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5 6303130369650589990
5 6303130369650589990
MATERIALS &
CONSTRUCTION
CONTENTS
❑CEMENT
❑CONCRETE
❑BRICK
❑BRICK MASONRY
❑TIMBER
❑STONE & AGGREGATES
CEMENT
❑INTRODUCTION
❑MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
❑CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT & THEIR ROLE
❑CLINKER COMPOSITION
❑HYDRATION OF CEMENT
❑TESTS ON CEMENT
❑TYPES OF CEMENT
❑USES OF CEMENT
INTRODUCTION
➢ JOSEPH ASPDIN: INVENTED PORTLAND CEMENT IN U.K. IN 1824.
➢ HE USED A MIXTURE OF LIMESTONE, CLAY & WATER.
➢THIS MIXTURE WAS HEATED AT HIGH TEMPERATURES.
➢ON 21ST OCT, 1824 WAS GRANTED A PATENT.
+ + WATER = CEMENT
INTRODUCTION
PORTLAND STONE
INTRODUCTION
➢BEFORE CEMENT, PORTLAND STONE WAS USED IN CONSTRUCTION.
BALL OR
TUBE MILLS
MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
DRY PROCESS
MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
WET PROCESS
CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT & THEIR ROLE
CONSTITUENTS FUNCTIONS AVERAGE COMPOSITION
1. Lime Control strength & soundness. If lime 60-65 (63%)
decreases, strength & setting time
decreases.
4. Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) Gives colour & helps in fusion of different 0.5-6 (3%)
ingredients.
5. Magnesia Imparts colour & hardness. If in excess, 0.5-4 (2%)
causes cracks in mortar & concrete & leads
to unsoundness.
➢ Besides these major compounds, alkalies (Soda & Potash) are also present.
CLINKER COMPOSITION
1. Tricalcium silicate, C3S --- 25-50% (average= 40%)
➢ It provides best cementing property and its formed when cement is well burnt.
➢ It provides early strength and is responsible for 7 days strength.
➢ It enables clinker easy to grind & increase resistance to freezing and thawing.
➢ Generates high heat of hydration (H.O.H) and increase solubility of cement in water.
➢ H.O.H=500J/gm
➢ ORDER OF RATE OF HYDRATION --- Speed of reaction- Mass of compound reaction per second.
C4AF>C3A>C3S>C2S
❑ COLOUR
PHYSICAL TEST CHEMICAL TEST
❑ FINENESS TEST ❑ LOSS ON IGNITION
❑ PRESENCE OF LUMPS
❑ CONSISTENCY TEST ❑ CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
❑ STRENGTH
❑ DENSITY ❑ SETTING TIME TEST
❑ SOUNDNESS TEST
❑ STRENGTH
❑ H.O.H.
❑ SPECIFIC GRAVITY
FIELD TESTING
➢ Cement colour => Greenish grey
➢ If rubbed between fingers it should feel smooth not rough.
➢ If hand is inserted in bag on cement it should feel cool and not
warm.
➢ If thrown in a bucket of water it should sink and not float on
water
➢ A thin paste of cement should feel sticky between fingers
➢ It should be free from lumps (if present indicates absorption of
moisture from atmosphere)
➢ Briquettes(75x25x12 mm) made with 1:6 (cement:sand)
proportion shouldn’t break easily kept under water for 3 days.
PHYSICAL TESTS
1. FINENESS TEST
➢ Sample= Cement + sand (1:3) +(P/4 +3)%water. ➢ Sample= Cement+sand(1:3) +(P/5 +2.5)% water.
➢ 3 cubes of size 70.6 mm are prepared & gradual ➢ 6 briquettes are prepared & gradual load is
compressive load is applied. applied.
➢ Average strength of 3 cubes is compressive ➢ Average strength of 6 briquettes is tensile
strength. strength.
PHYSICAL TESTS
6. H.O.H. is measured by
CALORIMETER.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
➢ Ratio of Alumina/iron oxide should not be more than
0.66.
➢ Weight of magnesia should not be more than 6%.
➢ Lime Saturation factor should be between 0.66 to 1.02.
TYPES OF CEMENT
1. ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
➢ The common 3 grades are:- OPC 33, OPC 43, OPC 53.
➢ 3 day strength= 50%(1/2) of 28 day strength.
➢ 7 day strength= 67%(2/3) of 28 day strength.
➢ Fineness= 2250 cm2/gm.
➢ I.S.T. >=30 min & F.S.T. <=10hr(600 min)
2. RAPID HARDENING CEMENT (RHC)
➢ C3S is increased, C2S is decreased + finer grinding.
➢ Fineness= 3250 cm2/gm.
➢ I.S.T. =30 min & F.S.T. =10hr(600 min)
➢ Uses- Road repairs, in cold countries, for fast removal of shutter.
➢ 1 day strength=16 N/mm2
TYPES OF CEMENT
3. EXTRA RAPID HARDENING CEMENT (ERHC)
➢ R.H.C. + 2% CaCl2
➢ Uses- Road repairs, in cold countries, for fast removal of shutter.
➢ Mixing + Transporting + Placing of concrete should be within 10 min.
➢ Accelerator = Calcium Chloride.
4. HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT
➢ Bauxite + limestone + iron oxide + increase fineness + high temperature.
➢ It is similar to RHC but C3A is absent.
➢ Uses- Road repairs, in cold countries, for fast removal of shutter, refractory
cement (heat resistant), high chemical resistance.
TYPES OF CEMENT
5. SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT
➢ It is similar to OPC but C3A is decreased + finer grinding.
➢ Uses- Lining of sewers, canals, in coastal areas, in sea waters.
Q8. The compressive strength of OPC after 3 days should not be less than
A. 7MPa B. 11.5 MPa C. 16 Mpa D. 21MPa
Q11. The initial setting time for OPC as per IS specifications should not be less
than
A. 10 minutes B. 30 minutes
C. 60 minutes D. 600 minutes
Q12. The final setting time for OPC as per IS specifications should be
A. 10 minutes B. 30 minutes
C. 60 minutes D. 600 minutes
QUESTION PRACTICE
Q13. For testing compressive strength of cement, the size of cube is used
A. 50 mm B. 70.6 mm
C. 100 mm D. 150mm
Q20. Gypsum used in cement .............. (accelerates / retards) the setting time
by reacting with C3A which is responsible for flash set (Stiffening of cement
paste within a few minutes after mixing).
Q21. Before testing setting time of cement one should test for
A. Soundness B. Strength
C. Fineness D. Consistency
QUESTION PRACTICE
Q22. High Alumina cement is produced by fusing together a mixture of
A. Limestone & Bauxite B. Limestone & Bauxite & gypsum
C. Limestone & Gypsum & Clay D. Limestone, Bauxite, Gypsum, clay & chalk
=
Ingredients CONCRETE
CLASSIFICATION
❖On the basis of Grade.
CLASSIFICATION
❖ On the basis of strength
➢Low strength concrete (<20 N/mm2 )
➢Medium strength concrete (20 N/mm2 - 40 N/mm2)
➢High strength concrete (>40 N/mm2)
2. MIXING
➢ To obtain a homogenous & uniform mixture, we mix concrete in 2 ways:-
a. Hand mixing
b. Machine mixing
➢ IS 456 suggests approximately mixing time as 2 minutes.
➢ In general, 20 revolutions of concrete in mixer provides sufficient mixing.
MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE
3. TRANSPORTING
➢ Pans
➢Wheel barrows
➢Tower bucket
➢Dump truck
➢Concrete Pumps
➢Transit mixer
➢Belt Conveyors
MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE
4. PLACING
➢Beams, Columns, Slabs, Highways, Runways…
➢Mass Concreting- Dams, Bridges etc.
➢Under water Concreting- Tremie pipe (Very
high slump value taken around 150-200 mm)..
MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE
5. COMPACTION
➢The process of removal of air voids & to make it
dense.
➢ It is done in following ways:-
a. Hand rodding
b. By giving shocks & pressure
c. Mechanical vibration
1.Needle vibrator
2. Shutter(External) vibrator
3. Surface vibrator
4. Vibrating table
MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE
6. FINISHING
➢ The process of levelling & smoothening the top surface of freshly
placed concrete.
➢ Screeding , floating & Trowelling is done.
Floating Trowelling
MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE
7. CURING
➢ Cement gains strength & hardness because of water hence the pores
should remain saturated.
➢ To compensate loss of water & reduce shrinkage, cracking.
➢As per IS 456 minimum curing period is 7 days at 90% humidity.
➢Methods:-
1. Sprinkling water
2. Gunny bags
3. Ponding
4. Steam Curing
WATER CEMENT RATIO
➢According to Abram’s law:-
Strength of fully compacted
concrete is inversely proportional
to W/C ratio.
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1
∝
𝐶𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
1. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
➢ Characterstic compressive strength is that strength below which not
more than 5% of test results are expected to fall.
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
Procedure for compressive strength testing:-
➢ Test specimens 150 X 150 X 150 mm is recommended as per IS.
➢ Mixed concrete is filled in mould in layers of 50 mm, each layer tamped 35
times(for 15 cm cube) with bar of 16 mm dia. & 600mm long.
➢Test specimens are stored at a temp. of 27 +/- 30C at
90% humidity for 24 hour from time of addition.
➢ After these remove from moulds & place in water for
28 days before testing.
➢Compression testing machine should be apply gradual
load of 14N/mm2 per minute until specimen is crushed.
1 1
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ ∝
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
3. RETARDERS
➢ These slow down the chemical reaction of cement & water.
➢ It increases setting time & slow down initial strength gain.
➢ Examples:- Sugar, lignins, phosphates, tartaric acid etc.
CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES
4. ACCELERATORS
➢ These speed up the chemical reaction of cement with water.
➢ Examples:- Calcium chloride, NaCl, Na2SO4, NaOH etc.
5. AIR ENTRAINERS
➢ It introduces air in form of tiny bubbles distributed uniformly.
➢ Examples:- Neutralized vinsol resin, wood resins etc.
➢ Uses:- Improves workability, reduces bleeding & segregation.
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
➢ If concrete serves its purpose for entire design life, it is said
to be durable.
2. EFFLORESCENCE
➢Appearance of white fluffy patches on concrete
surface because salts leaches out & deposits on
surface.
DEFECTS IN CONCRETE
3. SEGREGATION
➢ When coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate & paste separates from each
other.
➢ Causes:- Dropping from heights,
excessive vibrations.
4. BLEEDING (LAITANCE)
➢ When mixing water flows out from
the surface from freshly placed
concrete is usually due to excessive
vibrations to achieve full compaction
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
➢ The stress strain curve is non linear.
➢ Concrete is brittle.
➢ Elastic modulus of concrete in
compression is
𝐸𝑐 = 5000 𝑓𝑐𝑘
3. LIME
➢ Percentage – <10%
➢ Function – prevents shrinkage on drying, fusion.
➢ Excess – causes brick to melt & hence brick loses its
shape.
COMPOSITION OF GOOD BRICK EARTH
4. IRON OXIDE
➢ Percentage – <7%
➢ Function – improves impermeability & durability, red colour.
➢ Excess – causes cracking & warping on drying.
5. MAGNESIA
➢ Percentage – <1%
➢ Function – imparts yellow tint & reduce shrinkage.
➢ Excess – causes cracking & warping on drying.
PROPERTIES OF GOOD BRICK
➢ Size & Shape:- Smooth, rectangular, parallel, straight & sharp edges.
➢ Colour:- Uniform deep cherry red color
➢ Texture:- Rough so that mortar sticks properly.
➢ Hardness:- When scratched with finger nail it should not make any
impression.
➢ Soundness:- Metallic & clinging sound when struck with each other.
➢ Water absorption:- Not more than 20% of its dry weight when it is
immersed in cold water for 24 hours.
➢ Crushing strength:- >= 10 MPa
➢ Brick earth should be free from stones, grits etc.
MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS
MOULDING
DRYING
BURNING
MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS
1. PREPARATION OF CLAY(BRICK EARTH)
➢ UNSOILING – Removal of top layer of soil of about 200
mm depth.
➢ DIGGING – Clay is dug out & spread out
➢ CLEANING – Screening is done to make it free from
stones, pebbles, vegetable matter etc.
➢ WEATHERING – Clay is exposed to atmosphere for
softening.
➢ BLENDING – Clay is loosened & ingredients are spread
over it & dry vertical mixing is done.
➢ TEMPERING – Clay is added with sufficient quantity of
water & mixed under pressure to make it ready for
moulding.
PREPARATION OF CLAY
PUGGING
MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS
2. MOULDING
➢Process of giving required shape to plastic clay.
MOULDING
DRYING
BURNING
CLAMPS KILNS
INTERMITTENT CONTINUOUS
CLAMPS
• Total height = 3 to 4m
• Trapezoidal in shape.
• Period= 1 to 2 months
• Fuel thickness = 70 to 80 cm
INTERMITTENT UPDRAUGHT KILNS
INTERMITTENT DOWNDRAUGHT KILNS
CONTINUOUS BULL TRENCH KILN
CONTINUOUS BULL TRENCH KILN
CONTINUOUS HOFFMAN KILN
CONTINUOUS HOFFMAN KILN
TESTING OF BRICKS
1. DIMENSION TEST
➢ Dimension of brick is tested by stacking 20 bricks.
TESTING OF BRICKS
2. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
TESTING OF BRICKS
3. WATER ABSORPTION TEST
Water Absorption = -
W2 W1
x100
W1
5. WARPAGE TEST
Concave Warpage
Convex Warpage
DEFECT OF BRICKS
➢ OVERBURNING – brick loses shape.
➢ UNDER BURNING – pores are not closed hence weak.
➢ BLOATING – Spongy swollen mass due to excess sulphur.
➢ BLACK CORE – Bituminuous matter or carbon present in brick
➢ EFFLORESCENCE – White patches due to alkalies leaching out.
DEFECT OF BRICKS
➢ CHUFFS – Deformation occurs if rain water falls on hot bricks.
➢ CHECKS – Lumps of lime causes volume changes by absorbing moisture.
➢ SPOTS – Due to sulphide, dark surface spots on surface.
➢ BLISTERS – due to trapping of air
➢ LAMINATIONS – Entrapped air in voids of clay forms thin lamina on
surface.
SPECIAL TYPE OF BRICKS
1. HEAVY DUTY BRICKS
➢ Efflorescence – Nil
➢ Water absorption < 10%
➢ Uses:- Bridges, industrial foundation,
multi storey building.
GUNITING
➢ Application of mortar or concrete under
pressure through a cement gun.
➢ Compressive strength >40N/mm2
BRICK MASONRY
TYPES OF BONDS –
1. HEADER BOND
➢ 1 brick thick
➢ ¾ bat is used to overlap & maintain perpend
BRICK MASONRY
2. STRETCHER BOND
➢ ½ brick thick wall
➢ ½ bat is used to overlap & maintain perpend
BRICK MASONRY
3. ENGLISH BOND
➢1 ½ brick thick wall.
➢ Queen closeris used to overlap & maintain perpend.
BRICK MASONRY
4. FLEMISH BOND
➢ 1 ½ brick thick wall.
➢ Queen closer is used to overlap & maintain perpend.
QUESTIONS
Q1. For more than 1 ½ brick thick & heavy loads
which bond is better?
A. English bond
B. Flemish bond
C. Stretcher bond
D. Header bond
Q8. First class bricks shall not absorb more than …….% of
water when immersed in water for 24 hour.
A. 15%
B. 20%
C. 22%
D. 25%
QUESTIONS
Q9. Which bricks are to be used for external masonry work
without plaster?
A. First class bricks
B. Second class bricks
C. Third class bricks
D. Fourth class bricks
Q18. Excess of which constituent can melt the brick during burning?
A. Lime
B. Alumina
C. Iron oxide
D. Magnesia
QUESTIONS
Q19. Bricks are generally burnt in the temp. range of…
A. 500 – 800oC
B. 900 – 1200oC
C. 1200 – 1500oC
D. 1500 – 1800oC
Disadvantages:-
➢ Decay
➢ Variation in strength
➢ Moisture changes
CLASSIFICATION OF TREE
TREES
CONIFER DECIDUOUS
(SOFT WOODS) (HARD WOODS)
CLASSIFICATION OF TREE
PROPERTY SOFT WOOD HARD WOOD
COLOUR Lighter Darker
GROWTH Faster Slower
WEIGHT Lighter Heavier
DENSITY Low High
CONVERSION Easy Difficult
RESINOUS MATERIAL Exist Do not exist
ANNUAL RINGS Distinct Indistinct
EXAMPLES Chir, fir, deodar etc. Teak, sal, shishum etc.
STRUCTURE OF TREE
MACROSTRUCTURE
Crown
Stem
Roots
CROSS SECTION OF TREE
PROPERTIES OF TIMBER
1. DENSITY & SPECIFIC GRAVITY
➢ The average density(apparent specific gravity)
ranges from 450-950 kg/m3.
➢ The true specific gravity of wood is 1.5
2. MOISTURE CONTENT
➢ It is hygroscopic in nature.
➢ Recommended moisture content for structural
elements is 10-20%.
➢ Drying below fibre saturation point causes
shrinkage.
PROPERTIES OF TIMBER
3. SOUND CONDUCTIVITY
➢ Timber has high sound conductivity.
➢ Speed of sound ranges 3000-5000 m/s.
4. HEAT CONDUCTIVITY
➢ It is low.
➢ More along fibres than across fibres.
5. ELASTIC MODULUS
➢ It ranges between 5000-15000 kN/m3.
➢ Longitudinal direction > Transverse direction
PROPERTIES OF TIMBER
6. STRENGTH OF TIMBER
➢ TENSILE STRENGTH
Along the fibres > Across the fibres
➢ COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Along the fibres < Across the fibres
➢ SHEAR STRENGTH
Along the fibres < Across the fibres
ORDER OF STRENGTH
Tensile strength > Bending strength > Compressive strength
CHARACTERSTICS OF GOOD TIMBER
➢ High strength.
➢ Durable.
➢ High fire resistance.
➢ Sweet smell.
➢ Clear ringing sound.
➢ Straight fibres.
➢ Tough(High impact resistance)
➢ Hard medullary rays.
➢Regular annular rings.
➢Low water permeability.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
➢DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION
Wane
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
TYPES OF SHAKES----
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
3. Coal tar
Timber surface coated with coal tar.
- fire resistant
- unpleasant smell
- unsuitable for painting
PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
4. Creosote oil
➢It is tar oil type(distillation of tar)
➢It works as an antiseptic and poisonous for wood attacking
fungi.
➢Highly unpleasant smell.
5. Oil paints
➢2 to 3 coats of oil paints are applied.
➢Preserve from moisture and make it durable.
6. Solignum paints
➢Mixed with colour pigments and applied in hot state with brush.
➢Preserve from white ants and are highly toxic.
FIRE RESISTANCE
1. Special chemicals
➢ Ammonium sulphate soaking.
➢ Treated with antipyrine containing salts of
ammonia or boric or phosphoric acids.
Objective of seasoning:
▪ Reduce shrinkage & warping
▪ To increase strength, durability, workability of
dimensional stability.
▪ Make is suitable for painting
▪ Protection against fungi & insects
▪ Reduce its weight
METHODS OF SEASONING
METHODS
➢ AIR SEASONING
➢ BOILING
➢ CHEMICAL SEASONING
➢ ELECTRICAL SEASONING
➢ KILN SEASONING
➢ WATER SEASONING
METHODS OF SEASONING
AIR SEASONING
➢ Rate of drying is slow.
➢ Cheap & simple.
➢ It reduces moisture content
of wood upto 12-15%.
➢ It makes timber durable,
tough & elastic.
METHODS OF SEASONING
BOILING
➢ It is a very quick method.
➢ Shrinkage is reduced, but strength
& elasticity is reduced.
CHEMICAL SEASONING
➢ Timber is immersed in salt solution.
➢ The time required is 30 to 40 days.
METHODS OF SEASONING
ELECTRICAL SEASONING
➢High frequency AC is passed across
timber.
➢The time required is 5 to 8 hours.
➢It is the most rapid method.
KILN SEASONING
➢Drying is carried in airtight chamber.
➢Strength & dimensional stability is
increased.
➢Less liable to attack of insects, fungi
METHODS OF SEASONING
WATER SEASONING
➢ Timber pieces partly immersed
in running water.
➢ Timber is taken out after a
period of about 2 to 4 weeks.
WOOD PRODUCTS
1. Veneers
2. Ply board
WOOD PRODUCTS
3. Fibre board
4. Block board
TIMBER & ITS USES
➢CHIR – Low quality work.
➢DEODAR – Light weight, Piles, Railway sleeper.
➢SAL – Ornamental work
➢TEAK – Strongest timber, high quality furniture, railway sleeper.
➢SHISHUM – Quality furniture(Heavy timber)
➢MULBERRY – sports goods.
➢BENTEAK – for boats.
➢KAIL - for making match boxes.
➢MANGO – cheap furniture, toys, cabinet works
QUESTIONS
Q1. Which component of trunk indicates dead portion?
A. Heart wood
B. Sap wood
C. Cambium layer
D. None
Q8. A thin layer of sap which has not yet converted into
sap wood?
A. Inner bark
B. Outer bark
C. Sap wood
D. Cambium layer
QUESTIONS
Q9. Due to attack of dry rot, the timber:
A. Cracks
B. Shrinks
C. Reduces to powder
D. None
B. NON-FOLIATED ROCKS
➢ This rocks do not have bands or strips on their surface or
body.
➢ Example: Quartzite, Marble
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
B. UNSTRATIFIED ROCK
➢Rocks not showing layered structure (cannot
be easily split in slices)
➢Example: Granite, Trap, Marble, Quartzite
etc.
CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
A. CALCAREOUS ROCKS:- Main component is Calcium carbonate.
Ex:- Marble, Limestone
B. SILICIOUS ROCKS:-Main component is Silica.
Ex:- Slate, Clay, Mudstone, Laterite
C. ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS:-Main component is Clay & Alumina .
Ex:- Sandstone, Trap, Quartz, Granite
QUIZ
2. CRUSHING TEST
➢ 3 Cubes of 40 mm are taken & average is reported.
TESTING OF STONES
3. ATTRITION TEST
➢ It is done in deval testing machine.
➢ 60 mm size stones are taken & rotated for 5 hours @ 30 rpm.
%𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒕.𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝟏.𝟓 𝒎𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆
Rate of wear = x100
𝑾𝒕.𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
Note:-
▪ Rate of wear <3% => Good quality
▪ Rate of wear =3% => Medium(tolerable)
▪ Rate of wear >3% => Bad & cannot be used in stone masonry.
TESTING OF STONES
4. HARDNESS TEST
➢ This test is done in dorry testing machine.
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Coefficient of hardness = 20 -
𝟑
Note:-
▪ Coefficient of hardness <14 => Poor hardness
▪ 14 < Coefficient of hardness <17 => Medium hardness
▪ Coefficient of hardness <17 => Very hard
TESTING OF STONES
5. IMPACT TEST
➢ This is done using anvil testing machine.
➢ In this 25 x 25 mm cylindrical aggregate is impacted by a hammer of
mass 2 kg & allowed to fall from different heights until specimen fails.
➢ Toughness coefficient= Height in cms from which specimen fails.
Note:-
▪ Coefficient of toughness <13 => Poor toughness
▪ 13 < Coefficient of hardness <19 => Moderate toughness
▪ Coefficient of hardness <19 => Very tough
TESTING OF STONES
6. ACID TEST
➢ It is used to determine weathering resistance capacity.
7. CRYSTALLINE TEST
➢ It is used to determine durability.
8. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
➢ It is in the range 2.5 to 3.
➢ For good stone, it is greater than 2.7
STONE MINING PROCESS
QUARRYING
➢ It is a multistage process by which rock is
extracted from ground & crushed to produce
aggregate.
SEASONING
➢ All freshly quarried stones contain a certain
amount of moisture known as quarry sap,
which makes them soft and easier to work
upon . Good stones should be free from
quarry sap.
DRESSING
USES OF STONE
➢ Abutment of piers – GRANITE
➢ Facing work – GRANITE, MARBLE
➢ Kankar – HYDRAULIC LIME
➢ Flooring – LIMESTONE, MARBLE, SANDSTONE
➢ Paving work – GNEISS
➢ Ballast & Foundation – BASALT, TRAP & GRANITE
➢ D.P.C. – SLATE
➢ Manufacture of putty - CHALK
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PAINTS AND VARNISHES
❑ PAINTS
❑ TYPES OF PAINTS
❑ CONSTITUENTS OF PAINTS
❑ PAINTING ON DIFFERENT SUTFACES
❑ DEFECTS IN PAINTS
❑ VARNISH
❑ TYPES OF VARNISH
❑ PUTTY
❑ DISTEMPER
PAINT
➢ A coloured substance which is spread over a surface
and dries to leave a thin decorative or protective
coating.
➢ Objectives:-
▪ Protection of base material
▪ Decorative purpose
▪ Increase durability.
▪ Simple maintenance
▪ Waterproofing
CHARACTERSTICS OF IDEAL PAINT
• Ease of application
• Reasonable drying period
• Forming a thin film without cracking
• Forming a hard and durable coating
• Its performance should not be affected by the weather
• Not harmful for users
• Attractive appearance
• Easily spread on surfaces
• Should remain free from cracks
TYPES OF PAINTS
1. OIL PAINT
➢ Oil paints are applied in three coats:- Primer,
undercoat and finish coat.
➢ Oil paints can achieve mat and glossy finishes, while
being durable and affordable.
➢ They are characterized by their ease of application,
and painted surfaces are easy to clean.
➢ Oil paints is commonly used in walls, doors, windows
and metal structures.
TYPES OF PAINTS
2. ALUMINIUM PAINT
➢ It is resistant to corrosion, electricity and
weather exposure.
➢ It is commonly used for metals and wood,
and some specific applications are gas
tanks, oil tanks, water pipes and radiators.
5. CELLULOSE PAINT
➢ This type of paint is characterized by its quick
drying, smooth finish and hardness, while offering
resistance to water, smoke and acids.
TYPES OF PAINTS
6. ENAMEL PAINT
➢ This type of paint is produced by adding lead or zinc
to varnish.
➢ Enamel paints form hard and glossy coatings, which
are easily cleaned.
➢ They are characterized by being waterproof and
chemically resistant, offering good coverage and
color retention.
➢ Used in interior and exterior walls, windows, doors,
stairs etc.
TYPES OF PAINTS
7. PLASTIC PAINT
➢ This paint uses water as a thinner, and it is
available in a wide range of colors. It dries
very quickly and offers high coverage.
➢ It is used in slabs, decks, walls, ceiling of
auditorium and clubs etc.
8. CEMENT PAINT
➢ Cement paint is available in powder form, which
is mixed with water to achieve paint consistency.
➢ The base material is white or colored cement,
and it may also contain pigments, accelerators
and other additives.
➢ Cement paint is durable and waterproof, and it
is commonly used in rough internal and external
surfaces.
TYPES OF PAINTS
9. ASBESTOS PAINT
TYPES OF PAINTS
10. SYNTHETIC RUBBER PAINT
CONSTITUENTS OF PAINTS
CONSTITUENTS OF PAINTS
1. BASE
CONSTITUENTS OF PAINTS
2. FILLER/EXTENDER
CONSTITUENTS OF PAINTS
3. PIGMENTS
CONSTITUENTS OF PAINTS
3. PIGMENTS
CONSTITUENTS OF PAINTS
4. VEHICLE/CARRIER
CONSTITUENTS OF PAINTS
5. THINNER / SOLVENT
CONSTITUENTS OF PAINTS
6. DRIER
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PAINTING ON DIFFERENT SURFACES
PAINTING ON DIFFERENT SURFACES
PUTTY
1. BLISTERING
2. FADING
DEFECTS IN PAINTS
3. EFFLORESCENCE
4. FLAKING
DEFECTS IN PAINTS
5. GRINNING
6. CHALKING
DEFECTS IN PAINTS
7. RUNNING
8. SAGGING
DEFECTS IN PAINTS
9. BLOOMING
10. WRINKLING
DEFECTS IN PAINTS
11. SAPONIFICATION
12. ALLIGATORING
DEFECTS IN PAINTS
13. MILDEW
VARNISH
CONSTITUENTS OF VARNISH
1. RESIN -
2. SOLVENT -
3. DRIER -
FUNCTIONS OF VARNISH
TYPES OF VARNISH
TYPES OF VARNISH
TYPES OF VARNISH
DISTEMPER
DISTEMPER
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