UNIT NO : 2ND HUMAN REPRODUCTION

TOPIC : REVIEW OF ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY OF HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM: MALE AND FEMALE

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CONTACT OUTLINE:

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 EMBRYOLOGY

Definition of embryology
:

Embryological development can be divided into 3 main stages:

1. Early Development (1st to 3rd week): Fertilisation, Implantation,

Gastrulation
2. Embryonic Period (4th to 8th week): Differentiation,
Organogenesis
3. Fetal Period (9th week to 9th month): Growth and Specialisation of
The fetus

1. Early development

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 Trophoblast
(Outer cell mass)

ele A Blastocyst
y)
Week 1:

Once the ovum has been fertilized by the spermatozoon, a zygote

(single cell) is formed. This undergoes a rapid succession of mitotic
divisions (cleavage) without an increase in size, forming blastomeres,
and eventually a morula (12-32 blastomeres).

 A hollow cavity (blastocoele) forms at around day 3, marking

the blastocyst stage.
 The centrally placed cells are called inner cell mass (embryonic
pole, or embryonic stem cells) and ultimately form tissues of the
embryo (embryoblast).
 The outer cells, called the outer cell mass, form the trophoblast,
which plays an important role in the formation of the placenta
and the embryonic membranes.

 At around days 5-6, implantation of the blastocyst on the

endometrial lining of the uterus occurs.

Ectopic Pregnancy:

An ectopic pregnancy is a complication of pregnancy in which the

fertilized ovum is implanted in any other tissue other than the uterine
wall. Most ectopic pregnancies occur in the Fallopian tubes (tubal
pregnancy), but implantation can also occur in the cervix (placenta
Previa), ovaries, internal os, or abdominal cavity. The fetus produces
enzymes that allow it to implant in varied types of tissues, and thus an

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 Syncytiotrophoblast

Amniotic cavity

Primitive yolk sac

Cytotrophoblast
embryo implanted elsewhere than the uterus can cause great tissue
damage in its efforts to reach a sufficient supply of blood.

Week 2:

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Trophoblast cells surrounding the embryonic cells proliferate and
invade deeper into the uterine lining.

Differentiation of the cell masses occur:

- Embryoblast differentiates to form the epiblast and hypoblast.

- Trophoblast cells

Movement of the hypoblast laterally and downwards forms the

primitive yolk sac; and the amniotic cavity, between the epiblast and
amnioblast occurs.

Week 3:

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As growth proceeds, the embryonic disc becomes pear-
shaped, and a narrow streak appears on its dorsal surface
formed of ectoderm, called the primitive streak. The further
proliferation of the cells of the primitive streak forms a layer
of cells that will extend between the ectoderm and the
endoderm to form the mesoderm.

Further thickiening of the ectoderm gives rise to the neural

plate on the dorsal surface of the embryo. The plate sinkw
beneath the surface of the embryo to form the neural tube,
which ultimately gives rise to the CNS.

A notochord, derived from mesoderm, forms in the center of

the embryonic disc and on the ventral surface of the neural
tube. This notochord will eventually develop to form the
vertebral column.

The primitive yolk sac becomes modified to become the

secondary yolk sac, while a chorionic cavity develops
between the 2 layers of mesoderm. Eventually, the placenta
develops.

2. Embryonic Period:

A
 Yolk sac
Amniotic cavity
A

Y A

The initially flat embryonic disc develops into a “C-shaped”

cylindrical structure. Cephalocaudal flexion (in the longitudinal
direction) and lateral folding (in the transversal folding) occur
simultaneously, forming the abdominal wall, permitting a delimitation
of the embryo. This also leads to enclosure of mesoderm and
endoderm by the ectoderm, which later forms the epidermis.

Derivatives of the Germ layers

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 Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm
Epidermis: Connective Tissue, Epithelium of
Hair, Nails, Cartilage, Bones and Digestive tube:
Sebaceous Glands Joints Foregut, Midgut,
Hindgut
CNS: Brain and Walls of Heart Parenchyma of
Spinal Cord Digestive tube:
PNS Muscles: Tonsil, Thyroid,
Smooth, Striated and Parathyroids,
Cardiac Thymus, Liver,
Sensory epithelium of Urogenital System: Pancreas
sense organs Kidneys, Gonads and
Inner ear their Ducts, Epithelium of
Suprarenal Cortex Respiratory Tract:
Eye (lens) Mesothelium (Serous Lungs
Pituitary gland membranes): Pleura, Middle Ear
(hypophysis) Pericardium, (Tympanic Cavity
Teeth (enamel) Peritoneum and Eustachian tube)
Epithelium of some Blood and Lymph Part of Bladder and
organs cells Urethra

3. Fetal Period:
The foetal period (9th week to 9th month) is about continued
differentiation of organs and tissues, most importantly this period is
about growth both in size and weight.

Organogenesis:

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- Early development: Any organ develops from a primordium
(bud) derived from one or more germ layers found in the germ disc
during early development.
- Embryonic period: After folding is completed, the primordial of
many organs become easily recognizable as a simple shape.
Primordium undergoes changes in shape, size and site to become
anatomically recognizable.
- Fetal period: Differentiation of cells in the developing organ
into specific cell types help with maturation whereby the organ
becomes capable of normal function.

Development of the Lungs and Pleura:

Germ layer:
- Lungs: Endoderm – Ventral wall of primitive foregut
- Pleura: Mesoderm surrounding diverticulum
Primordium: Laryngotracheal diverticulum

Esophageal atresia and Tracheoesophageal Fistula

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Atresia is a condition where the laryngotracheal septum formed by
fusion of the laryngotracheal ridges are deviated posteriorly, resulting
in a reduced lumen diameter; while a fistula results when the margins
of the laryngotracheal ridges fail to fuse adequately, resulting in an
abnormal opening left between the laryngotracheal tube and the
esophagus. Newborn infants with these malfunctions cough and choke
during eating due to aspiration of food and saliva into lungs due to
blocked esophagus, and may result in pneumonia.
Development of the Diaphragm

Germ Layer:
Mesoderm formed in neck by fusion of myotomes of 3rd, 4th and 5th
cervical segments. Hence, the diaphragm’s nerve supply is derived
from the phrenic nerve (C3, C4, C5).
Primordium: Septum Transversum – An incomplete mesodermal
partition on ventral aspect of embryo caudal to developing heart. The
incompleteness is due to 2 pleuroperitoneal canals dorsal to it (one on
each side) which allows communication between the pleural and
peritoneal cavities.

The diaphragm is formed from:

1. Septum Transversum: Forms the muscle and central tendon
2. Pleuroperitoneal membranes: Forms peripheral areas of
diaphragmatic pleura and peritoneum covering its upper and lower
surfaces
3. Dorsal meso-esophagus: Forms crura

Development
1. Pleuroperitoneal folds develop from the dorsolateral body wall
growing ventromedially to fuse with the septum transversum and
the dorsal meso-oesophagus, thereby forming the pleuroperitoneal
membranes. This effectively closes the pleuroperitoneal canals.
2. The developing lungs growing caudally (especially at the
periphery) helps add the peripheral portions of the diaphragm from
the body wall, as well as create the dome shape. Hence, the
periphery of the diaphragm shares nerve supply with the thoracic
nerves.

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3. Progressive caudal migration of the diaphragm results in the
phrenic nerve taking a course more in line with the body axis.

Diaphragmatic Hernia:

Congenital hernia can occur as the result of incomplete fusion of the 3

components. Abdominal contents can then be pushed up through the
hiatus into the thoracic cavity. The hernia occur at the following sites:
- Pleuroperitoneal canal (caused by incomplete fusion of
pleuroperitoneal folds with septum transversum)
- Opening between xiphoid and costal origins of the diaphragm
- Esophageal hiatus

Development of the Cardiovascular System

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Germ Layer: Mesoderm
Primordium: Endocardial Heart Tubes

Formation of the Heart Tube

Clusters of cells arise in the mesenchyme (mesoderm) at the cephalic

end of the embryonic disc, cephalic to the site of the developing
mouth and CNS. They form a plexus of endothelial blood vessels that
fuse to form the R. and L. endocardial tubes, which soon fuse to form
a single median endocardial tube. As the head fold of the embryo
develops, the endocardial tube and
pericardial cavity rotate on a transverse
axis through almost 180⁰ to come ventral
to the esophagus and caudal to the
developing mouth.
The heart tube starts to bulge into the
pericardial cavity. Meanwhile, the
endocardial tube becomes surrounded by a
thick layer of mesenchyme, which will
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differentiate into myocardium (cardiac muscle) and visceral layer of
the serious pericardium. The primitive heart has been established, and
the cephalic end is the arterial end and the caudal end is the venous
end. The arterial end is continuous beyond the pericardium with a
large vessel, the aortic sac.

Further development of the heart tube

The heart tube then undergoes differential expansion so that several
dilatations, separated by grooves result. From the arterial to venous
end, these dilatations are the bulbus
Development of the Atria

1.
A

trioventricular canal becomes divided into R. and L. halves by

appearance of ventral and dorsal atrioventricular cushions, which
fuse to form the septum intermedium

2. A septum primum develops from the roof of the primitive atrium

and grows down to fuse with the septum intermedium. The opening

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 between the lower edge of the septum primum and the septum
intermedium is the foramen primum.

3. Before total obliteration of the foramen primum has taken place,

degenerative changes occur in the central portion of the septum
primum, such that a foramen secundum appears, so that the atrial
chambers can communicate again.

4. A thicker septum secundum grows down from the atrial roof on the
R. side of the septum primum. The lower edge of the septum
secundum overlaps the foramen secundum in the septum primum
but does not reach the atrial floor and does not fuse with the
septum intermedium. The space between the free margin of the
septum secundum and septum primum is the foramen ovale.

5. Before birth, the foramen ovale allows oxygenated blood that has
entered the R. atrium from the IVC to pass into the L. atrium. At
birth, however, owing to the raised BP in the R. atrium, the septum
primum is pressed against the septum secundum and fuses with it,
and the foramen ovale is closed, separating the atria. The lower
edge of the septum secundum seen in the R. atrium becomes the
annulus ovalis, and the depression below this is the fossa ovalis.
The R. and L. auricles later develop as small diverticula from the
R. and L. atria.

Development of the Ventricles

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1. A muscular ventricular septum projects upward from the floor of
the primitive ventricle. The space bounded by the upper edge of the
septum and the septum intermedium is the interventricular
foramen.
2. Bulbar ridges (spiral endocardial thickenings) appear in the distal
part of the bulbus cordis grow and fuse to form a spiral
aorticopulmonary septum. The proliferation of bulbar edges and
septum intermedium results in the closure of the interventricular
foramen.
3. The aorticopulmonary septum grows down and fuses with the
upper edge of the muscular ventricular septum to form the
membranous part of the septum. This effectively shuts off
interventricular communication; while ensuring R. ventricular
communication with the pulmonary trunk and L. ventricular
communication with the aorta.

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The truncus arteriosus (distal part of bulbus cordis) is divided by the
spiral aorticopulmonary septum to form the roots and proximal
portions of the aorta and pulmonary trunk. The proximal portion of
the bulbus cordis becomes incorporated into the R. ventricle as the
conus arteriosus/infundibulum; and into the L. ventricle as the aortic
vestibule. Two coronary arteries arise just distal to the aortic valves.

Atrial Septal Defects

In 25% of hearts, the foramen ovale persists. Oxygenated blood from
the L. atrium passes over the R. atrium, decreasing the efficiency of
circulation.

Ventricular Septal Defects

This occurs when the fusion between the membranous and muscular
parts of the ventricular septum is incomplete. Blood under high
pressure passes through the defect from L. to R., causing enlargement
of the R. ventricle.

Tetralogy of Fallot
This occurs when the bulbar ridges fail to fuse correctly to form the
aorticopulmonary septum, resulting in unequal division of the bulbus
cordis, and consequent narrowing of the pulmonary trunk resulting in
interference with R. ventricular outflow. The anatomic abnormalities
include large ventricular septal defect; stenosis of pulmonary trunk;
exit of aorta immediately above the ventricular septal defect; and
severe hypertrophy of the R. ventricle.

Development of the GIT

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The components of the GIT develop from the primitive gut which is
an endodermal tube surrounded by mesoderm resulting from folding
of the trilaminar germ disc.
- Endoderm: Gives rise to lining epithelium and parenchyma of
glands in the form of tubular outgrowths (e.g. liver, pancreas)
- (Splanchnic) Mesoderm: Differentiates into muscular wall (typical
4 layers), blood vessels and connective tissue in gut wall.

The 3 main subdivisions, from cranial to caudal, are foregut, midgut

(opposite yolk sac) and hindgut.

Most of the primitive have a dorsal mesentery (mesogastrium,

mesentery, mesocolon). From the dorsal aorta in the midline, 3 main
branches of arteries (celiac, sup. mesenteric, inf. mesenteric) run
down the mesentery to supply the foregut, midgut and hindgut
respectively. A ventral mesentery mostly disappears soon after
formation, except in relation to the stomach and liver.

Development of the Stomach

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Germ layer:
- Stomach Walls: Endoderm of primitive foregut
- Greater momentum: Mesoderm – Dorsal and Ventral Mesentery
Primordium: Fusiform swelling (dilatation in caudal part of foregut,
dorsal to septum transversum)

1. With growth of the foregut, the primitive stomach grows caudally

into the abdominal cavity and acquires a ventral mesogastrium.
Insufficient movement may result in a hernia.

2. Besides showing increased growth over the dorsal aspect, the

stomach undergoes rotation through a longitudinal axis resulting in
a change of position of the closely related vagus nerves. Rotation
through a ventrodorsal axis moves the caudal end (pylorus) of the
stomach to the right. The L. vagus nerve now lies on the anterior
surface of the stomach. Excessive development of muscle in the
pylorus results in hypertrophic pyloric stenosis where food is
unable to leave the stomach, leading to projectile vomiting.

3. The dorsal mesogastrium grows and projects ‘sac-like’ towards the

left-side and helps form the lesser sac of the peritoneal cavity and
the greater omentum in its caudal part.

4. Portions of the dorsal mesogastriun (cranial part) depending on

their connections are referred to as the gastrosplenic and
splenorenal ligaments.

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Development of Liver

Germ Layer: Endoderm of distal end of ventral foregut

Primordium: Liver Diverticulum (Hepatic bud)

1. The liver diverticulum appears on the ventral side of the foregut

just caudal to the septum transversum. It forms the gall bladder
component (cystic) caudally and the liver (hepatic) component
cranially.
2. The hepatic part grows into the septum transversum and divides in
a dichotomous fashion repeatedly. The terminal (distal) parts of
this branching system differentiate into the hepatocytes, which
secrete bile into the more proximal parts which will form the bile
ducts.
3. As the liver becomes too large for the septum transversum, it
grows out caudally into the abdominal cavity and separates the
ventral mesogastrium into the falciform ligament and the lesser
omentum.

Biliary Atresia
Failure of the bile ducts to canalize during development causes atresia
(lack of a lumen). Jaundice soon appears after birth; clay-coloured
stools and very dark coloured urine is produced.

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Development of the Pancreas:

Germ layer: Endoderm of the caudal end of the dorsal and ventral
foregut
Primordia: Dorsal and Ventral Diverticula
- The ventral diverticulum which appears immediately caudal to the
liver diverticulum.
- The dorsal diverticulum is located slightly cranial to the ventral
diverticulum.

1. Both diverticula grow and branch repeatedly to give rise to

glandular portions more distally and ducts more proximally to the
gut. The endocrine portions arise from the most peripheral
branches by budding off.
2. The ventral pancreas, with its duct and the common bile duct
associated with it, migrates around the right side of the duodenal
loop to a position on the concave aspect of the duodenum just
caudal to the dorsal pancreas. Hence, the duct of the ventral
pancreas opens into the duodenum just below that of the dorsal
pancreas.
3. The common bile duct is brought to the R. side of the duodenum
by this migration. When the duodenum turns to the right to become
retroperitoneal, the common bile duct lies posterior to the proximal
part of the duodenum. This also explains why the ventral pancreas
lies posterior to the sup. mesenteric artery.
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4. The ducts of the 2 glands become connected and the final main
pancreatic duct is derived from the proximal ventral and distal
dorsal pancreatic ducts and the connecting portion. The proximal
dorsal pancreatic duct remains as the accessory pancreatic duct.

The

duodenum develops from the caudal end of the foregut as well as the
cranial-most part of the midgut; hence its blood supply is from both
the celiac trunk (splenic artery and hepatic artery --- sup.
pancreaticoduodenal branch) and the sup. mesenteric artery (inf.
pancreaticoduodenal branch)

Development of the Kidney

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Germ layer: Intermediate mesoderm along posterior wall of
abdominal cavity
Primordium: Metanephric diverticulum and mesonephric mass

The

kidney develops from 3 different, slightly overlapping systems (from

cranial to caudal):
- Pronephros: Rudimentary and non-functional. Consist of 7-10 solid
cell groups in the cervical region and forms nephrotomes (vestigial
excretory units) at the beginning of the 4th week. Earlier groups of
cells regress before more caudal groups are formed. By the end of
the 4th week, the pronephros disappears.

- Mesonephros: Functions for a short time in early foetal life. The

mesonephros and mesonephric ducts are derived from the upper
thoracic to upper lumbar (L3) segments. In the middle of the 2nd
month, the mesonephros forms a large ovoid organ on each side of
the midline (with the developing gonad lying on the medial side).
o Nephrons (the excretory system) develop from the
metanephric mesoderm in a similar way as the mesonephric

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 system. The mesodermal intermediate cell mass of the
lower lumbar and sacral regions develops into the
metanephric tissue cap. Upon contact with the elongating
ureteric bud, it is induced to condense around the ureteric
bud, forming small renal vesicles, and becoming comma-
shaped bodies, followed by S-shaped bodies, and finally
metanephric tubules.
 The proximal end forms the Bowman’s capsule, which
is deeply indented by glomerulus
 The distal end is in open connection with collecting
tubules.
 As the nephron lengthens, the PCT, DCT, and LoH
develops.

There is no increase in number of nephrons post-natally. The

kidneys were lobulated at birth, but the lobulation disappears
with growth of nephrons.

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Ectopic/Pelvic Kidney
The kidney is arrested in some part of its normal ascent and usually
found at the pelvic brim. Such a kidney may present with no signs or
symptoms and may function normally. However, should it be
inflamed, it may, because of its unusual position, give rise to a
mistaken diagnosis.

Horseshoe Kidney
This condition is the result of the fusion of
the caudal ends of both kidneys as they
develop. Both kidneys commence to ascend
from the pelvis, but the interconnecting
bridge becomes trapped behind the inf.
mesenteric artery so that the kidneys come to
rest in the low lumbar region. Both ureters
are kinked as they pass inferiorly over the bridge of renal tissue,
producing urinary stasis, which may result in infection and stone
formation. Surgical division of the bridge corrects the condition.

Duplications of urinary tract / Double Pelvis /

Bifid ureter
Double pelvis of the ureter is usually unilateral.
The upper pelvis is small and drains the upper
group of calyces; the larger lower pelvis drains
the middle and lower groups of calyces. This
cause is a premature division of the ureteric bud
near its termination. In bifid ureter, the ureters
may join in the lower 3rd of their course, may
open through a common orifice into the bladder, or may open
independently into the bladder. In the latter case, one ureter crosses its
fellow and may produce urinary obstruction.

Ectopic ureter
Instead of opening into the bladder, the ureter may open into the
urethra, vagina or uterus. The result is constant dribbling of urine
(urinary incontinence).

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Supernumerary Renal Arteries
These arteries represent persistent fetal renal arteries, which grow in
sequence from the aorta to supply the kidney as it ascends from the
pelvis. They may cross the pelviureteral junction and obstruct the
outflow of urine, producing dilatation of the calyces and the pelvis,
known as hydronephrosis.

Development of the Bladder and Urethra

A urorectal septum divides the cloaca into the

anorectal canal and urogenital sinus between the
4th and 7th weeks. The cloaca membrane is divided
into the urogenital membrane and the anal membrane.

Development of the Reproductive Systems

Genetic sex is determined at fertilization. It is the Y

chromosome which is key to sexual dimorphism. In
males, the SRY (sex-determining region on Y) gene
located on Yp11 encodes a testis-determining
transcription factor that initiates male sex
determination. Females have an XX sex
chromosome complement, without a Y chromosome
or testis-determining factor.

Indifferent Gonads (Common to both males and females)

Like the kidneys, the indifferent gonads develop from the
intermediate mesoderm along the posterior wall of the abdominal
cavity. The gonads appear initially as longitudinal gonadal ridge,
medial to the urogenital ridge.

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Primordial germ cells appear among
endoderm cells in the wall of the yolk
sac close to the allantois. They
migrate along the dorsal mesentery of
the hind gut to arrive at the primitive
gonads at the beginning of the 5th
week, invading the gonadal ridges in
the 6th week. If germ cells are absent,
gonads do not develop.

The epithelium proliferates and

penetrates the condensed
mesenchyme (mesoderm) to form the
primitive sex cords, which are connected to the surface epithelium.

Testis
Under the Y chromosome influence (SRY gene), the primitive sex
cords proliferate and penetrate deep into the medulla to form the
testis/medullary cords.

The testis cords develop and become horseshoe shaped in the 4 th

month. At puberty, the solid testis cords acquire a lumen to form
seminiferous tubules which connect to the rete testis. The
mesenchyme of the gonadal ridge develop shortly after the onset of
testis cord differentiation to form the interstitial Leydig cells which lie
between the testis cords. These cells produce testosterone from the 8 th
week onwards to influence differentiation of genital ducts and
external genitalia.

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Ovary
The primitive sex cords
dissociate into irregular cell
clusters containing groups of
primitive germ cells and occupy
the medullary part of the ovary.
The medullary cords later
disappear, and are replaced by
vascular stroma to form the
ovarian medulla.

The surface epithelium continues

to proliferate to give rise to
secondary cortical cords at the 7th
week. They penetrate the
underlying mesenchyme and
split into isolated cell clusters,
each surrounding 1 or more primitive germ cells. The germ cells
develop into oogonia; while the surrounding epithelial cells form
follicular cells.

Descent of the testis

The gubernacula, which are folds of mesenchymal tissue/peritoneum
attached to the caudal end of the testis, aid in the descent of the testis.
It extends to the inguinal region
between the internal and
external oblique muscles, and
forms an extra-abdominal
portion extending towards the
scrotal swellings.

As the testis descends behind

the peritoneum, it drags along
the fascia/muscles in its course:

Origin Structure

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Processus Parietal and
vaginalis visceral layers of
tunica vaginalis
Transversalis Internal
fascia spermatic fascia
Int. oblique Cremasteric
fascia and
muscle
Ext. oblique External
spermatic fascia
Transversus (does not cover
abdominis path of
migration)
Genital Ducts
2 pairs of indifferent genital ducts, the mesonephric/Wolffian and
paramesonephric/Mullerian ducts, are initially present in both males
and females. Their development is influenced by hormones.

Male Female
Mesonephric / Testosterone, major Absence of testosterone
Wolffian ducts androgen produced by causes regression of these
Leydig cells, causes ducts
virilisation of these
ducts
Paramesonephri Mullerian-inhibiting Oestrogens (maternal,
c / Mullerian substance (MIS) / placental, foetal) and
ducts Anti-mullerian absence of MIS causes
hormone (AMH) ducts to develop into
produced by Sertoli uterine tubes, uterus, and
cells causes regression upper part of the vagina
of these ducts

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Male Genital Ducts
- Efferent ductules: Arise from
mesonephric excretory tubules.
Connect to rete testis.
- Mesonephric duct: Main genital
duct
o Elongate and become highly convoluted near efferent
ductules to form epididymis
o Obtain thick muscular coat to form vas deferens from tail
of epididymis to seminal vesicles
o Forms the ejaculatory ducts beyond the seminal vesicles

Female Genital Ducts

Paramesonephric duct: Formed from a
longitudinal invagination of epithelium on the
anterolateral surface of the urogenital ridge,
this duct forms the main female genital ductal
system.
- Cranial vertical part: Opens into the
abdominal cavity with funnel-like structure
with fimbriae.
- Horizontal part: Runs lateral to the
mesonephric duct then crosses ventrally in the caudomedial
direction. Establishes the broad ligament of the uterus, dividing the
pelvic cavity into uterovesical pouches and Pouch of Douglas
- Caudal vertical part: Comes into close contact with opposite
-
Vagina
The vagina is of dual origin:
- Sinovaginal bulbs: These are evaginations
from the pelvic part of the urogenital
sinus which proliferate to form a solid
vaginal plate. By the 5th month, it will be
completely canalized to from the lower
part of the vagina. The lumen is
separated from the urogenital sinus by
the hymen.
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- Vaginal fornices: These wing-like expansions of the upper part of
the vagina form around the end of the uterus. These are of
paramesonephric origin.

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 Male Female
Developmen Influenced by androgens Stimulated by oestrogens
t
Genital - Initially located in Enlarge to form the labia
swellings inguinal region majora
- Move caudally and fuse,
each making up half the
scrotum
- Halves separated by
scrotal septum
Genital - Rapidly elongates, Elongates slightly to
tubercle pulling urethral folds form the clitoris
forward to form urethral
groove
Urogenital - Extends along the caudal Remains open to form
groove aspect of the elongated vestibule
genital tubercle
- Lined by endodermal
cells to form a urethral
plate
Urethral - Fuse over urethral plate Do not fuse; Forms the
folds to form penile urethra at labia minora
end of 3rd month.
- The canal does not
extend to the tip of the
phallus
- Ectodermal cells from
the tip of the glans
penetrate inward to form
epithelial cord at the 4th
month
- Canalizes to form the
external urethral meatus.

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