Psychology

INTRODUCTION

MBA II Sem
Meaning and Definitions of Psychology:

 Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes (both humans
and animals).

 Behaviour (An act or response of someone especially toward others) includes all of our
outward or overt actions and reactions, such as verbal and facial expressions and movements.

 Mental processes (All the things that individuals can do with their minds, which
includes ideation, imagination, memory, thinking, belief, reasoning, volition and emotion)
refer to all the internal and covert activity of our mind such as thinking, feeling and
remembering.
The word Psychology has its origin from two Greek words ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’, ‘psyche’
means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ means ‘study’. Thus literally, Psychology means ‘the study of
soul’ or ‘science of soul’.

 1. The first definition of the Psychology was the study of the soul:
 The earliest attempts at defining Psychology owe their origin to the most mysterious
and philosophical concept, namely that of soul. What is soul? How can it be studied?
The inability to find clear answers to such questions led some ancient Greek
philosophers to define psychology as the study of the mind.
2. In terms of the study of the mind:
 Although the word mind was less mysterious and vague than soul, yet it also faced the
same questions, namely what is mind? How can it be studied, etc. This definition was also
rejected.

 3. In terms of the study of consciousness:

 The description and explanation of the states of consciousness is the task of Psychology
which is usually done by the instrument introspection—process of looking within.
This definition was also rejected on the grounds that:
(i) It could not include the study of the consciousness of animals.
(ii) It would not include subconscious and unconscious activities of mind.
(iii) The introspection method for the study proved that it is most subjective and unscientific
method.

 4. In terms of the study of behaviour:

 The most modern and widely accepted definition of
psychology even today, is the study of behaviour, both
humans and animals.
Foundation

 Plato (428-347 BC)

 Aristotle (384-322 BC)
 Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650)
 Wilhelm Wundt, Germany (1832 – 1920)
 William Jones (1842- 1910)
 Importance of psychology
 Understanding Basic Psychological and Scientific Principles
Psych graduates say that knowledge of research methods and the ability to interpret
statistical results are the biggest contributors to their career success, regardless of whether
they pursued a career in psychology or elsewhere.

 Critical Thinking
A great deal of psychological content, and the methods taught and used by psychologists,
focus on how to think critically. Critical thinking is considered to be essential to being an
educated person and is often a general education requirement in colleges. Psychology courses
develop the critical thinking skills that are important in business, law, and other professions.
 Effectiveness in the Workplace
Industrial-Organizational Psychology (one of the top-10 highest paying professions) focuses on
understanding human dynamics in the workplace. A knowledge of human behavior is one of
the "selling points" for psych majors when it comes to gaining employment, and a knowledge
of basic psychology makes you a more effective supervisor/manager.

 Understanding of Relationships and Well-Being

Although studying psychology doesn’t necessarily make you psychologically healthier any more
than studying medicine makes you physically healthy, psych majors do have this knowledge at
their fingertips and should be more aware of the fact that good interpersonal and family
relationships require attention and work. Psych majors should, at least, know where to go
when they need counseling or psychotherapy.
 Improved Employability
Savvy employers (and savvy job applicants) know that an understanding of human behavior is
essential to success in the workplace, and this needs to be emphasized as an important, and
employable, competency.
Graduates with psychology degrees end up in a wide array of occupations, and most are quite
successful because of what they learned in college.
Subfields

Brain Science and Cognitive Psychology

Brain science and cognitive psychologists study how the human mind thinks,
remembers and learns. They apply psychological science to understand how we
make decisions and perceive our world

Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychologists study how people grow and adapt over the
course of their lives. They apply their research to help people overcome
developmental challenges and reach their full potential.

Human Factors and Engineering Psychology

Human factors and engineering psychologists strive to make everyday
experiences easier, more comfortable and less frustrating by applying the
psychological science of human behavior to the products, systems and
devices we use every day
Psychology of Teaching and Learning
Psychologists working in education study how people learn and retain knowledge.
They apply psychological science to improve the learning process and promote
educational success for all students.

Sport and Performance Psychology

Sport and performance psychologists use science to study human behavior
and abilities in sport, exercise and performance. They help people overcome
psychological barriers that can impede their achievements and professional
success
Brain Science and Cognitive Psychology

 Cognitive psychologists, sometimes called brain scientists, study how the human
brain works — how we think, remember and learn. They apply psychological
science to understand how we perceive events and make decisions.
 Understanding Brain Science and Cognitive Psychology
 The human brain is an amazing and powerful tool. It allows us to learn, see,
remember, hear, perceive, understand and create language. Sometimes, the
human brain also fails us.
 Cognitive psychologists study how people acquire, perceive, process and store
information. This work can range from exploring how we learn language to
understanding the interplay between cognition and emotion.
 New technologies like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allow researchers to see
a picture of the brain at work — helping them to understand how a brain reacts to
a particular stimulus or how differences in brain structure can affect a person’s
health, personality or cognitive functioning.
Developmental Psychology

 Developmental psychologists focus on human growth and changes across the

lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual,
personality and emotional growth.
 Understanding Developmental Psychology
 The study of developmental psychology is essential to understanding how
humans learn, mature and adapt.
 Throughout their lives, humans go through various stages of development.
Developmental psychologists study how people grow, develop and adapt at
different life stages. They conduct research designed to help people reach
their full potential — for example, studying the difference between learning
styles in babies and adults.

 Human Factors and Engineering Psychology
 Human factors and engineering psychologists study how people interact with machines and technology. They
use psychological science to guide the design of products, systems and devices we use every day. They often
focus on performance and safety.
 Understanding Human Factors and Engineering Psychology
 We’ve all experienced mild anxiety during our first interaction with a new device — from setting up our hi-
def TVs to checking in for a doctor’s appointment via an in-office kiosk. Will it work the way I need it to and
the way I expect it to?
 Human factors and engineering psychologists strive to make these interactions easier, more comfortable, less
frustrating and, when necessary, safer. But their purview extends beyond the everyday gadgets we need to
function; they also apply the science of psychology to improve life-critical products, such as medical
equipment and airline computer systems.
 These professionals apply what they know about human behavior to help businesses design products, systems
and devices. They combine technology and psychology to improve our interactions with the systems and
equipment we use daily.
 Have you ever wondered why some products seem to work better than others? The best products are thought
out and tested with people trying them out in real-life situations.
 Better designs mean happy customers, fewer costly redesigns and less likelihood of accidents or injuries.
Because of this, businesses and organizations need the expertise of human factors and engineering
psychologists, who study how people behave and use that knowledge to create better processes and
products.
 These psychologists work in many different areas, including business, government and academia. And they
can work on a range of designs — from the ordinary things that touch all of our lives, such as better can
openers and safer cars, to the highly specialized, such as instruments that allow pilots to land jumbo jets
safely.

Psychology of Teaching and Learning

 Psychologists working in the field of education study how people learn and retain knowledge.
They apply psychological science to improve the learning process and promote educational
success for all students.
 Understanding Educational Psychology
 Today’s educational system is highly complex. There is no single learning approach that works
for everyone.
 That’s why psychologists working in the field of education are focused on identifying and
studying learning methods to better understand how people absorb and retain new
information.
 Educational psychologists apply theories of human development to understand individual
learning and inform the instructional process. While interaction with teachers and students in
school settings is an important part of their work, it isn’t the only facet of the job. Learning
is a lifelong endeavor. People don’t only learn at school, they learn at work, in social
situations and even doing simple tasks like household chores or running errands. Psychologists
working in this subfield examine how people learn in a variety of settings to identify
approaches and strategies to make learning more effective.
Sport and Performance Psychology

 Sport and performance psychologists focus on identifying and applying

psychological principles that facilitate peak sport performance, enhance people’s
participation in physical activities and help athletes achieve optimal human
performance.
 Sport and performance psychologists are experts in helping athletes and
professionals overcome problems that impede performance. Some teach strategies
that help clients maximize their physical prowess; others work with clients to
overcome anxiety or a traumatic experience, such as a ski fall, that is affecting
their confidence. Other clients might need help communicating with colleagues or
teammates or accepting a coach’s critiques.
 But athletes aren’t the only clients. Consider the rigors of performing surgery, for
example. Doctors may need help gaining the confidence to return to the operating
room after losing a patient. Actors or comedians may need support getting back on
stage following a poor review.
 In all of these situations, tapping into the potential of human performance is the
key so that individuals can hone resilience skills and perform at their best.
MEMORY INTRODUCTION

 Memory is the ability to encode, store and remember information and past
experiences in the brain. In general terms one can define memory as the use of past
experience to influence or affect human behaviour.
 Encoding: a process of making mental representation of information. It can also mean
transferring from short term to long term.
 Storing: Process of placing encoded information into relatively permanent storage for
later recall.
 Remembering: the process of retrieving what has been stored in short term or long term
memory.
TYPES OF MEMORY

 There are three main types of memory.

 1) Sensory memory
 2) Long term memory
 3) Short term memory
a) SENSORY MEMORY (<1sec)

 Sensory memories the Shortest term element of memory. In order for anything to enter our
memory, it must be picked up by our senses ( taste, touch, sight, hearing and smell).
 Sensory memory makes use of the five senses in order to be developed.

For example, the ability to look at

something and remember what it
looked like with just a second of
observation is an example of sensory
memory.
SHORT TERM MEMORY (<1min)

 Also called working memory. It is everything you are thinking of at the current moment.
Takes less than one minute to process.
 It is the information we hang on to while doing another process and it tends to disappear
really fast unless we make an effort to remember it.
For example, when reading a sentence, you place the beginning of the sentence in mind
so as to understand the rest of the sentence.
LONG TERM MEMORY (life- time)

 This is a process of storing unlimited amounts of information over long period of time.
 Although there is the element of forgetting, long term memory decays very little and we
are thus able to recall most of it.
 Short term memories can become long term memories through the process of
consolidation which involves rehearsal and meaningful association.

 Characteristics of long term memory

 It has an unlimited capacity and it is relatively permanent.
 Chances of retrieval are dependent on encoding process.
 Its accuracy may be distorted over time
IMPLICIT MEMORY(procedural)

 Implicit memory is memory that can be unconsciously recalled. This is also known as
procedural memory. It is a memory of skills and how to do things, particularly movement
of body parts and use of objects or machines.
 This is memory acquired through repetition and practice and is composed of automatic
sensorimotor behaviours that are so deeply embedded that we are no longer aware of
them. An example is when you teach a child to write over and over again, eventually it
becomes embedded in him until he is able to do it simply without thinking so much
about it. Other examples include riding a bike, tying a shoe-lace, playing the guitar etc.
This type of long-term memory allows people to carry out ordinary motor actions more or
less automatically. This is aided by previous performances of the task without explicit or
conscious awareness of the previous experiences, like you do not remember how you
learnt how to hold a spoon or how to tie your shoe lace, yet now you can do it more
unconsciously.
b) EXPLICIT(declarative)
 Declarative memory is a type of long term memory and it is also known as explicit
memory.
 Declarative memory (“knowing what”) is the memory of facts and events and refers to
those memories that can be consciously recalled (or “declared”).

 Imagine that you are having a conversation with your friend about food and she asks you
about your favorite restaurant. You tell her the name of your favorite restaurant and the
most recent meal that you ate there. She asks you for the nearest intersection and the
address, which you easily recall without assistance from the internet or the phone book.
You also tell her the restaurant's phone number, hours of operations, and the location of
the nearest parking garage. The information that you gave your friend is an example of
declarative memory.
 Your ability to recall addresses, locations of parking garages, intersection names, phone
numbers, and an experience that you had at a restaurant are all a part of declarative
memory.

 For example: let's say that you know that your favourite restaurant is only open until 6
PM on Sundays. The time that the restaurant closes is stored as a declarative memory. We
can consciously recall declarative memory.
EPISODIC MEMORY
 Episodic memory represents our memory of experiences and specific events in time, from
which we can reconstruct the actual events that took place at any given point in our lives.
 Episodic memory is what enables one to give an account of an event which happened
and will tend to be different from someone else's.
 EXAMPLES OF EPISODIC MEMORY
 First day at a new job. First movie you watched with your wife.
 The first time you travelled by plane. Your wedding day.
SEMANTIC MEMORY
 Semantic memory includes things that are common knowledge, such as the names of
colors, the sounds of letters, the capitals of countries and basic facts acquired over a life
time.
 Semantic memory is the recollection of facts gathered from the time we are young
 For Example:
 Understanding the difference between a dog and a cat
 Knowing that the space shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on Jan. 28, 1986
 Being able to associate letters with their sounds
 Recalling how to use a phone
Methods of Improving Memory
Forgetting things ?
 Do you want to improve your memory without any medication. Improving your memory is easier by
following below tips.
 It is a common experience that forgetting is usually a source of trouble for people. Everyday
conversation, class room participation, performance in examination, interview, presentation and
communication in meetings often put demands on us to remember information. Failure in doing so
has negative consequences which all of us experience to different degrees in our lives. As a result
most of us are interested in improving our memory.

 RECALL
 This involves digging into the memory and bringing back information on a stimulus/response basis,
e.g., "What is the capital of India?" Answer: “Delhi". Recall often needs prompting with cues to help
us retrieve what we are looking for. It is not a reliable form of memory and many of us experience
the feeling that we know the answer but simply can't dig the information out. This is the technique
we use to remember people's names, hence we often forget them. There are three types of recall:
 1. Free recall: when no cues are given to assist retrieval
 2. Serial recall: when items are recalled in a particular order
 3. Cued recall: when some cues are given to assist retrieval
Recognition (re+cognition)
 is a process that occurs in thinking when some event, process, pattern, or object recurs.
Coming from the base cognition; cognition has various uses in different fields of study and
has generally accepted to be used for the process of awareness or thought.

 RELEARNING:
 Another means of remembering is through relearning. Relearned information may return
quickly, even if it hasn't been used for many years.

 Paying attention through your senses

 You can’t remember something if you never learned it, and you can’t learn something —
that is, encode it into your brain —if you don’t pay enough attention to it. Make your habit
of attention through varies senses i-e by Eye contact Auditory Tactical Smell test
Rehearsal
 preserve information in STM
 To be remembered twice at least

Over learning
 best insurance against going blank
 study is continued beyond bare mastery

Space practice
 Superior to massed practice 20 minutes study session vs one hrs. continues study

Whole vs. part method

 It is better to practice whole packages of information rather than smaller parts
Chunking Memory
 Chunking involves creating something more meaningful and therefore memorable from
seemingly random bits of information. One example is if you need to remember a list of
things such as buying figs, lettuce, oranges, apples, and tomatoes you can create a word
out of the first letters (e.g., "FLOAT"), which is easier to remember than the individual
items. If you've ever tried to remember a phone number by making a word (or words) out
of the letters on the phone's dial pad, you've used chunking
 the items to be memorized are divided into small and easily memorable chunks or groups.
 This method works best when the order of the items is not important.

Brain exercises
 Memory, like muscular strength, is a “use it or lose it” proposition. The more you work out
your brain, the better you’ll be able to process and remember information.

Eat right & drink a right way

 Your brain needs a lot of fuel, mainly the omega-3 fatty acids and drink six to eight glasses
of water a day.
Make notes
 When you find it difficult to remember, just write it down

Laugh
 It activates brain areas vital to learning and creativity.

Meditation
 Meditation improves focus, concentration, creativity, learning and reasoning skills. It is
believed to encourage connections between neurons which increase mental sharpness.