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 Science, Technology, and Society

Lesson 3
Intellectual Revolutions that
Defined the Society

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Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society

Introduction

This section provides students about the different intellectuals who made significant
contributions to science that propelled scientific and technological revolutions.
Emphasized is the importance of these intellectual revolutions in shaping and
transforming society.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

- Discuss paradigm shifts through history;

- Explain how intellectual revolution changed how humans see the world; and
- Select a revolutionary scientist and present a persuasive speech representing
his/her theory

Lesson Proper

Intellectual revolution refers to series of events that led to the emergence of modern
science and more current scientific thinking across critical periods in history. It reveals
how society was transformed by science and technology for it has a lot of improvements
in astronomy, chemistry, mathematics and physics.

It is also the period where paradigm shifts occurred and where widely held and accepted
scientific beliefs were challenged and opposed. According to Wootton, as cited by
McCarthy: historically, it is the “replacement of Aristotelian ethics and Christian
morality by a new type of decision making which may be termed instrumental reasoning
or cost-­benefit analysis”.

A. COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

During the early times, people were fascinated by the heavenly bodies
like the stars, moons, and planets. They also used to wonder what created days
and nights. The invention of the telescope allowed people to get a glimpse of
outer space, but it also piqued their interest in learning more about what was out
there.
Claudius Ptolemy, an Egyptian-Greek astronomer, mathematician, and
geographer, introduced the geocentric model in the 6th century. It described the
absolute perception of the universe with the Earth as its center, thought to be
accurate by most people and was widely accepted at the time.

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Figure 1. Geocentric Model Figure 2. Heliocentric Model

In the geocentric model, the In the heliocentric (Sun-centered)
Sun and the other six visible model, the Earth is just one out of
objects in the sky revolve many planets, all of which orbit the
around the Earth. Sun in elliptical orbits.

The Copernican Revolution marked the transition from the belief that
the Earth was the center of the universe to the heliocentric model of the universe
where the sun is the center. Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish mathematician and
astronomer, proposed that the sun was stationary in the center of the universe
and the earth revolved around it.
Copernicus' heliocentric model shifted the Earth away from the center
of the Solar System and introduced the concept of the Earth rotating on its own
axis, resulting in day and night. The Earth, along with other heavenly bodies,
revolves around the sun.
People were skeptical of the heliocentric model because they were
taught that the Earth came first, before everything else. Copernicus was accused
of heresy and even persecuted as a result. They stood firm in their beliefs and
refused to accept the heliocentric model of the universe as correct.
The following intellectuals contributed to the gradual shift from
geocentric to heliocentric thinking:
a. Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer, observation of the star in the
constellation Cassiopeia
b. Johannes Kepler, German astronomer, stated that the planets move
in elliptical orbits and the sun at the center;
c. Galileo Galilei developed telescope and observed Venus
d. Isaac Newton’s Law of gravitation

People eventually accepted heliocentrism, which marked the birth of

modern astronomy and resulted in the transformation of society's thoughts and
beliefs.

B.
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C. DARWINIAN REVOLUTION

The Darwinian Revolution began with Charles Darwin's book "On the
Origin of Species”. This book introduced the “Theory of Evolution” which
emphasizes that organisms result from evolution or a change in the heritable
characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.

He proposed that organisms arise and evolve through the natural

selection of slight inherited variations that improve an individual's ability to
compete, survive, and reproduce.

Figure 4. Darwin's finches

A sketch of four species of finches observed by British
Figure 3. Charles Darwin naturalist Charles Darwin made during his visit to the
Charles Darwin leaning against a column on Galapagos Islands. Beak length and robustness varied
the veranda of Down House in 1881. between species, which supported the idea that each species
Hulton Archive/Getty Images evolved to exploit different habitats and food sources.
© Photos.com/Thinkstock
Darwin's theory of evolution, like Copernicus', was met with opposition
from society. The idea of evolution, according to critics, contradicts the church's
teachings that the source of life is a powerful creator.
The theory arose when the majority of the population believed and
accepted the biblical account of Earth's creation.
People became enraged as a result of this. Some believed that the theory
explained the origin of life, while others, including the religious and faithful,
did not.
This caused a debate between science and religion. It took some time for
people to realize that Darwin's theory of evolution was not in conflict with the
church's teachings, and that the two could coexist.

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D. FREUDIAN REVOLUTION

The field of psychology was considered more of an art rather than

science and was classified under philosophy (McNamara, Valverde, & Beleno
III, 2018).
However, because of Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist, the
perception of society to psychology changed. In the 19th century, Freud
developed his theory of psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis is the study of human behavior. Freud's theory
explained that many conscious and unconscious factors (Figure 5) could
influence behavior and emotions. He also argued that personality is a product
of three conflicting elements: id, ego, and superego. (Figure 6). This theory
places great emphasis on the role of unconscious psychological conflicts in
shaping behavior and personality.

Figure 5. Freud compared the mind to an iceberg.

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Figure 6. Freud’s Three Components of Personality

His works were highly acclaimed, two of which can be related to

learners’ development, specifically the “Three Components of Personality” and
“Five Psychosexual Stages of Development.”
These three revolutionizing theories are just some of the many scientific
ideas that transformed and molded societies and beliefs.
The changes they brought to the perspectives and perceptions of the
scientific community and the public are evidences of science and technology’s
link to humanity.
Through scientific research and experimentations, people will continue
to deepen their understanding of the world and the universe.

References/Additional Resources/Readings

McCarthy, D. (2019, July 19). The Imaginative Conservative. Retrieved August 18,
2021, from https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2019/07/power-pleasure-
profit-david-wootton-daniel-mccarthy.html

McLeod, S. A. (2019). Psychoanalysis. Simply Psychology.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychoanalysis.html
McNamara, D., Valverde, V., & Beleno III, R. (2018). Science, Technology and
Society. Quezon City: C&E Publishing, Inc.

Jones, A. Raymond (2021, January 20). Ptolemy. Encyclopedia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ptolemy
Rabin, Sheila, "Nicolaus Copernicus", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall
2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =
<https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2019/entries/copernicus/>.
Westman, R. S. (2021, June 1). Johannes Kepler. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johannes-Kepler
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html

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