigerants are termed
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC).
• They are chemically very stable and exist for a long time
in the atmosphere, after leaking from a refrigeration
plant.
• In due course they rise into the stratosphere and, at a
height of between six and thirty miles above the
surface of the earth, the molecules break down in the
presence of solar radiation, losing an atom of chlorine.
• Two reactions then take place. First, the chlorine combines with a
molecule of ozone to form chlorine monoxide and oxygen:

• Secondly, the molecules of chlorine monoxide then combine with

oxygen to form oxygen molecules and chlorine molecules.

• The chlorine molecules are once again free to combine with ozone
and the process repeats up to 10 000 times The net result appears to
be a steady depletion of the ozone content of the atmosphere at high
altitudes.
• Since ozone is the agent in the upper atmosphere that prevents the
entry of excessive, dangerous, ultraviolet radiation the consequences
of ozone depletion are obvious and serious.
• If one of the chlorine atoms in the molecule of a CFC refrigerant is
replaced by a hydrogen atom the stability of the molecule is much
reduced and its ozone depleting effect becomes smaller. This has
encouraged the use of such refrigerants, which are termed
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC), such as R22.
• Refrigerants with no chlorine present have ODF (ozone depletion
factor) values of zero. Such refrigerants are termed
hydrofluorocarbons (HFC).
• Of the refrigerants listed, R134a offers promise, being similar in many
respects to R12 but with no ozone depletion effect.
Safety
• Whichever refrigerant is used it must be safe. This is dealt with
in BS 4434: 1989, covering the design, construction and
installation of refrigeration plant and systems.
• Refrigerants are classified in three groups:
1. These are non-inflammable in vapour form at any concentration
in air at standard atmospheric pressure and 20C. They have a low
toxicity although when in contact with a flame or a hot surface
toxic products of decomposition may form. Examples are: R11,
R12, R13, R22, R113.
2. Toxicity is the dominant feature with these refrigerants and it is
almost impossible to avoid a toxic concentration if an escape of
refrigerant occurs. An example is: R717 (ammonia).
3. These are inflammable and are an explosive hazard, although
with a low order of toxicity. Examples are: R170 (ethane), R290
(propane), R600 (butane).
Group 3 refrigerants should not be used for institutional or
residential buildings, or those buildings used for public assembly.
Chapter-2: Vapor absorption refrigeration system

• The absorption refrigeration system utilizes non CFC’s

natural refrigerant and is therefore, more
environment-friendly.
• Also, it consumes less electricity and uses waste
heat/low grade energy for its operation. Most of the
absorption cooling system use either LiBr-H2O or
NH3-H2O solutions.
• The LiBr-H2O system can operate at a low generator
temperature with better coefficient of performance
than NH3-H 2O system.
• However, COP of absorption system is relatively less
as compared to the compression system.
• In the vapour compression cycle heat removal is accomplished
by connecting the evaporator to the suction side of a pump. A
similar result may be obtained by connecting the evaporator to
another vessel containing a substance capable of absorbing the
vapour.
• The basic principle involved in an absorption refrigeration
cycle, compared to a vapor-compression cycle, is the
replacement of the compressor by a complex absorption
mechanism consisting of an absorber, a pump, a generator,
a regenerator, a valve, and a rectifier
• If the refrigerant were water, a hygroscopic material such as
lithium bromide could be used in the absorber. The substance
used for this purpose is termed the 'absorbent'.
• In order to obtain closed cycles for both refrigerant and absorbent
the next stage in the process must be the release of the absorbed
refrigerant at a convenient pressure for its subsequent liquefaction
in a condenser. This is accomplished in the 'generator', where heat is
applied to the absorbent-refrigerant solution and the refrigerant is
driven off as a vapour.
• The absorber and generator together take the place of the
compressor in the vapour compression cycle. So far as the
refrigerant is concerned, the rest of the absorption cycle is similar to
the compression cycle, i.e. the vapour is liquefied in the condenser
and brought into the evaporator through an expansion valve or an
orifice. As for the absorbent, on leaving the generator it is, of
course, returned to the absorber for another cycle.
• In an absorption refrigeration system cooling water is required for
both the condenser and the absorber.
• The principal advantages of the absorption cycle over other
refrigeration systems are that it can operate with low-grade energy in
the form of heat, indirectly as steam or high temperature hot water,
or directly as gas, oil, hot exhaust gases, or solar heat.

• Furthermore, it has few moving parts. Theoretically, only a single

pump is required, that needed for conveying the absorbent-
refrigerant solution from the low-pressure absorber to the
comparatively high-pressure generator. In practice, two more pumps
are frequently used: one to recirculate solution over cooling coils in
the absorber and another to recirculate the refrigerant over chilled
water coils in the evaporator.
• Ammonia vapor leaves the evaporator and enters the absorber,
where it dissolves and reacts with water to form NH3 · H2O. This is an
exothermic reaction; thus heat is released during this process.
• The amount of NH3 that can be dissolved in H2O is inversely
proportional to the temperature. Therefore, it is necessary to cool
the absorber to maintain its temperature as low as possible, hence to
maximize the amount of NH3 dissolved in water. The liquid NH3 +
H2O solution, which is rich in NH3, is then pumped to the generator.
• Heat is transferred to the solution from a source to vaporize some of
the solution. The vapor, which is rich in NH3, passes through a
rectifier, which separates the water and returns it to the generator.
• The high-pressure pure NH3 vapor then continues its journey
through the rest of the cycle. The hot NH3 + H2O solution, which is
weak in NH3, then passes through a regenerator, where it transfers
some heat to the rich solution leaving the pump, and is throttled to
the absorber pressure.
 Absorption refrigeration is
economic when there is a
source of inexpensive
thermal energy at a
temperature of 100 to
200°C.
Some examples include
geothermal energy, solar
energy, and waste heat
from cogeneration or
process steam plants, and
even natural gas when it is
at a relatively low price.

• Ammonia absorption refrigeration cycle

• Absorption refrigeration systems (ARS) involve the absorption of a refrigerant by a
transport medium.
• The most widely used system is the ammonia–water system, where ammonia
(NH3) serves as the refrigerant and water (H2O) as the transport medium.
• Other systems include water–lithium bromide and water–lithium chloride systems,
where water serves as the refrigerant. These systems are limited to applications
such as A-C where the minimum temperature is above the freezing point of water.
• Compared with vapor-compression systems, ARS have one major advantage: A
liquid is compressed instead of a vapor and as a result the work input is very small
(on the order of one percent of the heat supplied to the generator) and often
neglected in the cycle analysis.
• ARS are often classified as heat-driven systems.
• ARS are much more expensive than the vapor-compression refrigeration systems.
They are more complex and occupy more space, they are much less efficient thus
requiring much larger cooling towers to reject the waste heat, and they are more
difficult to service since they are less common.
• Therefore, ARS should be considered only when the unit cost of thermal energy is
low and is projected to remain low relative to electricity.
• ARS are primarily used in large commercial and industrial installations.

42
The COP of actual absorption refrigeration
systems is usually less than 1.
Air-conditioning systems based on absorption
refrigeration, called absorption chillers,
perform best when the heat source can supply
heat at a high temperature with little
temperature drop.

43
• SINGLE EFFECT VAPOUR ABSORPTION SYSTEM
• The single effect vapour absorption cycle using lithium bromide –water as working
fluid is shown in the figure below . Evaporator (E), Absorber (A), Generator (G),
Condenser(C), Precooler (PC), Preheater (PH) and Pump are the main components
of this system. An evaporator and absorber work at low pressure while the
generator and condenser work at high pressure.

Fig. Single effect vapour absorption refrigeration system

• Double Effect series flow vapour absorption system. It
consists of two generators: a main generator (G) and a
secondary generator (SG), and two condensers: a
secondary condenser (SC) and a main condenser (C) which
rejects heat to the surrounding.
• The main generator (G) and the secondary condenser (SC)
work at high pressure (P3 = Pg) while the secondary
generator (SG) and the main condenser (C) operate at
medium pressure (P2 = Pc).
• The evaporator and the absorber work at low pressure (P1
= Pe = Pa). In the system, liquid refrigerant evaporates after
absorbing latent heat of vaporization in an evaporator and
passing to an absorber through precooler. In absorber
refrigerant is absorbed by strong solution and thus forming
weak solution.
• This weak solution is pumped to the main generator (G)
through two heat exchangers (i.e. PH1 and PH2). The weak
solution at state 1 is pumped from the absorber to the main
generator (G) through two heat exchangers (i.e. PH1 and
PH2).Solution in the main generator is heated to vaporize
refrigerant vapour from the strong solution.
• The Primary refrigerant vapour goes from main generator
(G) to secondary condenser (SC) in which heat of
condensation is rejected and this rejected heat is utilised by
secondary generator (SG). The strong solution thus formed
in the main generator goes to secondary generator through
PH2.
• This strong solution in the secondary generator utilises heat
forming additional refrigerant vapour which flows to the
main condenser. The primary and secondary vapour
condenses in the main condenser and this liquid refrigerant
flows to an evaporator through precooler and throttle valve.
Fig. Double effect series flow vapour absorption refrigeration
system
 3. Air cycle refrigeration systems
Introduction
• Air cycle refrigeration systems belong to the general class
of gas cycle refrigeration systems, in which a gas is used as
the working fluid. The gas does not undergo any phase
change during the cycle, consequently, all the internal heat
transfer processes are sensible heat transfer processes.
• Gas cycle refrigeration systems find applications in air craft
cabin cooling and also in the liquefaction of various gases.
Airplane refrigeration
• Airplanes cruise at 10000m altitude where ambient
temperature is -50℃ and pressure of 0.15bar
• Higher we go, cooler we find
Requirement of cooling in airplanes:
• Ramming of air
• Solar radiation
• Pressure of air inside the cabin
• Heat released from occupants
• Heat released from equipment
• Air Standard Cycle analysis
• Air cycle refrigeration system analysis is
considerably simplified if one makes the following
assumptions:
• i. The working fluid is a fixed mass of air that
behaves as an ideal gas
• ii. The cycle is assumed to be a closed loop cycle
with all inlet and exhaust processes of open loop
cycles being replaced by heat transfer processes to
or from the environment
• iii. All the processes within the cycle are reversible,
i.e., the cycle is internally reversible
• iv. The specific heat of air remains constant
throughout the cycle
• An analysis with the above assumptions is called as
cold Air Standard Cycle (ASC) analysis.
• This analysis yields reasonably accurate results for
most of the cycles and processes encountered in air
cycle refrigeration systems.
• Reversed Carnot cycle employing a gas
• Reversed Carnot cycle is an ideal refrigeration cycle for
constant temperature external heat source and heat
sinks. Figure below shows the schematic of a reversed
Carnot refrigeration system using a gas as the working
fluid along with the cycle diagram on T-s and P-v
coordinates.
• As shown, the cycle consists of the following four
processes:
• Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabatic compression in a
compressor
• Process 2-3: Reversible, isothermal heat rejection in a
compressor
• Process 3-4: Reversible, adiabatic expansion in a
turbine
• Process 4-1: Reversible, isothermal heat absorption
in a turbine

• Fig. (a). Schematic of a reverse Carnot refrigeration

system
Fig. (b). Reverse Carnot refrigeration system in P-v
and T-s coordinates
• The heat transferred during isothermal processes 2-
3 and 4-1 are given by:

• Applying first law of thermodynamics to the closed

cycle,

• the work of isentropic expansion, w3-4 exactly

matches the work of isentropic compression w1-2.
• the COP of the Carnot system is given by:
• Limitations of Carnot cycle:
• Carnot cycle is an idealization and it suffers from several
practical limitations.
• One of the main difficulties with Carnot cycle employing a
gas is the difficulty of achieving isothermal heat transfer
during processes 2-3 and 4-1.
• For a gas to have heat transfer isothermally, it is essential to
carry out work transfer from or to the system when heat is
transferred to the system (process 4-1) or from the system
(process 2-3). This is difficult to achieve in practice.
• In addition, the volumetric refrigeration capacity of the
Carnot system is very small leading to large compressor
displacement, which gives rise to large frictional effects.
• All actual processes are irreversible, hence completely
reversible cycles are idealizations only.
Ideal reverse Brayton cycle

• Fig. (a). Schematic of a closed reverse Brayton cycle

• This is an important cycle frequently employed in gas cycle refrigeration
systems.
• This may be thought of as a modification of reversed Carnot cycle, as the
two isothermal processes of Carnot cycle are replaced by two isobaric heat
transfer processes. This cycle is also called as Joule or Bell-Coleman cycle.
• the ideal cycle consists of the following four
• processes:
• Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabatic compression in a
compressor
• Process 2-3: Reversible, isobaric heat rejection in a heat
exchanger
• Process 3-4: Reversible, adiabatic expansion in a
turbine
• Process 4-1: Reversible, isobaric heat absorption in a
heat exchanger
• Fig.(b). Reverse Brayton cycle in T-s plane
• Process 1-2: Gas at low pressure is compressed isentropically from
state 1 to state 2.
• Applying steady flow energy equation and neglecting changes in
kinetic and potential energy, we can write:
• Process 2-3: Hot and high pressure gas flows through a heat
exchanger and rejects heat sensibly and isobarically to a heat sink.

• Process 3-4: High pressure gas from the heat exchanger flows
through a turbine, undergoes isentropic expansion and delivers net
work output.
• Process 4-1: Cold and low pressure gas from turbine flows through
the low temperature heat exchanger and extracts heat sensibly and
isobarically from a heat source, providing a useful refrigeration effect.

• From the above equations, it can be easily shown that:

• Applying 1st law of thermodynamics to the entire cycle:

• The COP of the reverse Brayton cycle is given by:

• using the relation between temperatures and pressures, the COP can
also be written as:

• From the above expression for COP, the following observations can be
made:
• a) For fixed heat rejection temperature (T3) and fixed refrigeration
temperature (T1), the COP of reverse Brayton cycle is always lower
than the COP of reverse Carnot cycle
• Fig. Comparison of reverse Carnot and reverse Brayton cycle in
T-s plane
• b) COP of Brayton cycle approaches COP of Carnot cycle as T1
approaches T4 (thin cycle), however, the specific refrigeration
effect [cp(T1-T4)] also reduces simultaneously.
• c) COP of reverse Brayton cycle decreases as the pressure ratio
rp increases
• Actual reverse Brayton cycle:
• The actual reverse Brayton cycle differs from the ideal cycle due to:
i. Non-isentropic compression and expansion processes
ii. Pressure drops in cold and hot heat exchangers

Fig. 9.4. Comparison of ideal and actual Brayton cycles T-s plane

• Due to these irreversibilities, the compressor work

input increases and turbine work output reduces.
• The actual work transfer rates of compressor and turbine are then
given by:

• where ηc,isen and ηt,isen are the isentropic efficiencies of

compressor and turbine, respectively. In the absence of pressure
drops, these are defined as:

• The actual net work input, wnet,act is given by:

• In practice, reverse Brayton cycles can be open or
closed. In open systems, cold air at the exit of the
turbine flows into a room or cabin (cold space), and air
to the compressor is taken from the cold space. In such
a case, the low side pressure will be atmospheric.
• In closed systems, the same gas (air) flows through the
cycle in a closed manner. In such cases it is possible to
have low side pressures greater than atmospheric.
These systems are known as dense air systems.
• Dense air systems are advantageous as it is possible to
reduce the volume of air handled by the compressor
and turbine at high pressures. Efficiency will also be
high due to smaller pressure ratios. It is also possible to
use gases other than air (e.g. helium) in closed systems.
Aircraft cooling systems
• In an aircraft, cooling systems are required to keep the cabin
temperatures at a comfortable level. Even though the outside
temperatures are very low at high altitudes, still cooling of cabin is
required due to:
i. Large internal heat generation due to occupants, equipment etc.
ii. Heat generation due to skin friction caused by the fast moving
aircraft
iii. At high altitudes, the outside pressure will be sub-atmospheric.
When air at this low pressure is compressed and supplied to the
cabin at pressures close to atmospheric, the temperature increases
significantly. For example, when outside air at a pressure of 0.2 bar
and temperature of 223 K (at 10000 m altitude) is compressed to 1
bar, its temperature increases to about 353 K. If the cabin is
maintained at 0.8 bar, the temperature will be about 332 K.
This effect is called as ram effect. This effect adds heat to the cabin,
which needs to be taken out by the cooling system.
iv. Solar radiation
• For low speed aircraft flying at low altitudes, cooling system may not
be required, however, for high speed aircraft flying at high altitudes, a
cooling system is a must.
• Even though the COP of air cycle refrigeration is very low compared
to vapour compression refrigeration systems, it is still found to be
most suitable for aircraft refrigeration systems as:
i. Air is cheap, safe, non-toxic and non-flammable. Leakage of air is
not a problem
ii. Cold air can directly be used for cooling thus eliminating the low
temperature heat exchanger (open systems) leading to lower weight
iii. The aircraft engine already consists of a high speed turbo-
compressor, hence separate compressor for cooling system is not
required. This reduces the weight per kW cooling considerably.
Typically, less than 50% of an equivalent vapour compression system
iv. Design of the complete system is much simpler due to low
pressures. Maintenance required is also less.
Advantages of air cycle for airplane refrigeration
– No cost of refrigerant involved, quite cheap
– Main compressor of gas turbine is used
– chilled air is directly used for cooling
– minor leakage is not a problem
– low pressure (1-6 bar) in the system
– W/ton of refrigeration
– air is non-toxic and non-flammable
– refrigeration system is light in wait
Disadvantages of air cycle for airplane refrigeration
– Low coefficient of performance
– Sensible heating of refrigerant
– Freezing of moisture
Simple aircraft refrigeration cycle:

Fig. a. Schematic of a simple aircraft refrigeration cycle

• Fig. b. Schematic of a simple aircraft refrigeration
cycle
• simple aircraft refrigeration system is an open system. As
shown in the T-s diagram, the outside low pressure and low
temperature air (state 1) is compressed due to ram effect
to ram pressure (state 2). During this process its
temperature increases from 1 to 2. This air is compressed in
the main compressor to state 3, and is cooled to state 4 in
the air cooler. Its pressure is reduced to cabin pressure in
the turbine (state 5), as a result its temperature drops from
4 to 5. The cold air at state 5 is supplied to the cabin.
• It picks up heat as it flows through the cabin providing
useful cooling effect. The power output of the turbine is
used to drive the fan, which maintains the required air flow
over the air cooler. This simple system is good for ground
cooling (when the aircraft is not moving) as fan can
continue to maintain airflow over the air cooler.
• By applying steady flow energy equation to the ramming process, the
temperature rise at the end of the ram effect can be shown to be:

• where M is the Mach number, which is the ratio of velocity of the

aircraft (C) to the sonic velocity a, , i.e.,

• The ratio of actual pressure rise to the isentropic pressure rise is

called as ram efficiency, ηRam,

• The refrigeration capacity of the simple aircraft cycle is given by:

• Ti = cabin temperature
 simple vapour aircraft
refrigeration cycle

Fig. Schematic of a simple vapour aircraft

refrigeration cycle
• Bootstrap system:
• a bootstrap system is a modification of the simple system.
• this system consists of two heat exchangers (air cooler and
aftercooler), in stead of one air cooler of the simple system. It
also incorporates a secondary compressor, which is driven by
the turbine of the cooling system. This system is suitable for
high speed aircraft, where in the velocity of the aircraft provides
the necessary airflow for the heat exchangers, as a result a
separate fan is not required.
• As shown in the cycle diagram, ambient air state 1 is pressurized
to state 2 due to the ram effect. This air is further compressed
to state 3 in the main compressor.
• The air is then cooled to state 4 in the air cooler. The heat
rejected in the air cooler is absorbed by the ram air at state 2.
The air from the air cooler is further compressed from state 4 to
state 5 in the secondary compressor.
• It is then cooled to state 6 in the after cooler, expanded to cabin
pressure in the cooling turbine and is supplied to the cabin at a
low temperature T7.
• Since the system does not consist of a separate fan for driving
the air through the heat exchangers, it is not suitable for
ground cooling. However, in general ground cooling is
normally done by an external air conditioning system as it is
not efficient to run the aircraft engine just to provide cooling
when it is grounded.
• Other modifications over the simple system are: regenerative
system and reduced ambient system. In a regenerative
system, a part of the cold air from the cooling turbine is used
for precooling the air entering the turbine. As a result much
lower temperatures are obtained at the exit of the cooling
turbine, however, this is at the expense of additional weight
and design complexity.
• The cooling turbine drives a fan similar to the simple system.
The regenerative system is good for both ground cooling as
well as high speed aircrafts. The reduced ambient system is
well-suited for supersonic aircrafts and rockets.
• Fig. Schematic of a bootstrap system
• Fig. Schematic of a bootstrap system
• Fig. Schematic of a bootstrap air evapoative
cooling system
• Dry Air Rated Temperature (DART):
• The concept of Dry Air Rated Temperature is used to
compare different aircraft refrigeration cycles. Dry Air
Rated Temperature is defined as the temperature of the air
at the exit of the cooling turbine in the absence of moisture
condensation. For condensation not to occur during
expansion in turbine, the dew point temperature and
hence moisture content of the air should be very low, i.e.,
the air should be very dry.
• The aircraft refrigeration systems are rated based on the
mass flow rate of air at the design DART. The cooling
capacity is then given by:
• A comparison between different aircraft
refrigeration systems based on DART at different
Mach numbers shows that:
• i. DART increases monotonically with Mach number
for all the systems except the reduced ambient
system
• ii. The simple system is adequate at low Mach
numbers
• iii. At high Mach numbers either bootstrap system
or regenerative system should be used
• iv. Reduced ambient temperature system is best
suited for very high Mach number, supersonic
aircrafts
Steam Jet Refrigeration System:

Steam jet refrigeration system

• This system uses the principle of boiling the water below 100℃. If the
pressure on the surface of the water is reduced below atmospheric
pressure, water can be made boil at low temperatures. Water boils at
60℃, when the pressure on the surface is 5 cm of Hg. The very low
pressure or high vacuum on the surface of the water can be
maintained by throttling the steam through jets or nozzles. The
general arrangement of the system is shown in the Figure.
• Consider a flash chamber containing 100 kg of water. If suddenly 1 kg
of water is removed by boiling, as pressure is reduced due to
throttling of steam through nozzles.
• Approximately 2385 kJ of heat will be removed from the water, which
is equivalent to heat of evaporation of water. The fall in temperature
of the remaining water will be,
• Water is the refrigerant used in the steam jet refrigeration system. As
water freezes at 0 ℃, then either refrigeration has to be stopped or
some device is required to pump the ice.
Operation:
• High pressure steam is supplied to the nozzle from the boiler and it is
expanded. Here,the water vapor originated from the flash chamber is
entrained with the high velocity steam jet and it is further
compressed in the thermo compressor. The kinetic energy of the
mixture is converted into static pressure and mass is discharged to
the condenser.
• The chilled water in the flash chamber is circulated by a pump to the
point of application.
• The warm water from the load is returned to the flash chamber. The
water is sprayed through the nozzles to provide maximum surface
area for cooling. The water, which is splashed in the chamber and any
loss of cold water at the application, must be replaced by makeup
water added to the cold water circulating system.
Advantages:
a) It is flexible in operation; cooling capacity can be easily and quickly
changed.
b) It has no moving parts as such it is vibration free.
c) It can be installed out of doors.
d) The weight of the system per ton of refrigerating capacity is less.
e) The system is very reliable and maintenance cost is less.
 f) The system is particularly adapted to the processing of cold water
used in rubber mills,, distilleries, paper mills, food processing plants,
etc.
g) This system is particularly used in air-conditioning installations,
because of the complete safety of water as refrigerant and ability to
adjust quickly to load variations and no hazard from the leakage of
the refrigerant.
Disadvantages:
a) The use of direct evaporation to produce chilled water is
usually limited as tremendous volume of vapor is to be
handled.
b) About twice as much heat must be removed in the
condenser of steam jet per ton of refrigeration compared
with the vapor compression system.
c) The system is useful for comfort air-conditioning, but it is
not practically feasible for water temperature below 4 ℃.
Cryogenic Refrigeration
Cryogenics
• The science and technology associated with generation of
low temperature below 123 K. Cryogenics it is the cooling
of materials to extremely low temperatures using highly
condensed gases.
• Limit to lowest temp—absolute zero (0K)
• Cryogenic region  below 120K (-153ºC)
• Cryogenic Liquids  super-freezing permanent gases to
liquid states, ex: oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and helium
– Liquid Nitrogen: most easily available
– Liquid Helium: lowest temp. <2.17K
Applications
• Space
– Rocket propulsion
– Cooling of Infra-Red (IR) sensor
– Space simulation
Cryogenic engines are powered by using liquid hydrogen as a fuel
and liquid oxygen as an oxidizer
Cooling of IR detectors, Telescopes, cold probes, etc. are some of the
applications of cryogenics
• Mechanical
– Magnetic separation
– Heat treatment (the lives of the tools, die casting and their dies,
forgings, jigs and fixtures, etc. increase when subjected to
cryogenic heat treatment)
eg. The life of guitar strings increase by 4 to 5 times with no need for tuning
– Recycling (turns the scrap into raw material by subjecting it to
cryogenic temperatures.
eg. Used for rubbers, PVC
• Medicine
– Cryosurgery
– Food preservation
– Cell preservation
Cryosurgery
Cryosurgery is a novel technique in which the harmful tissues are
destroyed by freezing them to cryogenic temperature
Cryosurgery has a shorter hospital stay, less blood loss, and small
recovery time
It is generally used in patients with localized prostate and kidney
cancer, skin disorder, retinal problems, etc.
Food preservation
Preserving food at low temperature is a well known technique
Cooling of sea foods, meat(sea export), milk products for long time
preservation is achieved by use of 𝐿𝑁2
• Cell preservation
Systems are developed to preserve blood cells, plasma
cells, human organs and animal organs at cryogenics
temperatures
Gas Industry
– Liquifaction
– Separation
– Storage
The transportation of gases across the world is done in
liquid state. This is done by storing the liquid at cryogenic
temperature
• Gas Industry
– Liquefaction(the transportation of gases across the
world is done in liquid state. This is done by storing the
liquid at cryogenic temperature)
– Separation
– Storage
• Superconductivity
– NMR,MRI
– Maglev locomotion
– Transformers & generators
Advantage
• Relatively simple system
Disadvantage
• Hazarduous conditions due to extreme low
temperatures
• High energy requirements to achieve low
temperatures
 Psychrometry
• Atmospheric air makes up the environment in almost every
type of air conditioning system.
• Atmospheric air is a mixture of many gases plus water
vapour and a number of pollutants.
• a mixture of various gases that constitute air and water
vapour is known as moist air.
• Psychrometry is the study of the properties of mixtures of
air and water vapour.
• At a given temperature and pressure the dry air can only
hold a certain maximum amount of moisture. When the
moisture content is maximum, then the air is known as
saturated air.
• For moist air:

• where
– p = pt = total barometric pressure
– pa = partial pressure of dry air
– pv = partial pressure of water vapor.
Important psychrometric properties:
• Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of
the moist air as measured by a standard
thermometer or other temperature measuring
instruments.
• Saturated vapour pressure (psat) is the saturated
partial pressure of water vapour at the dry bulb
temperature.
• Wet Bulb Temperature (TWB; °C or °F)
• The temperature at which water, by evaporating
into air, can bring the air to saturation at the same
temperature.
• In other words, TWB is the minimum temperature
that the moist air could achieve if enough water
was added to achieve saturation (RH = 100%).TWB
is often used to indicate how much water can be
added to the air through evaporation.
• Sling Psychrometer
• One device that uses the wet/dry bulb method is
the sling psychrometer, where the thermometers
are attached to a handle or length of rope and spun
around in the air for a few minutes
• What does the reading tell you?
• A. If the wet bulb temperature is lower than the dry
bulb the air-vapor mixture is unsaturated.
• B. If the wet bulb temperature is the same as the
dry bulb, the air-vapor is saturated.
• Relative humidity (Φ) is defined as the ratio of the mass of
water vapour in moist air to mass of water vapour in
saturated air at the same temperature and pressure.

𝑃𝑣
Φ=
𝑃𝑣𝑠
• When Φ is 100 percent, the air is saturated.
• Humidity ratio (W): The humidity ratio (or specific
humidity) W is the mass of water associated with each
kilogram of dry air.
• Dew-point temperature: If unsaturated moist air is cooled at constant
pressure, then the temperature at which the moisture in the air
begins to condense is known as dew-point temperature (DPT) of air.
• DPT is the temperature at which water will begin to condense out of
moist air.
• Enthalpy: The enthalpy of moist air is:

• Where
– cp = specific heat of dry air at constant pressure, kJ/kg.K
– cpw = specific heat of water vapor, kJ/kg.K
– t = Dry-bulb temperature of air-vapor mixture, oC
– W = Humidity ratio, kg of water vapor/kg of dry air
– ha = enthalpy of dry air at temperature t, kJ/kg
– hg = enthalpy of water vapor at temperature t, kJ/kg
– hfg = latent heat of vaporization at 0oC, kJ/kg
• Humid specific heat: From the equation for enthalpy of
moist air, the humid specific heat of moist air can be
written as:
cpm = cp + W.cpw
• where cpm = humid specific heat, kJ/kg.K
• cp = specific heat of dry air, kJ/kg.K
• cpw = specific heat of water vapor, kJ/kg
• W = humidity ratio, kg of water vapor/kg of dry air
• Substituting the approximate values of cp and hg, we obtain:

Psychrometric chart
• A Psychrometric chart graphically represents the thermodynamic
properties of moist air.

Fig.: Schematic of a psychrometric chart for a given barometric pressure

• On a particular day the weather forecast states that the dry bulb
temperature is 37℃, while the relative humidity is 50% and the
barometric pressure is 101.325 kPa. Find the humidity ratio, dew
point temperature and enthalpy of moist air on this day.
Ans.:
• At 37 ℃ the saturation pressure (ps) of water vapour is obtained from
steam tables as 6.2795 kPa. Since the relative humidity is 50%, the
vapour pressure of water in air (pv) is:

• the humidity ratio W is given by:

• The enthalpy of air (h) is given by the equation:

 Psychrometric Processes
b) Sensible heating (Process O-B):
a) Sensible cooling:

• Fig.: Sensible cooling process O-A on

psychrometric chart Fig.: Sensible heating process on
psychrometric chart
c) Cooling and dehumidification (Process O-C):
By applying mass balance for the water:

Fig.: Cooling and dehumidification process (O-C)

By applying energy balance:
• from the above two equations, the load on the cooling coil,
Qt is given by:

• the 2nd term on the RHS of the above equation is normally

small compared to the other terms, so it can be neglected.
Hence,

• the total, latent and sensible heat transfer rates (Qt, Ql and
Qs) can be written as:
• SHF is defined as the ratio of sensible to total heat transfer
rate, i.e.,

• Fig.: A psychrometric chart with protractor for SHF lines

• In Fig.above, the temperature Ts is the effective surface
temperature of the cooling coil, and is known as apparatus
dew-point (ADP) temperature.
• Hence, we can define a by-pass factor (BPF) as:

• Alternatively, a contact factor(CF) can be defined which is

given by:
d) Heating and Humidification (Process O-D):

Fig.: Heating and humidification process

• where Qh is the heat supplied through the heating coil and
hw is the enthalpy of steam.
e) Cooling & humidification (Process O-E):

Fig.: Cooling and humdification process

f) Heating and de-humidification (Process O-F):

Fig.. Chemical de-humidification process

g) Mixing of air streams:
i) Without condensation:
mass balance:

Energy balance:

Fig. Mixing of two air streams without condensation

Air Washers:
• An air washer is a device for conditioning air.

• Fig.: Air washer

• The sensible (QS) and latent (QL) heat transfer rates are
given by:
• the total heat transfer QT is given by:
• Hence the total heat transfer is given by:

• by manipulating the term in the parenthesis of RHS, it can be shown

that:

• if hi > ha; then the total heat transfer is from water to air and water
gets cooled
• if hi < ha; then the total heat transfer is from air to water and water
gets heated
• if hi = ha; then the net heat transfer is zero, i.e., the sensible heat
transfer rate is equal to but in the opposite direction of latent heat
transfer. Temperature of water remains at its wet bulb temperature
value
 Inside And Outside Design Conditions
• Introduction:
• Design and analysis of air conditioning systems involves selection of
suitable inside and outside design conditions, estimation of the
required capacity of cooling or heating equipment, selection of
suitable cooling/heating system, selecting supply conditions, design
of air transmission and distribution systems etc.

• Fig.: Schematic of a basic summer air conditioning system

Selection of inside design conditions:
• Air conditioning is required for:
– comfort air conditioning),
– for storage of perishable products
– industrial air conditioning)
Thermal comfort:
• Thermal comfort is defined as “that condition of mind which
expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment”.
• The process of conversion of chemical energy contained in food
into heat and work is called as “metabolism”. The rate at which
the chemical energy is converted into heat and work is called as
“metabolic rate”.
• Knowledge of metabolic rate of the occupants is required as this
forms a part of the cooling load of the air conditioned building.
• A human body is very sensitive to temperature. the
temperatures should be:

• The heat generation rate Qgen is given by:

• where M = Metabolic rate, and

• η = Thermal efficiency ≈ 0 for most of the activities
• 1 met = 58.2 W/m2
• Typical metabolic rates

• Table shows typical metabolic rates for different

activities
• Factors affecting thermal comfort:
• Thermal comfort is affected by several factors. These are:
1. Physiological factors such as age, activity, sex and health. These
factors influence the metabolic rate.
2. Insulating factor due to clothing. The unit for measuring the
resistance offered by clothes is called as “clo”. 1 clo is equal to a
resistance of about 0.155 m2.K/W.
3. Environmental factors. Important factors are the dry bulb
temperature, relative humidity, air motion and surrounding surface
temperature. Of these the dry bulb temperature affects heat
transfer by convection and evaporation, the relative humidity
affects heat loss by evaporation, air velocity influences both
convective and evaporative heat transfer and the surrounding
surface temperature affects the radiative heat transfer.
Indices for thermal comfort:
• It is seen that important factors which affect thermal
comfort are the activity, clothing, air DBT, RH, air velocity
and surrounding temperature.

• Inside design conditions for Winter:

• Inside design conditions for Summer:

• Fig.: ASHRAE comfort chart for a sedentary person (activity
≈ 1.2 met)
• Table shows the recommended comfort conditions for different
seasons and clothing suitable at 50 % RH, air velocity of 0.15 m/s and
an activity level of ≤ 1.2 met.

• Table: Optimum and recommended operative temperatures for comfort

• Selection of outside design conditions:
• The design outside conditions also depend on the following
factors:
– a) Type of the structure, i.e., whether it is of heavy construction,
medium or light
– b) Insulation characteristics of the building
– c) Area of glass or other transparent surfaces
– d) Type of usage
– e) Nature of occupancy
– f) Daily range (difference between maximum and minimum
temperatures in a given day)
• Outdoor design conditions for summer:
• Selection of maximum dry and wet bulb temperatures at a particular
location leads to excessively large cooling capacities as the maximum
temperature generally persists for only a few hours in a year.
• Hence it is recommended that the outdoor design conditions for
summer be chosen based on the values of dry bulb and mean coincident
wet bulb temperature that is equaled or exceeded 0.4, 1.0 or 2.0 % of
total hours in an year. These values for major locations in the world are
available in data books, such as ASHRAE handbooks. Whether to choose
the 0.4 % value or 1.0 % value or 2.0 % value depends on specific
requirements.
• In the absence of any special requirements, the 1.0% or 2% value may
be considered for summer outdoor design conditions.
• Outdoor design conditions for winter:
• it is recommended that the outdoor design conditions for winter be
chosen based on the values of dry bulb temperature that is equaled
or exceeded 99.6 or 99.0 % of total hours in an year.
• Generally the 99.0% value is adequate, but if the building is made of
light-weight materials, poorly insulated or has considerable glass or
space temperature is critical, then the 99.6% value is recommended.
• Table shows the ASHRAE recommended summer design conditions
for major Indian cities. In the table DB stands for the design DBT and
MWB stands for mean coincident WBT.

• Table: Design summer outside conditions for some Indian cities

(ASHRAE)
Psychrometry Of Air Conditioning Systems
Introduction:
• From known loads on the building and design inside and
outside conditions, psychrometric calculations are
performed to find:
• 1. Supply air conditions (air flow rate, DBT, humidity ratio &
enthalpy)
• 2. Coil specifications (Latent and sensible loads on coil, coil
ADP & BPF)
• Summer air conditioning systems:
Simple system with 100 % re-circulated air:
• the Room Sensible Cooling load (Qs,r), Room Latent Cooling Load
(Ql,r) and Room Total Cooling load (Qt,r) are:

• the Room Sensible Heat Factor (RSHF) is:

• Assuming no heat transfer due to the ducts and fans, the sensible and
latent heat transfer rates at the cooling coil are exactly equal to the
sensible and latent heat transfer rates to the conditioned space; i.e.,
• Fig.: A simple, 100% re-circulation type air conditioning system
• If the by-pass factor (X) of the cooling coil is known, then, from room
conditions, coil ADP and by-pass factor, the supply air temperature ts
is obtained using the definition of by-pass factor as:
• when the by-pass factor is zero, the minimum amount of
supply air flow rate required is:

• Thus with 100 % re-circulated air, the room ADP is equal to

coil ADP and the load on the coil is equal to the load on the
room.
• System with outdoor air for ventilation:
• Fixing of supply condition:
Case i) By-pass factor of the cooling coil is zero:

• Fig.: A summer air conditioning system with outdoor air for

ventilation and a zero by-pass factor
• Calculation of coil loads:

• Where ‘m’ refers to the mixing condition which is a result of mixing of

the recirculated air with outdoor air.

• the Coil Sensible Heat Factor (CSHF) given by:

• Case ii: Coil by-pass factor, X > 0:
• Fig.: A summer air conditioning system with outdoor air for
ventilation and a nonzero by-pass factor
High latent cooling load applications (low RSHF):

• Fig.: A summer air conditioning system with reheat coil for high
latent cooling load applications
 Cooling And Heating Load Calculations
-Solar Radiation Through Fenestration Ventilation And
Infiltration
Solar radiation through fenestration:
• Fenestration refers to any glazed (transparent) apertures in
a building, such as glass doors, windows, skylights etc.
• Because of their transparency, fenestrations transmit solar
radiation into the building.
• Thus the fenestration or glazed surfaces contribute a major
part of cooling load of a building.
 Estimation of solar radiation through fenestration:
• The figure below shows an unshaded window made of
clear plastic glass. As shown in the figure, the
properties of this glass for solar radiation are:
• transmittivity (τ) = 0.80, reflectivity (ρ) = 0.08 and
absorptivity (α) = 0.12.
• As shown below, out of 100% radiation, 84% is
transmitted to the interiors of the building. Of course,
these figures are for a clear plate glass only.
• For other types of glass, the values will be different.
• the amount of solar radiation passing through a transparent surface
can be written as:

• where:
• A = Area of the surface exposed to radiation
• It = Total radiation incident on the surface
• τ = Transmittivity of glass for direct, diffuse and reflected
radiations
• α = Absorptivity of glass for direct, diffuse and reflected
radiations
• N = Fraction of absorbed radiation transferred to the indoors
by conduction and convection
 • Fig.: Radiation properties of clear plate glass
• Under steady state conditions it can be shown that the fraction of
absorbed radiation transferred to the indoors, i.e., N is equal to:
• where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, which takes into
account the external heat transfer coefficient, the conduction
resistance offered by the glass and the internal heat transfer
coefficient, and ho is the external heat transfer coefficient.
• From the above two equations, we can write:

• The term in square brackets for a single sheet, clear window glass
(reference) is called as Solar Heat Gain Factor (SHGF), i.e.,

• Thus SHGF is the heat flux due to solar radiation through the
reference glass (SS). The maximum SHGF values for different
latitudes, months and orientations have been obtained and are
available in the form of Tables in ASHRAE handbooks.
• Table: Maximum SHGF factor for sunlit glass located at 32°N (W/m2)
• Similar tables are available for other latitudes also in ASHRAE
Handbooks.
• For fenestrations other than the reference SS glass, a Shading Coefficient
(SC) is defined such that the heat transfer due to solar radiation is given by:

• The shading coefficient depends upon the type of the glass and the type of
internal shading devices.

• Table : Shading coefficients for different types of glass and internal shading
Effect of external shading:
• A very common method of providing external shading is to
use overhangs.
• The solar radiation transmitted into the building with
overhang is :

• Fig.: Shadow cast by an inset window

• where β is the altitude angle and α is the wall solar azimuth
angle.
• For overhang x X y area exposed is given by:

Ventilation for Indoor Air Quality (IAQ):

• The purpose of ventilation is to dilute the air inside the
conditioned space. Ventilation may be defined as the
“supply of fresh air to the conditioned space either by
natural or by mechanical means for the purpose of
maintaining acceptable indoor air quality”.
• Generally ventilation air consists of fresh outdoor air plus
any re-circulated air that has been treated. If the outdoor
air itself is not pure, then it also has to be treated before
supplying it to the conditioned space.
• Table: Typical outdoor air requirements for ventilation

Infiltration:
• Infiltration may be defined as the uncontrolled entry of untreated,
outdoor air directly into the conditioned space.
• Infiltration of outdoor air into the indoors takes place due to wind
and stack effects.
• The wind effect refers to the entry of outdoor air due to
the pressure difference developed across the building due
to winds blowing outside the building.
• The stack effect refers to the entry of outdoor air due to
buoyancy effects caused by temperature difference
between the indoor and outdoors.
• infiltration is specified in terms of number of air changes
per hour (ACH). One ACH is equal to the airflow rate equal
to the internal volume of the occupied space per hour.
 Heating and cooling loads due to ventilation and infiltration:
• The sensible and latent heat transfer rates due to ventilation and
infiltration, Qs,vi and Ql,vi are given by:

• 𝒎𝒐 and 𝒗𝒐 are the mass flow rate and volumetric flow rates of
outdoor air due to ventilation and infiltration
 Cooling And Heating Load Calculations
-Heat Transfer Through Buildings - Fabric Heat
Gain/Loss
Introduction:
• Whenever there is a temperature difference between the
conditioned indoor space of a building and outdoor
ambient, heat transfer takes place through the building
structure (walls, roof, floor etc.).
• This is known as fabric heat gain or loss, depending upon
whether heat transfer is to the building or from the
building, respectively.
• Semi-empirical methods:
• The semi-empirical methods use the form suggested by the
analytical method along with experimental observations on
standard walls.
• These semi-empirical methods based on Equivalent
Temperature Difference (ETD) or Cooling Load Temperature
Difference (CLTD), are widely used by air conditioning
industry due to their simplicity.
• However, the empirical data covers only standard walls and
is suitable for specific location, orientation and day.
• Decrement factor and Time Lag:
• the heat transfer rate to the conditioned space at any time
θ can be written as:
• Where Tsol-air,m is the time averaged sol-air
temperature,Tsol-air,θ-φ is the sol-air temperature φ hours
before θ, U and A are the overall heat transfer coefficient
and area of the wall, λ is the decrement factor and φ is the
time lag.
• The time lag, φ is the difference between the time at which
the outer surface receives heat and the time at which the
inner surface senses it.

• On the other extreme, if the wall has negligible thermal

capacity, then the decrement factor will be 1.0 and the
time lag will be 0, and the heat transfer rate to the
conditioned space at any point is equal to the heat
transferred to the outer surface of the wall at that instant,
i.e.,
• The above empirical methods for cooling load
estimation can be written as:

• where ΔTeff, called as Equivalent Temperature Difference

(ETD) or Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD) is:
• Table : CLTD values (in K) for flat roofs without suspended ceilings
(ASHRAE Handbook)
• Table: CLTD values (in K) for D-type walls (ASHRAE Handbook)
• The above tables are valid for the following conditions:
a) Inside temperature of 25 ℃ , maximum outside
temperature of 35℃ with an average value of 29℃ and a daily
range of 12℃. For inside and average outside temperatures
(Ti and Tav ) other than the above, the following adjustment
has to be made to CLTD:

CLTDadj = CLTDTable + (25-Ti) + (Tav-29)

• where CLTDTable is the value obtained from the table.
• b) Solar radiation typical of July 21 at 40 N latitude, but in
the absence of more accurate data, the tables can be used
without significant error for 0°N to 50 °N and for summer
months.

• Similar data are available for other types of walls and roofs
and for different latitudes. Adjustments are also suggested
for walls and roofs with insulation, wetted roofs etc.
Cooling And Heating Load Calculations
• Introduction
• heating and cooling load calculations are carried out to estimate the
required capacity of heating and cooling systems, which can maintain
the required conditions in the conditioned space.
• To estimate the required cooling or heating capacities, one has to
have information regarding the design indoor and outdoor
conditions, specifications of the building, specifications of the
conditioned space (such as the occupancy, activity level, various
appliances and equipment used etc.) and any special requirements of
the particular application.
• For comfort applications, the required indoor conditions are fixed by
the criterion of thermal comfort, while for industrial or commercial
applications the required indoor conditions are fixed by the particular
processes being performed or the products being stored.
• heating load calculations are carried out to estimate the heat loss
from the building in winter so as to arrive at required heating
capacities.
• cooling loads
• For any building there exists a balance point at which the solar
radiation (Qsolar) and internal heat generation rate (Qint) exactly
balance the heat losses from the building. Thus from sensible heat
balance equation, at balanced condition:
( a)

• where UA is the product of overall heat transfer coefficient and heat

transfer area of the building, Tin is the required indoor temperature
and Tout is the outdoor temperature.
• the outside temperature at balanced condition (Tout,bal) is:

(b)
• when Tout > Tout,bal, then there is a need for cooling the building.
On the other hand, when Tout < Tout,bal, then there is a need for
heating the building. When Tout = Tout,bal, then there is no need for
either cooling or heating the building.
• For residential buildings (with fewer internal heat sources), the
balanced outdoor temperature may vary from 10 to 18 ℃ . As
discussed before, this means that if the balanced outdoor
temperature is 18℃, then a cooling system is required when the
outdoor temperature exceeds 18℃.
Methods of estimating cooling and heating loads:
• In practice, a variety of methods ranging from simple rules-of-thumb
to complex Transfer Function Methods are used in practice to arrive
at the building loads. For example, typical rules-of-thumb methods
for cooling loads specify the required cooling capacity based on the
floor area or occupancy.
• Rules-of-thumb are useful in preliminary estimation of the
equipment size and cost. The main conceptual drawback of rulesof-
thumb methods is the presumption that the building design will not
make any difference. Thus the rules for a badly designed building are
typically the same as for a good design.
• Table 35.1: Required cooling capacities for various applications based on rules-of
thumb(Croome and Roberts, 1981)
• More accurate load estimation methods involve a combination of analytical
methods and empirical results obtained from actual data, for example the
use of Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD) for estimating fabric
heat gain and the use of Solar Heat Gain Factor (SHGF) for estimating heat
transfer through fenestration.
• These methods are very widely used by air conditioning engineers as they
yield reasonably accurate results and estimations can be carried out
manually in a relatively short time. Over the years, more accurate methods
that require the use of computers have been developed for estimating
cooling loads, e.g. the Transfer Function Method (TFM). Since these
methods are expensive and time consuming they are generally used for
estimating cooling loads of large commercial or institutional buildings.
ASHRAE suggests different methods for estimating cooling and heating
loads based on applications, such as for residences, for commercial
buildings etc.
• Cooling load calculations:
• The cooling load experienced by a building varies in magnitude from
zero (no cooling required) to a maximum value. The design cooling
load is a load near the maximum magnitude, but is not normally the
maximum. Design cooling load takes into account all the loads
experienced by a building under a specific set of assumed conditions.
• The assumptions behind design cooling load are as follows:
1. Design outside conditions are selected from a long-term
statistical database.
2. The load on the building due to solar radiation is estimated for
clear sky conditions.
3. The building occupancy is assumed to be at full design
capacity.
4. All building equipment and appliances are considered to be
operating at a reasonably representative capacity.
• The total building cooling load consists of heat transferred through
the building envelope (walls, roof, floor, windows, doors etc.) and
heat generated by occupants, equipment, and lights. The load due to
heat transfer through the envelope is called as external load, while
all other loads are called as internal loads.
• The percentage of external versus internal load varies with building
type, site climate, and building design. The total cooling load on any
building consists of both sensible as well as latent load components.
The sensible load affects dry bulb temperature, while the latent load
affects the moisture content of the conditioned space.
• Buildings may be classified as externally loaded and internally
loaded. In externally loaded buildings the cooling load on the
building is mainly due to heat transfer between the surroundings and
the internal conditioned space. Since the surrounding conditions are
highly variable in any given day, the cooling load of an externally
loaded building varies widely.
• In internally loaded buildings the cooling load is mainly due to
internal heat generating sources such as occupants or appliances or
processes. In general the heat generation due to internal heat
sources may remain fairly constant, and since the heat transfer from
the variable surroundings is much less compared to the internal heat
sources, the cooling load of an internally loaded building remains
fairly constant.

• The total cooling load on a building consists of external as well as

internal loads. The external loads consist of heat transfer by
conduction through the building walls, roof, floor, doors etc, heat
transfer by radiation through fenestration such as windows and
skylights. All these are sensible heat transfers.
• In addition to these the external load also consists of heat transfer
due to infiltration, which consists of both sensible as well as latent
components. The heat transfer due to ventilation is not a load on the
building but a load on the system. The various internal loads consist
of sensible and latent heat transfer due to occupants, products,
processes and appliances, sensible heat transfer due to lighting and
other equipment.

Fig: Various cooling load components

Estimation of external loads:
• a) Heat transfer through opaque surfaces: This is a sensible
heat transfer process. The heat transfer rate through
opaque surfaces such as walls, roof, floor, doors etc. is
given by:
(c)
• where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and A is the
heat transfer area of the surface on the side of the
conditioned space. CLTD is the cooling load temperature
difference.
• For sunlit surfaces, CLTD has to be obtained from the CLTD
tables as discussed in the previous chapter. Adjustment to
the values obtained from the table is needed if actual
conditions are different from those based on which the
CLTD tables are prepared.
• For surfaces which are not sunlit or which have negligible
thermal mass (such as doors), the CLTD value is simply
equal to the temperature difference across the wall or roof.
For example, for external doors the CLTD value is simply
equal to the difference between the design outdoor and
indoor dry bulb temperatures, Tout-Tin.
• For interior air conditioned rooms surrounded by non-air
conditioned spaces, the CLTD of the interior walls is equal
to the temperature difference between the surrounding
non-air conditioned space and the conditioned space.
Obviously, if an air conditioned room is surrounded by
other air conditioned rooms, with all of them at the same
temperature, the CLTD values of the walls of the interior
room will be zero.
• Estimation of CLTD values of floor and roof with false ceiling
could be tricky.
• For floors standing on ground, one has to use the
temperature of the ground for estimating CLTD. However, the
ground temperature depends on the location and varies with
time.
• ASHRAE suggests suitable temperature difference values for
estimating heat transfer through ground. If the floor stands
on a basement or on the roof of another room, then the CLTD
values for the floor are the temperature difference across the
floor (i.e., difference between the temperature of the
basement or room below and the conditioned space).
• This discussion also holds good for roofs which have non-air
conditioned rooms above them. For sunlit roofs with false
ceiling, the U value may be obtained by assuming the false
ceiling to be an air space.
• However, the CLTD values obtained from the tables may not
exactly fit the specific roof. Then one has to use his judgment
and select suitable CLTD values.
b) Heat transfer through fenestration: Heat transfer through
transparent surface such as a window, includes heat transfer
by conduction due to temperature difference across the
window and heat transfer due to solar radiation through the
window.
(d)

• where A unshaded is the area exposed to solar radiation,

SHGFmax and SC are the maximum Solar Heat Gain Factor
and Shading Coefficient, respectively, and CLF is the Cooling
Load Factor. The unshaded area has to be obtained from
the dimensions of the external shade and solar geometry.
• SHGFmax and SC are obtained from ASHRAE tables based
on the orientation of the window, location, month of the
year and the type of glass and internal shading device.
• The Cooling Load Factor (CLF) accounts for the fact that all
the radiant energy that enters the conditioned space at a
particular time does not become a part of the cooling load
instantly.
• Only that fraction of the solar radiation that is transferred
to the air in the conditioned space becomes a load on the
building, the heat transferred to the outside is not a part of
the cooling load. Thus it can be seen that the radiation heat
transfer introduces a time lag and also a decrement factor
depending upon the dynamic characteristics of the
surfaces.
• The CLF values for various surfaces have been calculated as
functions of solar time and orientation and are available in
the form of tables in ASHRAE Handbooks.
• Table: Cooling Load Factor (CLF) for glass with
interior shading and located in north latitudes
(ASHRAE)
c) Heat transfer due to infiltration: Heat transfer due
to infiltration consists of both sensible as well as
latent components. The sensible heat transfer rate
due to infiltration is given by:
(e)
• where Vo is the infiltration rate ( in 𝑚3 /s), ρo and
cp,m are the density and specific heat of the moist,
infiltrated air, respectively. To and Ti are the
outdoor and indoor dry bulb temperatures.
• The latent heat transfer rate due to infiltration is
given by:
(f)
• where hfg is the latent heat of vaporization of water,
Wo and Wi are the outdoor and indoor humidity ratio,
respectively.
• The infiltration rate by air change method is given by:

(g)

• where ACH is the number of air changes per hour and V is the
gross volume of the conditioned space in m3. Normally the
ACH value varies from 0.5 ACH for tight and well-sealed
buildings to about 2.0 for loose and poorly sealed buildings. For
modern buildings the ACH value may be as low as 0.2 ACH. Thus
depending upon the age and condition of the building an
appropriate ACH value has to be chosen, using which the
infiltration rate can be calculated.
• Representative values of infiltration rate for different types of windows,
doors walls etc. have been measured and are available in tabular form in air
conditioning design handbooks.
d) Miscellaneous external loads: In addition to the above loads, if the cooling
coil has a positive by-pass factor (BPF > 0), then some amount of ventilation air
directly enters the conditioned space, in which case it becomes a part of the
building cooling load. The sensible and latent heat transfer rates due to the by-
passed ventilation air can be calculated using equations (e) and (f) by replacing
Vo withVvent .BPF, where Vvent is the ventilation rate and BPF is the by-pass
factor of the cooling coil.
• In addition to this, sensible and latent heat transfer to the building also
occurs due to heat transfer and air leakage in the supply ducts. A safety
factor is usually provided to account for this depending upon the specific
details of the supply air ducts.
• If the supply duct consists of supply air fan with motor, then power
input to the fan becomes a part of the external sensible load on the
building. If the duct consists of the electric motor, which drives the
fan, then the efficiency of the fan motor also must be taken into
account while calculating the cooling load.
• Most of the times, the power input to the fan is not known as the
amount of supply air required is not known at this stage. To take this
factor into account, initially it is assumed that the supply fan adds
about 5% of the room sensible cooling load and cooling loads are
then estimated.
• Then this value is corrected in the end when the actual fan selection
is done.
• Estimation of internal loads:
• The internal loads consist of load due to occupants, due to
lighting, due to equipment and appliances and due to
products stored or processes being in the conditioned
space.
a) Load due to occupants: The internal cooling load due to
occupants consists of both sensible and latent heat
components.
(h)
• Table : Total heat gain, sensible heat gain fraction from occupants
• Values of CLF have been obtained for different types of buildings and
have been tabulated in ASHRAE handbooks.
• Since the latent heat gain from the occupants is instantaneous the CLF for
latent heat gain is 1.0, thus the latent heat gain due to occupants is given
by:

(i)

b) Load due to lighting: Lighting adds sensible heat to the conditioned space.
(j)

• The usage factor accounts for any lamps that are installed but are not
switched on at the time at which load calculations are performed. The
ballast factor takes into account the load imposed by ballasts used in
fluorescent lights. A typical ballast factor value of 1.25 is taken for
fluorescent lights, while it is equal to 1.0 for incandescent lamps. The values
of CLF as a function of the number of hours after the lights are turned on,
type of lighting fixtures and the hours of operation of the lights are
available in the form of tables in ASHRAE handbooks.
• c) Internal loads due to equipment and appliances: The
equipment and appliances used in the conditioned space
may add both sensible as well as latent loads to the
conditioned space.

(k)
• The installed wattage and usage factor depend on the type
of the appliance or equipment. The CLF values are available
in the form of tables in ASHARE handbooks.
• The latent load due to appliances is given by:
(l)
 Table: Typical appliance load (C.P. Arora)

• For other equipment such as computers, printers etc, the load is in

the form of sensible heat transfer and is estimated based on the
rated power consumption. The CLF value for these equipment may be
taken as 1.0 as the radiative heat transfer from these equipment is
generally negligible due to smaller operating temperatures.
• When the equipment are run by electric motors which are also kept
inside the conditioned space, then the efficiency of the electric motor
must be taken into account.
Estimation of the cooling capacity of the system:
a, Load on the system due to ventilated air:
(a)

• where 𝑚𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 and 𝑉𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 are the mass and volumetric flow rates of the
ventilated air and X is the by-pass factor of the coil.
• The latent heat load on the coil due to ventilation is given by:
(b)

• where Wo and Wi are the humidity ratios of the ambient and

conditioned air, respectively and hfg is the latent heat of
vapourization of water.
b, Load on the coil due to leakage in return air duct and due
to return air fan:
• If there is leakage of air and heat from or to the return air duct,
additional capacity has to be provided by the cooling coil to take care
of this. The sensible heat transfer to the return duct due to heat
transfer from the surroundings to the return duct depends on the
surface area of the duct that is exposed to outside air (Aexposed),
amount of insulation (Uins) and temperature difference between
outdoor air and return air, i.e.,
(c)
• Fig.: A typical summer air conditioning system with
a cooling coil of non-zero by-pass factor
• Now the total sensible load on the coil (Qs,c) is
obtained by summing up the total sensible load on
the building (Qs,r), sensible load due to ventilation
(Qs,vent) and sensible load due to return air duct
and fan (Qs,retrun duct), that is:
(d)
• Similarly the total latent load on the coil (Ql,c) is
obtained by summing up the total latent load on
the building (Ql.r), latent load due to ventilation
(Ql,vent) and latent load due to return air duct and
fan (Ql,retrun duct), that is:
(e)
• Finally the required cooling capacity of the system which is
equal to the total load on the coil is obtained from the
equation:
(f)
• A suitable safety factor is normally used in the end to
account for uncertainties in occupants, equipment,
external infiltration, external conditions etc.
• This relatively simple method offers reasonably accurate
results for most of the buildings.
Heating load calculations:
• As mentioned before, conventionally steady state
conditions are assumed for estimating the building heating
loads and the internal heat sources are neglected.
• Then the procedure for heating load calculations becomes
fairly simple.
• One has to estimate only the sensible and latent heat
losses from the building walls, roof, ground, windows,
doors, due to infiltration and ventilation.
• Equations similar to those used for cooling load calculations
are used with the difference that the CLTD values are
simply replaced by the design temperature difference
between the conditioned space and outdoors.
 Selection Of Air Conditioning Systems
Introduction:
• In order to maintain required conditions inside the conditioned
space, energy has to be either supplied or extracted from the
conditioned space. The energy in the form of sensible as well as
latent heat has to be supplied to the space in winter and extracted
from the conditioned space in case of summer.

• Fig.: Schematic of a summer air conditioning system with the thermal

distribution system
• Selection criteria for air conditioning systems:
1. Capacity, performance and spatial requirements
2. Initial and running costs
3. Required system reliability and flexibility
4. Maintainability
5. Architectural constraints
• The typical space requirement for large air conditioning
systems may vary from about 4 percent to about 9 percent
of the gross building area, depending upon the type of the
system.
• Normally based on the selection criteria, the choice is
narrowed down to 2 to 3 systems, out of which one will be
selected finally.
• Classification of air conditioning systems:
• Based on the fluid media used in the thermal distribution
system, air conditioning systems can be classified as:
1. All air systems
2. All water systems
3. Air- water systems
4. Unitary refrigerant based systems

All air systems:

• As the name implies, in an all air system air is used as the
media that transports energy from the conditioned space
to the A/C plant.
• All air systems can be further classified into:
1. Single duct systems, or
2. Dual duct systems
• The single duct systems can provide either cooling or
heating using the same duct, but not both heating and
cooling simultaneously. These systems can be further
classified into:
1. Constant volume, single zone systems
2. Constant volume, multiple zone systems
3. Variable volume systems
• The dual duct systems can provide both cooling and
heating simultaneously.
• These systems can be further classified into:
1. Dual duct, constant volume systems
2. Dual duct, variable volume systems
Single duct, constant volume, single zone systems:

Fig. A constant volume, single zone system

• A thermostat senses the temperature of air and humidistat measures
the humidity ratio in the conditioned space and controls the amount
of water vapour added in the humidifier and hence the supply air
humidity ratio as per requirement.
• Applications of single duct, single zone, constant volume
systems:
1. Spaces with uniform loads, such as large open areas with small
external loads e.g. theatres, auditoria, departmental stores.
2. Spaces requiring precision control such as laboratories
The Multiple, single zone systems can be used in large buildings
such as factories, office buildings etc.
Single duct, constant volume, multiple zone systems:

Fig. Single duct, constant volume system with multiple zones and
reheat coils
• Advantages of single duct, multiple zone, constant
volume systems with reheat coils:
a) Relatively small space requirement
b) Excellent temperature and humidity control over a wide range of
zone loads
c) Proper ventilation and air quality in each zone is maintained as the
supply air amount is kept constant under all conditions
• Disadvantages of single duct, multiple zone, constant
volume systems with reheat coils:
a) High energy consumption for cooling, as the air is first cooled to a
very low temperature and is then heated in the reheat coils.
b) b) Simultaneous cooling and heating is not possible.
• Single duct, variable air volume (VAV) systems:

• Fig.: Single duct, multiple zone, variable air volume

system
• advantages such as:
a) Lower energy consumption in the cooling system as air is not
cooled to very low temperatures and then reheated as in constant
volume systems.
b) Lower energy consumption also results due to lower fan power
input due to lower flow rate, when the load is low.
• However, since the flow rate is controlled, there could be problems
with ventilation, IAQ and room air distribution when the zone loads
are very low. In addition it is difficult to control humidity precisely
using VAV systems.
• Balancing of dampers could be difficult if the airflow rate varies
widely. However, by combining VAV systems with terminal reheat it is
possible to maintain the air flow rate at a minimum required level to
ensure proper ventilation and room air distribution.
• Dual duct, constant volume systems:
• In a dual duct system the supply air fan splits the flow into two
streams. The cold and hot streams flow through separate ducts.
• The total volume of air supplied to each zone remains constant,
however, the supply air temperature varies depending upon load.

Fig.: Dual duct, constant volume system

• Advantages of dual duct systems:
1. Since total airflow rate to each zone is constant, it is possible to
maintain proper IAQ and room air distribution.
2. Cooling in some zones and heating in other zones can be achieved
simultaneously
3. System is very responsive to variations in the zone load, thus it is
possible to maintain required conditions precisely.
• Disadvantages of dual duct systems:
1. Occupies more space as both cold air and hot air ducts have to be
sized to handle all the air flow rate, if required.
2. Not very energy efficient due to the need for simultaneous cooling
and heating of the air streams. However, the energy efficiency can be
improved by completely shutting down the cooling coil when the
outside temperature is low and mixing supply air from fan with hot air
in the mixing box. Similarly, when the outside weather is hot, the
heating coil can be completely shut down, and the cold air from the
cooling coil can be mixed with supply air from the fan in the mixing box.
• Dual duct, variable air volume systems:
• These systems are similar to dual duct, constant volume systems with
the only difference that instead of maintaining constant flow rates to
each zone, the mixing boxes reduce the air flow rate as the load on
the zone drops.
• Advantages of all air systems:
1. All air systems offer the greatest potential for energy conservation by utilizing
the outdoor air effectively.
2. By using high-quality controls it is possible to maintain the temperature and
relative humidity of the conditioned space within ± 0.15oC (DBT) and ± 0.5%,
respectively.
3. Using dual duct systems, it is possible to provide simultaneous cooling and
heating. Changeover from summer to winter and vice versa is relatively simple in
all air systems.
4. It is possible to provide good room air distribution and ventilation under all
conditions of load.
5. Building pressurization can be achieved easily.
 6. The complete air conditioning plant including the supply and
return air fans can be located away from the conditioned space.
Due to this it is possible to use a wide variety of air filters and
avoid noise in the conditioned space.
• Disadvantages of all air systems:
1. They occupy more space and thus reduce the available floor
space in the buildings.
2. Retrofitting may not always be possible due to the space
requirement.
3. Balancing of air in large and particularly with variable air
volume systems could be difficult.
• Applications of all air systems:
– All air systems can be used in both comfort as well as
industrial air conditioning applications.
All water systems:
• In all water systems the fluid used in the thermal
distribution system is water. When cooling is required
in the conditioned space then cold water is circulated
between the conditioned space and the plant, while
hot water is circulated through the distribution system
when heating is required.
• Since only water is transported to the conditioned
space, provision must be there for supplying required
amount of treated, outdoor air to the conditioned
space for ventilation purposes.
• Depending upon the number of pipes used, the all
water systems can be classified into a 2-pipe system or
a 4-pipe system.
• A 2-pipe system is used for either cooling only or heating
only application, but cannot be used for simultaneous
cooling and heating.

• A 4-pipe system consists of two supply pipelines – one for

cold water and one for hot water; and two return water
pipelines. The cold and hot water are mixed in a required
proportion depending upon the zone load, and the mixed
water is supplied to the conditioned space. The return
water is split into two streams, one stream flows to the
heating coil while the other flows to the cooling coil.
• Fig.: A two-pipe, all water system
• The cold/hot water may flow through bare pipes located in the conditioned space
or one of the following equipment can be used for transferring heat:
1. Fan coil units
2. Convectors
3. Radiators etc.
• A fan coil unit is located inside the conditioned space and consists of a heating
and/or cooling coil, a fan, air filter, drain tray and controls.

• Fig.: A basic fan coil unit for cooling purposes

• In some designs, the fan coil unit also consists of a heating
coil, which could be in the form of an electric heater or
steam or hot water coil. Electric heater is used with 2-pipe
systems, while the hot water/steam coils are used with 4-
pipe systems. The fan coil units are either floor mounted,
window mounted or ceiling mounted.
• A fan coil unit with a provision for introducing treated
ventilation air to the conditioned space is called as unit
ventilator.
• Advantages of all water systems:
1. The thermal distribution system requires very less
space compared to all air systems.
2. Individual room control is possible, and at the same time
the system offers all the benefits of a large central system.
3. Since the temperature of hot water required for space
heating is small, it is possible to use solar or waste heat for
winter heating.
4. It can be used for new as well existing buildings
(retrofitting).
5. Simultaneous cooling and heating is possible with 4-pipe
systems.
• Disadvantages of all water systems:
1. Requires higher maintenance compared to all air systems,
particularly in the conditioned space.
2. Draining of condensate water can be messy and may also
create health problems if water stagnates in the drain tray. This
problem can be eliminated, if dehumidification is provided by a
central ventilation system, and the cooling coil is used only for
sensible cooling of room air.
3. If ventilation is provided by opening windows or wall apertures,
then, it is difficult to ensure positive ventilation under all
circumstances, as this depends on wind and stack effects.
4. Control of humidity, particularly during summer is difficult
using chilled water control valves.
• Applications of all water systems:
– All water systems using fan coil units are most suitable in
buildings requiring individual room control, such as
hotels, apartment buildings and office buildings.
Air-water systems:
• In air-water systems both air and water are used for providing
required conditions in the conditioned space. The air and water
are cooled or heated in a central plant. The air supplied to the
conditioned space from the central plant is called as primary
air, while the water supplied from the plant is called as
secondary water.
• The complete system consists of a central plant for cooling or
heating of water and air, ducting system with fans for conveying
air, water pipelines and pumps for conveying water and a room
terminal.
 • Fig.: A basic air-water system
• For summer air conditioning, the primary air is cooled and
dehumidified in the central plant, so that it can offset all the building
latent load.Chilled water is supplied to the conditioned space to
partly offset the building sensible cooling load only.
• In winter, moisture can be added to the primary air in the central
plant and hot water is circulated through the coil kept in the
conditioned space.
Unitary refrigerant based systems:
• Unitary refrigerant based systems consist of several
separate air conditioning units with individual refrigeration
systems.
• These systems are factory assembled and tested as per
standard specifications, and are available in the form of
package units of varying capacity and type.
• Each package consists of refrigeration and/or heating units
with fans, filters, controls etc.
• Depending upon the requirement these are available in the
form of window air conditioners, split air conditioners, heat
pumps, ductable systems with air cooled or water cooled
condensing units etc. The capacities may range from
fraction of TR to about 100 TR for cooling.
• window type, room air conditioner, are normally mounted
either in the window sill or through the wall.
• This type of unit consists of single package which includes
the cooling and dehumidification coil, condenser coil, a
hermetic compressor, expansion device (capillary tube),
condenser fan, evaporator fan, room air filter and controls.
• A drain tray is provided at the bottom to take care of the
condensate water. Both evaporator and condensers are
plate fin-and-tube,forced convection type coils.
• For rooms that do not have external windows or walls, a
split type room air conditioner can be used.
• In these air conditioners, the condensing unit comprising
of the condenser, compressor and condenser fan with
motor are located outside, while the indoor unit consisting
of the evaporator, evaporator fan with motor, expansion
valve and air filter is located inside the conditioned room.
• The indoor and outdoor units are connected by refrigerant piping. In
split type air conditioners, the condensed water has to be taken away
from the conditioned space using separate drain pipes.
• In the room air conditioners (both window mounted and split type),
the cooling capacity is controlled by switching the compressor on-
and-off. Sometimes, in addition to the on-and-off, the fan speed can
also be regulated to have a modular control of capacity. It is also
possible to switch off the refrigeration system completely and run
only the blower for air circulation.

• Fig. A typical window type room air conditioner

• In a typical package unit, the remote condensing unit consists of the
compressor and a condenser, while the indoor unit consists of the
plate fin-and-tube type, evaporator, a blower, air filter, drain tray and
an arrangement for connecting supply air and return air ducts. These
units are available in capacities ranging from about 5 TR to upto
about 100 TR. They may also include heating coils along with the
evaporator.

• Fig.: A typical package unit with remote condensing unit

• Advantages of unitary refrigerant based systems:
1. Individual room control is simple and inexpensive.
2. Each conditioned space has individual air distribution
with simple adjustment by the occupants.
3. Performance of the system is guaranteed by the
manufacturer.
4. System installation is simple and takes very less time.
5. Operation of the system is simple and there is no need
for a trained operator.
6. Initial cost is normally low compared to central systems.
7. Retrofitting is easy as the required floor space is small.
• Disadvantages of unitary refrigerant based systems:
1. As the components are selected and matched by the manufacturer,
the system is less flexible in terms of air flow rate, condenser and
evaporator sizes.
2. Power consumption per TR could be higher compared to central
systems.
3. Close control of space humidity is generally difficult.
4. Noise level in the conditioned space could be higher.
5. Limited ventilation capabilities.
6. Systems are generally designed to meet the appliance standards,
rather than the building standards.
7. May not be appealing aesthetically.
8. The space temperature may experience a swing if on-off control is
used as in room air conditioners.
9. Limited options for controlling room air distribution.
10. Equipment life is relatively short.
• Applications of unitary refrigerant based systems:
• Unitary refrigerant based systems are used where stringent
control of conditioned space temperature and humidity is
not required and where the initial cost should be low with a
small lead time.
• These systems can be used for air conditioning individual
rooms to large office buildings, classrooms, hotels,
shopping centers, nursing homes etc.
• These systems are especially suited for existing building
with a limitation on available floor space for air
conditioning systems.
Transmission Of Air In Air Conditioning Ducts
Introduction:
• In air conditioning systems that use air as the fluid in the
thermal distribution system, it is essential to design the Air
Handling Unit (AHU) properly.
• The primary function of an AHU is to transmit processed air
from the air conditioning plant to the conditioned space
and distribute it properly within the conditioned space. A
typical AHU consists of:
– 1. A duct system that includes a supply air duct, return air duct,
cooling and/or heating coils,humidifiers/dehumidifiers, air filters
and dampers
– 2. An air distribution system comprising various types of outlets
for supply air and inlets for return air
– 3. Supply and return air fans which provide the
necessary energy to move the air throughout the system
Transmission of air:
• In an AHU, air is transmitted through various ducts and
other components with the help of fans.
Flow of air through ducts:
• When a fan is introduced into the duct through which air is
flowing, then the static and total pressures at the section
where the fan is located rise. This rise is called as Fan Total
Pressure (FTP).
• Then the required power input to the fan is given by:
(a)

(b)
Estimation of pressure loss in ducts:
• As air flows through a duct its total pressure drops
in the direction of flow. The pressure drop is due to:
1. Fluid friction
2. Momentum change due to change of direction and/or
velocity
• pressure drop or dynamic loss, Δpd. Thus the total
pressure drop Δpt is :
(c)

• Where Δpf is frictional pressure drop or friction loss

and Δpd is momentum pressure drop or dynamic
loss.
• frictional pressure drop in ducts:
– Using the Darcy-Weisbach equation,
(d)

• where f is the dimensionless friction factor, L is the

length of the duct and D is the diameter in case of a
circular duct and hydraulic diameter in case of a
non-circular duct. The friction factor is a function of
Reynolds number, and the relative surface
roughness of the pipe or duct surface in contact with
the fluid.
• For turbulent flow, the friction factor can be
evaluated using:
(e)
• where ks is the average surface roughness of inner
duct expressed in same units as the diameter D.
Evaluation of f from the above equation requires
iteration since f occurs on both the sides of it.

• Table: Average surface roughness of commonly used duct

materials
• Of the different materials, the GI sheet material is very widely used
for air conditioning ducts. Taking GI as the reference material and
properties of air at 20℃ and 1 atm. pressure, the frictional pressure
drop in a circular duct is given by:

(f)

• Where 𝐐𝐚𝐢𝐫 is the volumetric flow rate of air in 𝑚3 𝑠, L is the length

and D is the inner diameter of the duct in meters, respectively.
• The figure below shows the standard chart for estimating frictional
pressure drop in circular ducts made of GI sheets at standard air
conditions.
• Fig. Chart for estimating frictional pressure drop in circular GI
ducts
• Rectangular ducts:
• Even though circular ducts require the least material for a
given flow rate and allowable pressure drop, rectangular
ducts are generally preferred in practice as they fit easily
into the building construction thus occupying less space,
and they are also easy to fabricate.
• The ratio of the two sides ‘a’ and ‘b’ of the rectangle (a/b)
is called as aspect ratio of the duct. Since square ducts with
aspect ratio 1.0 come close in performance to a circular
duct, it is preferable to use an aspect ratio as close to unity
as possible for best performance.
• One can use equation (f) and friction chart for
circular ducts for estimating pressure drop through
a rectangular duct by using an equivalent diameter.
A rectangular duct is said to be equivalent to a
circular duct, if the volumetric flow rate 𝑸𝒂𝒊𝒓 and
frictional pressure drop per unit length (ΔPf/L) are
same for both.
• Equating these two parameters for a rectangular
duct and an equivalent circular duct, it can be
shown that the equivalent diameter is given by:
• The above equation is found to be valid for aspect ratio less than or
equal to 1:8. Thus from the known values of the two sides of the duct
‘a’ and ‘b’, one can find the equivalent diameter Deq. From the
equivalent diameter and the air flow rate, one can estimate the
frictional pressure drop per unit length by using either Eq.(f) or the
friction chart . However, when using equivalent diameter and flow
rate to find the frictional pressure drop from the chart, the velocity
values shown on the chart are not the actual velocities.
• The actual velocities have to be obtained from the flow rate and the
actual cross-sectional area of the rectangular duct. If a rectangular
duct has to be designed for a given flow rate and a given frictional
pressure drop, then one can first find the equivalent diameter from
the friction chart or from Eq.(f) and then find the required
dimensions of the duct either by fixing the aspect ratio or one of the
sides.
Dynamic losses in ducts:
• Dynamic pressure loss takes place whenever there is a
change in either the velocity or direction of airflow due to
the use of a variety of bends and fittings in air conditioning
ducts.
• Some of the commonly used fittings are: enlargements,
contractions, elbows, branches, dampers etc.
• In turbulent flows, the dynamic loss is:

• where K is the dynamic loss coefficient, which is normally

obtained from experiments.
• Sometimes, an equivalent length Leq is defined to estimate
the dynamic pressure loss through bends and fittings.
• where f is the friction factor and Leq is the equivalent
length.
dynamic pressure loss through various fittings:

(a) (b)

Fig: Airflow through a 90° bend (elbow)

• Branch take-offs:Branch take-offs (Fig. below) are
commonly used in air conditioning ducts for splitting the
airflow into a branch and a downstream duct. The dynamic
pressure drop from the upstream (u) to downstream (d),
Δpu-d is given by:

• where Vd and Vu are the air velocities in the downstream

and upstream ducts, respectively.
• The dynamic pressure drop from the upstream (u) to
branch (b), Δpu-b is given by:
 Fig.: A branch take-off
• The value of dynamic loss coefficient Cu-b is available in the form of
tables and graphs as a function of the angle β and the ratio of branch-
to-upstream velocity, Vb/Vu. Cu-b is found to increase as β and
Vb/Vu increase.
c) Branch entries: Branch entries (Fig. ) are commonly used in return air
ducts. Similar to branch take-offs, the values of dynamic pressure loss
coefficients from upstream-to-downstream (Cu-d) and from branch-to-
downstream (Cu-d) are available in the form of tables and graphs as
functions of upstream, branch and downstream velocities and the angle
β.
 • Fig.: A branch entry
• d) Sudden enlargement: The pressure loss due to sudden
enlargement, shown in Fig. (a), ΔPd,enl is given by Borda-Carnot
equation as:

• where V1 is the velocity before enlargement, and A1 and A2 are the

areas before and after enlargement, respectively.
• Fig.(a): Sudden enlargement (b): Sudden contraction
e) Sudden contraction:

• where V2 is the velocity in the downstream, and A1’ and A2 are the
areas at vena contracta and after contraction, respectively.
 Table : Values of contraction coefficient Cc for different area ratios
• f) Miscellaneous fittings, openings etc.: The dynamic pressure loss
coefficients for other types of fittings, such as suction and discharge
openings are also available in the form of tables.
• Filters, cooling and heating coils, dampers etc.: The pressure drop
across air handling unit equipment, such as, air filters, dampers,
cooling and heating coils depend on several factors. Hence, normally
these values have to be obtained from the manufacturer’s data.
Static regain:
• Whenever there is an enlargement in the cross-sectional area of the
duct, the velocity of air decreases, and the velocity pressure is
converted into static pressure.
• The increase in static pressure due to a decrease in velocity pressure
is known as static regain.
• In an ideal case, when there are no pressure losses, the increase in
static pressure (Δps ) is exactly equal to the decrease in velocity
pressure (Δpv ) and the total presure (Pt) remains constant. In an
ideal case, when there are no pressure losses:

• Thus, for sudden or non-ideal enlargement:

• The pressure loss due to enlargement 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 expressed in terms of a
Static Regain Factor, R as:

• where the static regain factor R is given by:

• Thus for ideal enlargement the Static Regain Factor R is equal to 1.0,
whereas it is less than 1.0 for non-ideal enlargement.
• Fig.(a): Ideal enlargement Fig.(b): Sudden enlargement
 Design Of Air Conditioning Ducts
• Introduction:
• The chief requirements of an air conditioning duct
system are:
1. It should convey specified rates of air flow to prescribed locations
2. It should be economical in combined initial cost, fan operating cost
and cost of building space
3. It should not transmit or generate objectionable noise
• Generally at the time of designing an air conditioning duct
system, the required airflow rates are known from load
calculations. The location of fans and air outlets are fixed
initially. The duct layout is then made taking into account
the space available and ease of construction. In principle,
required amount of air can be conveyed through the air
conditioning ducts by a number of combinations.
• However, for a given system, only one set results in the
optimum design.
• General rules for duct design:
1. Air should be conveyed as directly as possible to save
space, power and material
2. Sudden changes in directions should be avoided. When
not possible to avoid sudden changes, turning vanes
should be used to reduce pressure loss
3. Diverging sections should be gradual. Angle of
divergence ≤ 20°.
4. Aspect ratio should be as close to 1.0 as possible.
Normally, it should not exceed 4
5. Air velocities should be within permissible limits to
reduce noise and vibration
6. Duct material should be as smooth as possible to
reduce frictional losses
• Classification of duct systems:
– Low pressure systems: Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure
≤ 5 cm H2O (g)
– Medium pressure systems: Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static
pressure ≤ 15 cm H2O (g)
– High pressure systems: Velocity > 10 m/s, static pressure
15<ps ≤ 25 cm H2O (g)
• High velocities in the ducts results in:
1. Smaller ducts and hence, lower initial cost and lower
space requirement
2. Higher pressure drop and hence larger fan power
consumption
3. Increased noise and hence a need for noise attenuation
• Typical recommended velocities are:
– Residences: 3 m/s to 5 m/s
– Theatres: 4 to 6.5 m/s
– Restaurants: 7.5 m/s to 10 m/s
• If nothing is specified, then a velocity of 5 to 8 m/s is used
for main ducts and a velocity of 4 to 6 m/s is used for the
branches.
• The allowable air velocities can be as high as 30 m/s in
ships and aircrafts to reduce the space requirement.
• Commonly used duct design methods:
• A-B is the duct running from the supply air fan to zone 1, A-
B-C is the duct running from supply fan to conditioned zone
and so on.
• These are known as duct runs. The run with the highest
pressure drop is called as the index run.
• Due to the several issues involved, the design of an air
conditioning duct system in large buildings could be a
sophisticated operation requiring the use of Computer
Aided Design (CAD) software. However, the following
methods are most commonly used for simpler lay-outs
such as the one shown in Fig. below:
1. Velocity method
2. Equal Friction Method
3. Static Regain method
 Fig.: Typical air conditioning duct lay-out

Velocity method:
• The various steps involved in this method are:
i. Select suitable velocities in the main and branch ducts
ii. Find the diameters of main and branch ducts from airflow rates and
velocities for circular ducts. For rectangular ducts, find the cross-
sectional area from flow rate and velocity, and then by fixing the aspect
ratio, find the two sides of the rectangular duct
iii. From the velocities and duct dimensions obtained in the previous
step, find the frictional pressure drop for main and branch ducts using
friction chart or equation.
iv. From the duct layout, dimensions and airflow rates, find the dynamic
pressure losses for all the bends and fittings
v. Select a fan that can provide sufficient FTP for the index run
vi. Balancing dampers have to be installed in each run. The damper in
the index run is left completely open, while the other dampers are
throttled to reduce the flow rate to the required design values.
• Equal friction method:
• In this method the frictional pressure drop per unit
length in the main and branch ducts (Δpf/L) are kept
same, i.e.,

• Then the stepwise procedure for designing the duct

system is as follows:
i. Select a suitable frictional pressure drop per unit length
(Δpf/L) so that the combined initial and running costs are
minimized.
ii. Then the equivalent diameter of the main duct (A) is
obtained from the selected value of (Δpf/L) and the airflow
rate.
• As shown in the Fig. above, airflow rate in the main duct
𝑄𝐴 is equal to the sum total of airflow rates to all the
conditioned zones, i.e.,

• From the airflow rate and (Δpf/L) the equivalent diameter

of the main duct (Deq,A) can be obtained either from the
friction chart or using the frictional pressure drop equation,
i.e.,

• iii. Since the frictional pressure drop per unit length is same for
all the duct runs, the equivalent diameters of the other duct
runs, B to I are obtained from the equation:
• iv. If the ducts are rectangular, then the two sides of the rectangular
duct of each run are obtained from the equivalent diameter of that
run and by fixing aspect ratio as explained earlier.
• v. Next from the dimensions of the ducts in each run, the total
frictional pressure drop of that run is obtained by multiplying the
frictional pressure drop per unit length and the length, i.e.,

• vi. Next the dynamic pressure losses in each duct run are
obtained based on the type of bends or fittings used in that run.
• vii. Next the total pressure drop in each duct run is obtained by
summing up the frictional and dynamic losses of that run, i.e.,
• viii. Next the fan is selected to suit the index run with the highest
pressure loss.
• Dampers are installed in all the duct runs to balance the total
pressure loss.
• Equal friction method is simple and is most widely used conventional
method.
• Static Regain Method:
• This method is commonly used for high velocity systems with long
duct runs, especially in large systems. In this method the static
pressure is maintained same before each terminal or branch. The
procedure followed is as given below:
• i. Velocity in the main duct leaving the fan is selected first.
• ii. Velocities in each successive runs are reduced such that the gain
in static pressure due to reduction in velocity pressure equals the
frictional pressure drop in the next duct section. Thus the static
pressure before each terminal or branch is maintained constant.
 Fig.: Principle of static regain method

• using the static regain factor, one can write:

• where Δpf,2 and Δpd,2 are the frictional and dynamic

losses between 1 and 2, and pv,1 and pv,2 are the velocity
pressures at 1 and 2 respectively.
• iii. If section 1 is the outlet of the fan, then its dimensions
are known from the flow rate and velocity (initially
selected), however, since both the dimensions and velocity
at section 2 are not known, a trial-and-error method has to
be followed to solve the above equation, which gives
required dimensions of the section at 2.
• iv. The procedure is followed in the direction of airflow, and
the dimensions of the downstream ducts are obtained.
• v. As before, the total pressure drop is obtained from the
pressure drop in the longest run and a fan is accordingly
selected.
• Static Regain method yields a more balanced system and
does not call for unnecessary dampering.
Types of air distribution devices:
• Grilles and Registers: A grille is an outlet for supply air or
an inlet for return air. A register is a grille with a volume
control damper.

• Fig. Front view of a supply air grille with horizontal and

vertical vanes
• Ceiling diffusers: A ceiling diffuser consists of concentric
rings or inner cones made up of vanes arranged in fixed
directions.

Fig.: Schematic of a ceiling diffuser

• Slot diffusers: A slot diffuser consists of a plenum box with
single or multiple slots and air deflecting vanes. These are
mounted either on the side walls or in the ceiling.
• Fig.: Photographs of conditioned space with linear slot diffusers
mounted in the ceiling