OSMOREGULATION
31. Osmoregulation
Define the following terms:
How do you calculate plasma
osmolality?
What are the colligative properties These are properties of solutions that depend on the number of solute
of water?
How do you calculate osmotic
pressure?
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Osmosis: the diffusion of water molecules (solvent) across a semi-
permeable membrane, from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution.
Osmotic pressure: the pressure required to prevent solvent migration by
osmosis across a semi-permeable membrane. Applying pressure to the
more concentrated solution can prevent the movement of water to the
region of greater solute concentration.
Osmole: reflects the concentration of osmotically active particles in solution.
1 osmole = amount of solute that exerts an osmotic pressure of 1 atm when
placed in 22.4 L of solution at 0 °C.
For substances that do not dissociate, e.g. glucose, 1 osmole = 1 mole.
For substances that dissociate into two osmotically active particles, e.g.
NaCl, 1 osmole = 1 mole/2 (i.e. 1 mole = 2 osmoles).
Osmolarity: the number of osmoles (or mosmoles) of solute in 1 L of
solution, osm/L. As it is temperature dependent, it poses a potential source
of inaccuracy.
Osmolality: the number of osmoles (or mosmoles) in 1 kg of water (pure
solvent), osm/kg. It is not influenced by temperature and is therefore more
accurate than osmolarity.
A simple formula, which sums up the major solutes, may be used:
(2 × Na+) + glucose + urea
This adds up to approximately 290 mosmol/kg H2O.
particles, but not on their nature, i.e. they depend on the osmolarity of a
solution:
> Lowering of vapour pressure
> Elevation of boiling point
> Depression of freezing point
> Osmotic pressure.
Dilute solutions behave in a similar way to ideal gases, i.e. osmotic pressure
(P) is related to temperature (T) and volume (V) in the same way that an ideal
gas is.
Applying the van’t Hoff equation: PV = nRT
Where:
n = number of particles and R = universal gas constant (n/V = osmolality), we
can calculate the value of osmotic pressure of plasma as follows:
P = nRT/V
= 290 mosm/kg H2O × 8.32 J/K × 307 K
= 740 729.6 Pa
= 740.7 kPa
= 7.33 atm (5629.3 mmHg)
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 01 PHYSIOLOGY
How do you measure osmotic
pressure?
What is oncotic pressure (colloid
osmotic pressure)?
What are the body’s
osmoreceptors?
What are the actions of
vasopressin (antidiuretic
hormone, ADH)?
What stimulates water intake?
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Osmometers capable of detecting temperature changes of 0.002 °C are
used. They utilise one or more of the colligative properties of water:
> 1 mole of a solute added to 1 kg of water will depress the freezing point
by 1.86 °C (e.g. grit salt on the icy roads causes the ice to melt).
> The molar concentration of a solute causes a directly proportional
reduction in vapour pressure (Raoult’s law).
Electrolytes account for more than 99% of plasma osmolality and osmotic
pressure. Plasma proteins contribute to the remaining <1%, which is the
colloid osmotic (oncotic) pressure, and amount to 25–28 mmHg. Despite its
small number, oncotic pressure is significant, as it is the major determinant of
retention of fluid within the capillaries.
These are cells of the anterior hypothalamus, located outside the blood–
brain barrier. They respond to changes in osmolality and stimulate thirst and
the secretion of vasopressin.
ADH stimulates V2 receptors on collecting ducts, which increases adenylate
cyclase activity. This causes fusion of pre-formed water channels on the
apical membrane resulting in increased permeability of the collecting ducts
to water. Other ADH effects include:
> Stimulates thirst
> Release of factor VIII by the endothelium
> Platelet aggregation and degranulation
> Arteriolar vasoconstriction
> Glycogenolysis in the liver
> Brain neurotransmitter
> Secretion of ACTH from the anterior pituitary gland.
Multiple factors are involved in regulating water intake.
> An increase in plasma osmolality (with effective increase in osmotic
pressure) stimulates osmoreceptors in the anterior hypothalamus, which
in turn control thirst and simulate us to drink. ADH release also stimulates
thirst.
> Extracellular fluid (ECF) volume depletion stimulates the renin–angiotensin
system. The resultant increase in circulating angiotensin II acts on
a specialised receptor in the diencephalon concerned with thirst.
Baroreceptors appear to be involved as well when ECF volume is low.
> Dryness of the pharyngeal mucous membranes causes the sensation
of thirst.
> Psychological and social factors also play a role.
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