1442 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 20, NO.
4, APRIL 2019
Driving Performance Indicators of Electric Bus
Driving Technique: Naturalistic Driving
Data Multicriterial Analysis
Mikołaj Bartłomiejczyk
Abstract— The issue of electric energy saving in public trans-
port is becoming the key area of interest. By improving of driving
techniques and the implementation of eco-driving, it is possible
to save electric energy. Systems that help to decrease energy
consumption and to reduce fuel emissions are becoming popular
in vehicles powered by diesel engines. However, these methods
have not yet gained popularity in electric vehicles. Therefore,
determining the impact of individual parameters on energy
consumption is a very important task. This paper presents a
novel method of analysis and optimization of electric bus driving
parameters based on measurements and the MCDA method.
I present data analysis of vehicle data logger recordings using the
most important PCA extracted factors. The influence of several
factors was estimated.
Index Terms— Trolleybuses, electric buses, emobility, ecodriv-
ing, energy savings, MCDA, PCA.
I. I NTRODUCTION
E LECTRIC buses are considered to be a promising means
of public transport for cities. They can be applied either
in the form of classic bus transport systems, using public path
roads, or high capacity Bus Rapid Transit Systems. The term
“electric bus” due to its technical solutions can have different
meanings: “standard”, stationary charged battery buses, plug-
in hybrid buses, dynamic charged battery buses or battery
hybrid trolleybuses. Moreover, in some countries, according to
the law, classic trolleybuses are called “electric buses”. In all
of the mentioned solutions, the batteries are used to power the
drive: either in whole road or on its part. The electrochemical
batteries have limited capacity. Energy consumption is one
of the main parameters impacting the vehicle’s range, thus
having utility values. Consequently, the energy consumption
in an electric bus is a key parameter from both perspectives:
the economic and the exploitation.
The traction drive supply is the feature which distinguishes
trolleybus from the electric bus. In the standard trolleybus,
Manuscript received November 2, 2017; revised April 7, 2018 and
June 6, 2018; accepted June 16, 2018. Date of publication July 12, 2018;
date of current version March 29, 2019. This work was supported in part by
the framework of the Electrification of Public Transport in Cities (ELIPTIC)
Project and in part by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Inno-
vation Programme under Grant 636012. The Associate Editor for this paper
was M. Brackstone.
The author is with the Department of Electrical Transport, Faculty
of Electrical and Control Engineering, Gdańsk University of Technology,
80-233 Gdańsk, Poland (e-mail: mikolaj.bartlomiejczyk@pg.edu.pl).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TITS.2018.2850741
1524-9050 © 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
the power source is electricity from the overhead traction
network, while the electric battery bus is powered by traction
batteries. This difference has a major impact on the supply
system and electrical equipment of the vehicle. However, from
the energy consumption perspective both types of vehicles
are very similar. They have the same vehicle weight, power
and type of the drive. Traffic conditions and the influence of
congestion are also very close. Moreover, as it was mentioned
above, there are many transitional solutions between standard
trolleybuses and stationary charged battery buses. The battery
hybrid trolleybuses and dynamic charged electric buses are an
example of those solutions. However, unlike battery buses,
trolleybuses have been used in public transport from the
beginning of the 20th century. This fact makes trolleybuses
the tool which has brought a huge source of experience to
the development of the electric transport in general. This
experience is now applied to all other types of electric buses.
A bright example of a trolleybus system that has been
operated for a long period of time is Gdynia. Gdynia is the
city with more than 250 000 inhabitants, placed on the north
side of Poland, by the Baltic Sea. At the moment there are
90 trolleybuses exploited in the city of Gdynia and Sopot
(fig. 1). The majority of vehicles are Solaris Trollino 12 M
trolleybuses, with electrical equipment manufactured by the
Polish company MEDCOM. These trolleybuses have inverter
traction propulsion with 175 kW traction motor. Trolleybuses
in Gdynia are equipped with the energy data logger system,
which records every second main electrical and mechanical
parameters of the ride. The recorded parameters include the
values of speed, traction drive current, vehicle current, and
GPS location. This has resulted in a huge database of trol-
leybuses’ energy consumption. The collected data provides
opportunities for detailed analyses. From the point of view of
mobility characteristic, trolleybuses are very similar to electric
buses. Due to this fact, the Gdynia trolleybus network can
be a perfect test ground for analysing e-mobility and energy
efficiency of e-vehicles.
Energy consumption in urban transport is a complex
process, influenced by many factors. Fig. 2 shows the his-
togram of energy consumption in trolleybus transport. The
figure is based on registrations collected from one year
period. They show the average energy consumption for traction
purposes for individual journeys of sections between final ter-
minuses (individual vehicle journeys). It must be emphasized
BARTŁOMIEJCZYK: DRIVING PERFORMANCE INDICATORS OF ELECTRIC BUS DRIVING TECHNIQUE
Fig. 1. Scheme of Gdynia trolleybus system (yellow lines).
Fig. 2. Histogram of energy consumption of trolleybus (without
recuperation).
that the extreme values differ by 70%. The value of energy
consumption has visible economic and ecological importance.
However, it is particularly important for autonomous vehicles
powered from a limited capacity storage tank (e.g. battery).
This has a major impact on the range of vehicle’s battery
power.
Energy consumption is influenced by many external factors,
such as traffic congestion, time of traffic, etc. It must be noted
that the driver is also one of the most important and influential
key factors. This is confirmed by the diagram in Fig. 3,
which compares energy consumptions of buses driven by
particular drivers on two sections. In many cases these values
are correlated (the driver has big or small energy consumption
on both sections), which can be explained by personal driver’s
behaviour and underlines the importance of driving technique.
1443
Fig. 3. Comparison of energy consumption by vehicles with different drivers
on two riding sections.
Fig. 4. Comparison of two rides by the same section in the same time.
For example, the vehicles number 3007, 3012, and 3074 are a
bright example of high energy consumption in both sections.
Contrariwise, in vehicles number 3077, 3025, 3024 the energy
consumption on Section I and Section II is low. This can partly
be explained by number of passengers in the vehicle and traffic
conditions. It is worth to mention that sections I and II are
located in different parts of the city and have different traffic
conditions. Therefore the correlation can be explained only to
a small extend. However, from the point of view of driving
technique, the maximum speed and driving dynamics are the
main factors influencing energy consumption. These factors
will be explained in Section IV.
The “eco-driving” which can also be called “economical
driving” is a so called method to limit the energy con-
sumption. In order to drive “economicaly” it is advisable to
equip vehicles with systems supporting the driving process
(drive assistance system). Such systems indicate to the driver
the errors he has made and, if needed, modify the energy
distribution inside the vehicle [1].
An example of data logger system record is given in Fig. 4,
which shows the speed and energy consumption of drive cycles
between two stops. Moreover, these records show the influ-
ence of driving parameters on traction energy consumption.
The amounts of energy consumed by the two analysed vehicles
1444 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 20, NO. 4, APRIL 2019
which overlapped the same length in the same time on the
same section differed by as much as 40 %.
II. T HE S TATE OF A RT
The instantaneous energy consumption of the electric vehi-
cle to a significant degree depends on movement parameters
and, above all, on current acceleration and speed [2], [3]. The
parameters of the route, mainly vertical slopes, also affect
the energy consumption, [4]. Modelling energy consumption
in vehicles is being the subject of many publications (and
scientific researches). In [5], an analysis of the impact of
movement parameters on the cost of driving an electric vehicle
was conducted. The model which allows to stimulate the
functioning of electric vehicle drive system was presented
in [6]. In consequence of its use as the head parameter
impacting energy consumption, an average speed of movement
was noted. A measurement analysis of energy consumption
in electric car has been presented in [7], where the driving
profile division into the so called microtrips (stages of driving
between two subsequent stops) was applied. Such an approach,
while applying linear regression, enabled the authors to elab-
orate a model to calculate energy consumption with given
parameters of movement [8] and to specify the emission of
pollution [9]. Modelling of electric vehicle energy consump-
tion by means of linear regression was also used in [3].
However, that model was focused only on two parameters of
drive style: acceleration and speed. Other studies overlooking
electric vehicles [4], [10] also define speed and acceleration
as the most important parameters.
The above quoted publications [4]–[9] are devoted to the
energy consumption of private electric vehicles (passenger
cars). However, urban public transport significantly differs
from individual car transport. The distances between stops are
at the level of 300 to 700 meters and stops at crossroads are
frequent. For this reason, short microtrips, with the length
of 200-500 meters, are dominating. This creates specific
requirements concerning eco-driving which place emphasis on
dynamic aspects of drive. Furthermore, because the periodical
nature of traffic, the relationship between average velocity and
energy consumption of buses and passenger cars may have a
different character. Due to smaller popularity of public trans-
port, publications concerning its energy intensity are relatively
rare. In [11], a measurement analysis of the impact of move-
ment parameters, based on Naive Bayes, is presented. Critical
parameters from the point of view of energy consumption have
been depicted and classified. However, that analysis concerns
combustion buses. Electric vehicles significantly differ from
them as far as energy consumption is concerned. Publications
devoted to them are relatively scarce and tend to be more of
economic analysis character than technical ones (for exam-
ple [12]). The analysis of energy consumption in an electric
bus is presented in [13]. However the analysis is relatively
general. Only the impact of average traffic speed and the type
of air conditioning devices are taken into consideration.
The issues of speed profile optimization have been repeat-
edly raised in the scope of railway vehicles [1], [14]. The sys-
tem which supports the work of train driver is based on
Fig. 5. Scheme of data analysis process.
indicating to the driver the maximum speed and suggesting
shifting to coasting drive [16]. Such a system has been imple-
mented on a wide scale in Danish trains [17]. More complex
systems include optimization of driving parameters depending
on actual delay and taking into consideration correlation of
energy consumption and duration of drive [18]. These systems
are applied in electrical railways. Unfortunately, issues related
to optimizing the parameters of non-rail urban public transport
(trolleybuses, electric buses) are still not raised to the same
degree as those of the rail transportation.
This article is targeted at filling this gap. The basic objective
is to distinguish and assess in quantitative terms the parameters
which have an impact on the energy consumption in urban,
rail-less electric traction. These parameters may be used as
a basis for training drivers and an element of eco-driving
assistance systems.
Basically, the energy consumption by an electric bus can
be obtained by use of standard cycles (SORT) in laboratory
tests or simulations. However, compared to real driving tests,
standardized driving cycle tests are insufficient. The movement
in real conditions can differ very much depending from
different routes and locations during consecutive periods of the
day. Therefore, the test results from standard driving cycles
differ from those recorded when driving in the real urban
area [3].
The final goal of this research is to develop the Driving
Assistance System which will reduce the consumption of
electric energy in an electric bus. To achieve it, it is necessary
to understand the energy consumption of electric vehicles
and investigate the factors that affect energy consumption the
most. Experimental observations of electric buses/trolleybuses
are necessary to help to understand their energy consumption
characteristics and energy efficiency.
The parameters to be analysed were selected with the use
of multiple decision analysis method, correlation analysis and
linear regression. The scheme of the data analysis process
is shown in Fig. 5. The data from on-board data loggers of
BARTŁOMIEJCZYK: DRIVING PERFORMANCE INDICATORS OF ELECTRIC BUS DRIVING TECHNIQUE
Fig. 6. Typical cycles of electric vehicle drive a) with maintaining constant
speed b) coasting drive.
trolleybuses exploited in Gdynia have been used. Based on
the movement cycle analysis (Chapter III) and behavioural
analysis (Chapter IV), the Drive style Performance Indicators
are chosen in Chapter V. Chapter VI presents the PCA and
Linear regression methods. In Chapter VII, the data analysis
is performed and some key parameters for energy-related
assessment are selected. As a first step of data processing,
the preliminary data analysis was realized (Fig. 6). The most
important Performance Indicators were selected using the PCA
method. In the last part of the analysis, the importance of the
selected indicators was estimated by the linear regression.
III. C YCLE OF E LECTRIC D RIVE OF ROAD V EHICLES
A drive of length between two subsequent stops of the
vehicle, which can be called “microtrip”, may occur in several
variants [19], [20]:
• Drive with constant speed in cycle: start-up, drive with
established speed, a relatively long period of time coast-
ing and braking. This is how trains move in a long-
distance train traffic (with large distances between stops)
(fig. 6a);
• Coasting drive, thus in cycle: start-up, drive with rela-
tively long coasting and braking. This is a way of driving
which is beneficial from energy perspective. It is applied
in suburban rail communication or subway (fig. 6b);
• Forced drive, where only the phases of start-up and
braking occur. It is applied in case of the necessity of
minimizing the drive time, at short distances between
stops (urban traffic).
Unlike rail vehicles, electric buses are not normally
equipped with separate traffic lanes and move on regular
roads along with other road vehicles. Thus, the factor which
determines the movement of a vehicle is the impact on other
road traffic participants. Furthermore, the number of speed
limits in road traffic is larger than in case of rail traction.
For this reason, driving cycles are often a combination of
elementary cycles shown in Figure 6.
1445
IV. D RIVE S TYLE P ERFORMANCE I NDICATORS
Considering physical nature of the movement process,
the critical parameters are: maximum speed, acceleration,
and coasting distance [21]. However, from a behavioural
point of view, other subjective factors, which may have an
indirect effect on energy consumption, are involved in the
process. Speed, acceleration and coasting are important from
a theoretical point of view, but in practical execution, more
descriptive factors are also to be considered. The driver is a
human being who has the ability to see the world subjectively.
This factor naturally leads to the fact that each driver has
his own unique driving technique. It is therefore necessary to
identify factors, the use of which depends on driver’s driving
technique. In [22], 6 main factors which affect the energy
consumption of electrical vehicle are defined:
1) length of microtrips,
2) speed oscillation,
3) speed,
4) intensity of acceleration/deceleration,
5) share of acceleration time,
6) share of deceleration time.
The first factor applies mainly to individual passenger trans-
port vehicles. The movement of public transport vehicles is
characterized by the predetermined periodicity (mainly stops),
therefore the length of microtrips is minimally dependent on
the driver. The speed oscillation is a parameter which applies
mainly for individual transportation. In the case of urban bus
system, the length of microtrips is 300 - 500 m and consists
mainly of accelerations and decelerations. This makes the
potential time of speed oscillation minimal and reduces its
importance.
The above listed 6 main factors can be expressed by several
detailed driving patterns [23], [24]. The speed can be reflected
by maximal and average value. The character of acceleration
(parameters 4 and 5) can also be expressed by maximal and
average value. Braking can be described in the same way
as starting [22], [23]. However, in practice its character is
different, as the braking performance is influenced greater
by external conditions and safety aspects. Therefore, it is
better to express it in a simplified way using the braking
speed.
In the case of electric public transport vehicles, in addition
to the above listed factors, the dynamics of traffic is an impor-
tant parameter influencing the energy consumption. While
in the case of passenger cars, a soft ride is recommended,
dynamic driving is recommended for electric buses or trol-
leybuses [25], [26]. Thus, from the point of view of energy
balance [19], [20], it is the distance on which the electric drive
system is used, which has the impact on energy consumption.
This distance is also known as (can be also called) the length
of drive section or traction distance. Due to the periodic nature
of vehicle traffic in public transport, it can be expressed by
a value related to the length of the driving cycle. Moreover,
in the case of electric vehicles, from the energy consump-
tion minimization perspective, it is advised to use coasting
(Fig. 6) [20], [25], [26]. For this reason, this parameter should
also be included as driving pattern parameter.
1446 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 20, NO. 4, APRIL 2019
TABLE I
I NTERPRETATION OF I NDIVIDUAL D RIVE PARAMETERS -
O RGANIZATIONAL , F UNCTIONAL , T ECHNICAL
AND B EHAVIOURAL A SPECTS
Table 1 presents selected parameters, with their interpre-
tation from behavioural-functional point of view. A detailed
description of these parameters is given in the next Chapter.
V. D ESCRIPTION OF D RIVE S TYLE
P ERFORMANCE I NDICATORS
A. Time of Drive
Time of drive is a key parameter from the perspective
of organization of work of the transportation system, since
it determines the schedule of drive and thus, the necessary
number of vehicles and other elements. Furthermore, the time
of drive is the key parameter of assessment from the point of
view of users (passengers). The impact of the drive time value
on the consumption of energy occurs indirectly, through the
impact on the speed of movement. Decreasing the time of drive
normally requires increasing the speed and thus, an increase
of energy consumption.
B. Maximum Speed of Drive
Energy consumption in the movement is to a large extent a
function of vehicle speed, which affects the energy consump-
tion in a double-sided way:
• Through kinetic energy which the vehicle must reach,
• Through the value of aero dynamic resistance.
In urban traffic conditions, the basic impact is due to
the first factor, that is the necessity of providing a vehicle
with kinetic energy. According to the principles of classical
mechanics value of kinetic energy is proportional to the square
of speed. The speed of movement is a basic parameter from the
perspective of organization and operations of transport system,
since on the one hand it is strongly dependent on movement
restrains, while on the other hand it affects the time of drive.
C. Average Value of Speed of Drive
The average value of speed is strongly dependent on the
maximum value. However, the relation between them may
differ depending on the dynamics of drive and the shape of
speed profile. The average speed is thus a key element from
the movement point of view, since this parameter expresses
the functionality of a given means of transport.
D. Average Value of Speed During Braking Time
The main source of losses in the cycle of drive is the
braking loss. This braking loss is basically the kinetic energy
of the vehicle which is to be absorbed by the braking system.
Therefore, it is possible to reduce the braking loss by limit
the energy intensity. In order to reach it, the longest distance
of coasting drive is advised (reduction of braking speed).
E. Average and Maximum Value of Acceleration
Acceleration is one of the simplest way to express the
dynamics of drive. Due to the impact of external factors,
as a result of urban traffic, the shape of the real speed profile
differs from the perfect course consisting in start-up, coasting
and braking. The value of acceleration is not constant in
the start-up phase. For this reason, the following estimators
expressing the value of acceleration in the drive cycle can be
named:
• maximum instantaneous value of acceleration,
• average value of acceleration,
• total value of acceleration.
During the drive cycle, the speed of drive varies practically
at all times. Slight changes of speed which are not related
to purposeful acceleration and they can cause deformation
of the estimated value. Therefore the average acceleration
value is calculated using the instantaneous values which are
larger than 0,2 m/s2 . Whilst, the total value of acceleration is
specified as the relation of maximum speed during the drive
cycle and the time of its reaching from the initial start-up
moment.
F. Length of Coasting
Coasting drive is the movement without participation of
drive force. During this drive the kinetic energy of the vehicle
is converted into loss caused by movement resistance. For this
reason, the coasting drive is an economic way of moving,
since it takes place using the collected kinetic energy. The
length of coasting drive depends on movement acceleration
and braking; greater acceleration allows the target speed to be
reached faster, with further continuation of coasting.
G. Relative Length of Drive Section
The length of drive section is the distance in which the
drive system is enclosed. Based on movement equations, it can
be concluded that the length of drive section is the factor
which has direct impact on energy intensity of movement.
This parameter is also used to assess driver’s work; therefore,
it may be used as a performance indicator.
It must be underlined that the impacts of individual para-
meters are different and are also dependant from the value
of other parameters. Figure 7 shows a diagram of relations
between movement parameters of the vehicle. In the diagram,
factors like maximum speed, braking speed, and length of
drive phase, etc can be distinguished. These factors have direct
impact resulting from the movement equations. There are also
parameters that have indirect effect on the braking speed:
acceleration, which affects the value of maximum speed and
the distance of drive phase, as well as the length of coasting
drive.
BARTŁOMIEJCZYK: DRIVING PERFORMANCE INDICATORS OF ELECTRIC BUS DRIVING TECHNIQUE
Fig. 7. Diagram of factors describing the vehicle movement. Solid line marks
direct impact and dashed line marks indirect impact.
TABLE II
T HE VALUES OF P RINCIPAL C OMPONENT C OEFFICIENTS
VI. M ETHODS
The random character of vehicle traffic requires the use of
statistical data analysis methods to examine relations between
motor parameters. The study of the impact of traffic parameters
on energy intensity was based on registrations made in vehicles
which operate in the Gdynia trolleybus network. The analysis
of measurement data was carried out in two stages. Firstly,
the factors that have the greatest impact on energy consump-
tion during the movement of the electric vehicle were defined
using the PCA method. Then, to express the quantitative
impact of chosen parameters, the analysis of variance by
means of linear regression was performed.
A. Principal Component Analysis
In physical systems, the course of the process may be
described by means of numerous variables. In many cases a
correlation between individual variables occurs, which allows
to eliminate part of variables whilst solely a slight loss of vari-
ance. Reduction of the number of variables allows to simplify
the process description and its easier interpretation. A method
to limit the number of variables is the principal component
analysis (PCA). Within this method, it is possible to organize
the selected drive parameters (Table II) and to appoint key
parameters having critical impact on energy consumption.
The subject of PCA is the analysis based on transformation
of input and output data matrices. Let us assume that the entry
data (observations) are described in the form of matrices Z0 :
Z 0 ∈ Rm x n (1)
where:
m - number of cases
n - number of variables
The PCA method consists in transferring the observable
variables into new, not observable and thus non-correlated
1447
variables called principal components (PC) [27]. The key
components are indicated in such a way that the variances
of individual, subsequent principal components, being the
measure of their information potential, become smaller and
smaller. At the same time, the sum of variances of all PCs
is equal to the sum of variances of entry variables, for the
resources not to change as a result of information transfer.
However, in many situations the majority of information is
transferred by several first PCs. The concept of the PCA
method may be presented by means of correlation:
Z = WF (2)
where:
Z - standardized observation matrix Z0 (zero average value
and unit variance)
W - matrix of principal loads,
F - matrix of principal components (PC).
It is assumed that the searched principal components (PC)
are independent. This means meeting the condition:
wlT wl = 0, l , l = 1, 2, . . . ., 2; l = l (3)
Elements of the matrix of principal components (PC) are
indicated on the basis of the correlation matrix R:
ZT Z
R= (4)
n−1
The eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , . . . ., λn , (λ1 ≥ λ2 ≥, . . . ., ≥ λn ≥ 0),
are obtained as a result of decomposition of matrix R into
eigenvalues.
B. Linear Regression
The measure of the information content of measurement
data can be expressed by the variation range. The influence
of the energy consumption parameters determined in the
previous chapter can be quantified by the degree of variation
explanation through individual input parameters. This can be
achieved by means of linear regression.
The essence of linear regression is to study the relation-
ship between input and output data. Let us assume that
we have a process described by means of the exit variable
Y (y1 , y2 , . . . ., yn ) and entry variable X (x 1 , x 2 , . . . ., x n ).
A necessity may then arise to find the relation between
variables Y and X and estimate the exit values for any other
entry values [21].
Linear regression is a method of estimating the value of
expected variable y, which is a function of one or many vari-
ables x. Variable y is called the response variable or dependent
variable, while variable x is referred to as the explanatory
variable or independent variable. In the case of a single
independent variable the task consists in constructing the
straight line
y =ax +b (5)
The values of coefficients a and b are determined in a
manner which minimizes the sum S:
n  2 n
S (a, b) = yi − y  i = (yi − (ax + b))2 (6)
i=1 i=1
where y  means the values calculated according to (2).
1448 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 20, NO. 4, APRIL 2019

The values of coefficients a and b can be determined using

the following relations:
n
n  
 2 i=1 (x i − x̄ i ) (yi − ȳi )
a= yi − yi = n (7)
i=1 (x i − x¯i )
i=1 2

b = ȳ − a x̄ (8)

Let us move to the main reason of use of the linear

regression, which is explanation of data variation. We may
define the so-called sum of squares SST (total sum of squares)
as:
n
SST = (yi − ȳ)2 (9)
i=1

which presents the information on total variable Y - the Fig. 8. Relative number of cycles of given length in urban motion and
measure of total variation. This variable may be saved as the corresponding total relative use of energy.
sum:
n  2 n   2
SST = yi − yi − yi − ȳ = SSE + SSR (10)
i=1 i=1

Now, we can define two new variables:

n  2
SSE = yi − yi (11)
i=1
n  2
SSR = − yi − ȳ (12)
i=1

after which Equation (10) can be expressed as:

SST = SSE + SSR (13)

where:
SSE- error sum of squares, which indicates the variable
not explained by the model and expresses the amount of the
information resource that is not explained by the model.
SSR- regression sum of squares, which indicates the vari-
ability explained by the model and expresses the amount of
the information resource that is explained by the model.
We may thus define the coefficient r 2 which indicates a
degree of explaining the variability through the regression
model:
SSR variability explained by the model
r2 = = (14)
SST overall variability
This coefficient carries the information to which degree the
model of linear regression reflects the variability of data in
the model process. In other words, it quantifies the degree
of dependence of energy consumption on the chosen input
parameters. It may thus be used as an indicator of the impact
of independent value on the variability of dependent value.
VII. R ESULTS
Chapters III - V presented the analysis of theoretical factors.
This Chapter provides the preliminary and main analysis
based on measurement data. The preliminary analysis presents
general relationships between parameters of motion under real
conditions, while in the main analysis, key parameters are
identified and quantified in terms of quality using the PCA
method.
Fig. 9. Average and maximum values of speed as function of driving cycle
length.
A. Initial Analysis of Movement Energy Intensity
The analysed data were obtained from on-board registers of
trolleybus drive parameters. They had been registered in the
scheduled linear traffic with passengers during the period of
two weeks. For calculation purposes, all single drives were
specified between two subsequent stops with the length of at
least 100 meters. For each drive the following parameters were
calculated:
• length of driven distance,
• energy used for traction purposes,
• maximum instantaneous speed,
• average speed.
The figure 8 shows the relation between the length of
driving cycle (micro trip) and its participation in overall
number of micro trips and energy consumption. The largest
energy consumption is related to drives with length from
350 to 550 meters (53%). With further increase of the drive
distance to above 600 meters, the maximum speed reaches the
range of 50 km/h and is practically fixed, which stems from the
provisions of traffic law. Figure 9 presents the relation between
the length of driving cycle and speed values. A decrease
of energy use, caused by smaller number of stops, is then
noticeable. This is also visible in the correlation range of unit
energy intensity, defined as the use of energy calculated per
BARTŁOMIEJCZYK: DRIVING PERFORMANCE INDICATORS OF ELECTRIC BUS DRIVING TECHNIQUE
Fig. 10. Linear correlation coefficient and regression coefficient r 2 between
maximum speed of cycle and energy use as functions of driving cycle length.
Fig. 11. Diagram of eigenvalues.
1 km as the function of distance between stops. For distances
above 600 m, the unit use is maintained on a constant level,
since the increase of the distance between stops causes the
decrease of energy use related to subsequent drive and braking.
It results in decrease of losses in braking system, while, on the
other hand, the maximum speed of movement increases.
To present the effect of maximum speed of drive on energy
use is one of the most important goals of the presented
analyses. This effect be expressed by a degree of linear
correlation or the value of coefficient r 2 in the linear regression
model. The correlations of these values and the distance of
drive are given in Fig. 10. For small distances of drive,
the impact of maximum speed on the use of energy is rather
high. With the increase of drive length, the losses which are
independent from rolling speed resistance increase. As a result
of it, the influence of speed on energy use decreases. In the
case of longer distances, above 800 meters, this effect is
insignificant.
B. Selecting Principal Parameters of Drive
In the conducted analysis the data stored in on-board data
loggers of trolleybuses were used. As representative, micro-
drives with lengths from 350 meters to 500 meters were
accepted, since they correspond to the largest consumption
of energy on a global scale (Fig. 8). The calculations were
made in the programme STATISTICA. Figure 11 presents
1449
Fig. 12. Configuration of points representing principal component coefficients
in the system of two first factor axes.
the diagram of eigenvalues, that is the values of information
resources of individual PCs. As in can be noticed, the first
three PCs carry over 80% of total information resource, there-
fore, they will be accepted for further analysis. Table 2 presents
the results of PCA analysis for nine selected parameters
of drive and three first PC information resources, while
Fig. 12 presents graphic representation of compactness of
PC1 and PC2.
On the basis of the conducted analysis the following inter-
pretation of individual PCs can be made:
• PC1 presents parameters of movement related to the
speed of movement. In the further analysis it will be
represented by maximum value of speed v max ,
• PC2 presents the dynamics of vehicle movement (accel-
eration parameters). In the further analysis it will be
represented by value of acceleration a1 ,
• PC3 reflects the length of coasting drive c.
Fig. 13 presents the representation of individual micro-drives
as functions of factors PC1 and PC2. The micro-drives are
numbered in the order of increase of energy use, larger number
of drive corresponds to larger energy use. The increase of the
compound value of PC indicates the increase of energy use.
Thus the most energy saving drives are grouped in the lower
left parts of the chart. These drives (i.e. No. 1,2,3,6) may be
considered as referential and exemplary for the purposes of
driver training.
A subsequent stage of tests is quantitative definition of
the individual basic drive parameters meaning (v max , a1 , c).
Table 3 presents the results of calculations of the linear corre-
lation coefficient and the degree of explaining the variability
by the regression model r 2 . The majority of energy use
variabilities is explained by the value of maximum speed v max .
The remaining two parameters, acceleration a1 and length of
coasting drive c, play a supplementary role in explaining the
energy consumption.
1450 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 20, NO. 4, APRIL 2019
TABLE III
VALUES OF C ORRELATION C OEFFICIENT AND D EGREE OF E XPLAINING
R2 OF L INEAR R EGRESSION FOR BASIC D RIVE PARAMETERS
Fig. 13. Diagram of points representing several microtrips in the system of
two first factor axes.
Fig. 14. Graph of energy consumption value as function of maximal speed
and coasting distance.
Qualitative illustration of the maximum speed and length
of coasting drive impact is presented in Fig. 14. It confirms
the nature of correlation indicated on the basis of the linear
regression model. The use of energy in the highest degree
depends on the value of maximum speed. The impact of
length of coasting drive is most visible in the range of
smallest lengths, upon the decrease of length of coasting below
100 meters a rapid increase of energy use is visible.
VIII. D ISCUSSION
It is highly recommended for the systems of driver support
to be based on measurement and tracking of maximum value
of speed. One of the possibilities to indicate the referential
value of speed is to do it by the transport system operator
through the vehicle movement test.
The system of driver support must be based on measurement
and tracking of maximum value of speed. The referential value
of speed may be indicated on the basis of vehicle movement
tests, conducted, for instance, by the operator of transport
system. When training drivers, emphasis is to be placed on
making them aware of the importance of limiting speed in
traffic and, above all, on avoiding unnecessary significant
speeding up and directly afterwards - braking. As proven by
statistics, the main error made by drivers is that they gain speed
too slowly, as a consequence of which a significant speed is to
be reached in order to reach the designated time frame. This
induces further high-speed braking, with no use of coasting
drive. In cases when the bus moves with higher speed than that
defined by the timetable, its motion should be first adjusted by
decreasing the drive speed, and only then, in the subsequent
order, by extending stopping times at bus stops.
Therefore, in order to additionally inform the driver about
the recommended drive speed, the system which combines
the information system with the system of driver’s support,
becomes a reasonable and innovative solution.
IX. C ONCLUSIONS
The system of driver support ought to be based on measure-
ment and tracking of maximum value of speed. The referential
value of speed may be indicated on the basis of vehicle
movement tests, conducted, for instance, by the operator of
transport system. When training drivers, emphasis is to be
placed on limiting speed in traffic and, above all, on avoiding
unnecessary significant speeding up and directly afterwards-
braking. As proven by statistics, the main error made by
drivers is that they gain speed too slowly, as a consequence
of which a significant speed is to be reached in order to reach
the designated time frame. This induces further high-speed
braking, with no use of coasting drive. In cases when the bus
moves with higher speed than that defined by the timetable,
its motion should be first adjusted by decreasing the drive
speed, and only then, in the subsequent order, by extending
stopping times at bus stops. It seems reasonable to combine
the information system with the system of driver’s support,
since such a system could additionally inform the driver of
the recommended drive speed.
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Mikołaj Bartłomiejczyk was born in Gdańsk,
Poland, in 1983. He received the degree and the
Ph.D. degree from the Faculty of Electrical and
Control Engineering, Gdańsk University of Technol-
ogy, in 2007 and 2011, respectively. From 2012 to
2014, he held science internship positions at Zilina,
Slovakia; Ostrava, Czech Republic; and Rostov on
Don, Russia. His current research interests include
the issues of transportation system energy supply,
reducing of energy consumption in public transporta-
tion, autonomous electric vehicles, and ecodriving.