1

NETWORKS
Lecture №1
 Student Civility

• In an effort to make this class enjoyable for

everybody…
▫ Please be on time to class!
▫ Please do not talk to your friends and neighbors in
class! It disturbs everyone, and makes it hard to
concentrate. If you have a question, just ask me!
▫ Please turn your gadgets and cell-phones off!
▫ Please don’t make reclamations, in case of I
haven't this necessary.

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 3

Help is always available

• Option 1: Come to my Online course
▫ Friday, 9:30 – 14:30; Thursday, 14:30 – 16:30 (I may
change the time of my office hours)
▫ Location: Course with the same of my name
▫ I get bored when nobody visits!
▫ If you cannot make my office hours, I will be happy to
make an appointment with you. Please try to give me
advance warning when you need an appointment.
• Option 2: Write to the class list. Please do not send
homework code to the list.
• Option 3: lab tutors – see website for details
• Option 4: e-tutor – see website for details
• Option 5: College Learning Center Tutors
 Grading

• Your grade will be determined as follows:

▫ MCT (possible quizzes) (20%)
▫ First Homework (30%)
▫ Second Homework (30%)
▫ Final Exam (100%)
• Class participation will help your grade!

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Homework recommends
One point will be deducted for each class day late, with a possible maximum
of 10 points being deducted.
Home works will not be accepted after the third class following its due date.
For each assignment that you do not hand in within the time limit, your final
grade will be lowered by one grade
Submit the program via website(more on this later)
Back up your work. Computer crashes or lost programs are not valid
excuses for not handing in an assignment.

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Course Web Site
Course web site is available at: estud.rai.lv

Web site contains the following information:

▫ Administrative information
▫ Course Syllabus
▫ Homework assignments
▫ Class notes
▫ Class programs
▫ Sample exams
▫ Computer instructions

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 Class list
First assignment is to join it. Do it today!
• Go to: end of my slides

and follow the instructions

All assignments and news will be sent to the class list
Homework questions should be sent to the list and
answered by students when possible.

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 8

Course Text Book

• Introduction to
• Brief Version of lecture notes Available at the website

Please keep up with the reading!

 Course Prerequisites
• Prerequisites:
▫ No prior experience required (Really)
• Who should be taking this course:
▫ students who want to switch to a computer science major
▫ students who want a computer science minor or a computer
applications minor
▫ students who are just interested in software.
• Who should NOT be taking this course
▫ Students trying to get out of taking a math requirement. This class may
be more difficult than the math you are trying to avoid.
▫ Students with high disabilities and ambitions that determine their bad
temperament and inability to control themselves. Even if you know all
the software perfectly, there are no ideal people.
• You must get a 4 or better in this class to take further
computer science classes.

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 Introduction
• The purpose of this course is to teach you about
computing, but particularly, programming in R (a
powerful, widely-used programming language).
• Why care about computers and programming?
▫ Enabling technology
▫ Growing field with great opportunity (read: $)
▫ Creative outlet

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Course Description

Official Description:
Elementary introduction to Computer Science.
The characteristics of computers are discussed
and students design, construct data and debug
programs using a high level programming
language.

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What Is a Computer?
• Computer
▫ Performs computations and makes logical decisions
▫ Millions / billions times faster than human beings
• Computer programs
▫ Sets of instructions by which a computer processes
data
• Hardware
▫ Physical devices of computer system
• Software
▫ Programs that run on computers

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 Computer Organization

• Six logical units of computer system

▫ Input unit
 Mouse, keyboard
▫ Output unit
 Printer, monitor, audio speakers
▫ Memory unit
 Retains input and processed information
▫ Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
 Performs calculations
▫ Central processing unit (CPU)
 Supervises operation of other devices
▫ Secondary storage unit
 Hard drives, floppy drives

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Evolution of Operating Systems

• Batch processing
▫ One job (task) at a time
▫ Operating systems developed
 Programs to make computers more convenient to
use
 Switch jobs easier
• Multiprogramming
▫ “Simultaneous” jobs
▫ Timesharing operating systems

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Personal Computing, Distributed
Computing, and Client/Server Computing
• Personal computers
▫ Economical enough for individual
▫ Popularized by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak
with the introduction of the Apple in 1977.
▫ In 1981 IBM introduced the IBM personal
computer using “off the shelf” components.

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The boot process

• The process by which a machine comes up from

rest state to the state that is usable is known as
booting
• When the power is turned on
▫ The CPU runs the BIOS (Basic Input / Output System)
 Usually located on a chip on the motherboard
 Runs POST (Power On Self Test) of various hardware
components
 Loads the boot sector program

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The boot process (continued)

▫ Boot Sector Program

 Located in the first sector of the hard disk or other
disk
 Is responsible for loading the rest of the operation
system into the RAM
▫ Operating System
 Once it is loaded, it configures the various hardware
components
 Then it waits for the user to issue commands
 Then you can run your applications

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Why Computer Networks are needed?

Application Type

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Communications Tasks
Transmission system Addressing
utilization
Interfacing Routing

Signal generation Recovery

Synchronization Message formatting

Exchange management Security

Error detection and Network management

correction
Flow control

19
Protocol Layering and Routing
Host A Host B
Application Layer Application Layer
HTTP Message

Transport Layer Transport Layer

TCP Packet

Router
Internet Layer Internet Layer Internet Layer
IP Datagram IP Datagram

Network Layer Ethernet Network Layer Ethernet Network Layer

Frame UDP Packet Frame

Physical Network Physical Network

20
Four-Layer Model
Distributed data communications involves three
primary components:
▫ Applications
▫ Computers
▫ Networks
Four corresponding layers
▫ Application layer
▫ Transport layer
▫ Internet layer
▫ Network Interface
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Net+OS Provides…
Transport Session

• TCP (thru Sockets) • DNS

• UDP (thru Sockets/Fast
Sockets & “Fast IP”)

Application

• DHCP • Telnet Client

• SNMP Agent • HTTP/Advanced Web Servers

• FTP Client & Server • Email (POP3/SMTP) Clients

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Types of Communication Networks
Classification according to the way the
“information flows” are transported to the
users

• Switching Networks
• Broadcast Networks

23
 Switching Networks
Data are transferred from source to destination
through a series of intermediate nodes. Its meant
workstations that connected by the use of cables
or another interfaces.

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 Broadcast Networks
--There are no intermediate switching nodes
--All users are connected on the same medium

Satellite

25
Classification According to Coverage Area
 Local Area Networks (0-2 Km; campus)
• Ethernet (10/100/1000 Mbps), Token ring (4, 16 Mbps),
IEEE 802.11(b, g, a, n)

 Metropolitan Area Networks (2-50 km; corporate offices, city)

• DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus), WiMAX
(IEEE 802.16.a/b/e)

 Wide Area Networks (country, continent)

• transmission lines, switching elements

 Personal Access Networks (PANs)

• Bluetooth, IEEE 802.15.3

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Local Area Networks (LANs)
• It expands over small geographic areas (within
a building or close-by buildings)
• It is usually owned by the same organization
• The internal data rates are typically much
greater than those of WANs
• Typically, they make use of broadcast rather
than switching
• Devices interconnected by the LAN
should include Computers and
terminals, mass storage device Bridges
and gateways
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 Local Area Networks (LANs)

Backbone

Single-building LAN Multi-building LAN

Examples: home network, wireless-wired campus network

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Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

Examples: Ottawa-Carleton Research Institute (OCRI) MAN,

National Capital Institute on Telecommunications (NCIT) MAN

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Wide Area Networks
(WAN)

Example: Canadian Network for the Advancement of Research, Industry

and Education (CANARIE).

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 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
• Traditionally, WANs have been
implemented using one of two
technologies
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
▫ Datagram
▫ Virtual Circuit

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Circuit Switching
• Uses a dedicated path between two stations
• Process consists of three phases
▫ establish
▫ transfer
▫ disconnect
• Bandwidth inefficient
▫ channel capacity dedicated for duration of connection
▫ if no data, capacity wasted
• Set up (connection) takes time
• Once connected, transfer is transparent
• Can provide deterministic performance guarantees

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Circuit Switching Network
Example: Public Service Telephone Network (PSTN)

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Event Timing for Circuit Switching

34
Packet Switching
• circuit switching was designed for voice
• packet switching was designed for data
• transmitted in “small” packets
• packet contains user data and control info
▫ user data may be part of a larger message
▫ control info includes routing (addressing) info
• packets are received, stored briefly (buffered) and passed on to the
next node

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Packet Switching
• Source breaks long message into “information
transporting segments” (packets).
• Packets are sent one at a time to the network.
• Packets contain user data and control/signaling information.
▫ user data may be part of a larger message
▫ control information includes routing/addressing
information
• Packets are received, stored “briefly” (buffered) and are passed onto
the next node.

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Characteristics
• Line efficiency
▫ single link shared by many packets over time
▫ packets queued and transmitted as fast as possible
• Data rate conversion
▫ stations connect to local nodes at their own speed
▫ nodes buffer data if required to equalize rates
• Packets are accepted even when the “line” is busy
• Priorities can be used to support users’ needs, instead
of dedicating resources regardless if they are used or
not (becoming wasted if they are not)

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What is a protocol ?

38
Layer Associations
Application
• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
• Telnet

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 Network
• IP (Internet Protocol)
• IPv6 (IP Version 6)
• ICMP/ICMPv6 (Internet Control Message Protocol – e.g., “ping”)
• RIPv6 (Routing Information Protocol)
• OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

Datalink
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• RARP (Reverse ARP)
• IARP (Inverse ARP)
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 Transport
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – Reliable, in-sequence
delivery of data, connection oriented
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) – Connectionless, delivery and
sequence not guaranteed
• RUDP (Reliable UDP)
• BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
Session
• DNS (Domain Name Service)
• LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol)

Presentation
• LPP (Lightweight Presentation Protocol)
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Protocols
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
is an Internet Standard protocol for collecting
and organizing information about managed
devices on IP networks.

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ICMP
Internet Control Message Protocol
• ICMP is a protocol used for exchanging control
messages.

• ICMP uses IP to deliver messages.

• ICMP messages are usually generated and

processed by the IP software, not the user process.

TCP/IP
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ICMP Message Types

• Echo Request
• Echo Response
• Destination Unreachable
• Redirect
• Time Exceeded
• Redirect (route change)
• there are more ...

TCP/IP
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Datagram
Packet
Switching

45
Event Timing for Datagram

46
Virtual
Circuit
Packet
Switching

47
Event Timing for the 3 switching methods

48
Virtual Circuits versus Datagram
• Virtual circuits
▫ network can provide sequencing
▫ traffic engineering can be applied, enabling more practical provision of
quality of service (QoS) support
▫ less reliable in cases of switching node failures
• Datagram
▫ no call setup phase
▫ more flexible
▫ more reliable in cases of switching node failures
▫ difficult to control network’s state and provide quality of service

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Circuit versus Packet Switching:
Comparison
• Circuit Switching
▫ Dedicated channels/resources
▫ Constant delay
▫ Blocking
▫ Continuous flow
▫ Point-to-Point
• Packet Switching
▫ Shared channels
▫ Variable delay
▫ Store-and-forward point-to-
point & multipoint
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forms of Packet Switching Services
• Frame Relay based Networks
▫ requires high level of network reliability.
▫ took away a lot of overhead, improved
efficiency.
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
▫ based on the use of fixed size packets (53 bytes,
called ATM cells).
▫ first Broadband Integrated Services (ISDN)
network .
▫ offered quality of service (QoS) choices.

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 Transmission Mode
Simplex

Half-duplex

Full-duplex

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Architectural structure of a
protocol layer
user of protocol user of protocol

service interface service interface

service offered
protocol entity by the protocol entity
protocol

message encoding Protocol message encoding

service interfaces of lower layer

communication service used by the protocol
(offered by the lower layer)
 Link Layer protocol

user of protocol user of protocol

Link layer
service interface send/receive user data block (reliably)

protocol entity protocol entity

message encoding Protocol message encoding

Physical layer
service interface data blocks containing SEL, Poll, datablock, ack, nack
communication service of physical layer
send/receive a block of data
Internetworking
 Internetworking is a scheme for interconnecting multiple
networks of non identical technologies

 Uses both hardware and software

 Extra hardware positioned between networks
 Software on each attached computer

 System of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or

an internet

 Web cache has its own disk space in any places

 can act both like server and client
 contains copies of recently requested objects

55
Internetwork (Internet)

56
OSI Reference Model
and
the Link layer – as an example
protocol layer

57
Open System Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
• Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
• Has become the standard model for classifying
communication functions.
• Has seven layers.
• It is a “theoretical” system delivered too late!
• It has NOT dominated. TCP/IP is the de facto
standard.
• Several reasons:
– TCP/IP appeared earlier
– Internet “won” the game
– OSI has a “complex” structure that could result in “heavy
processing”

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Figure Example

59
THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards.
Almost three-fourths of countries in the world are
represented in the ISO. An ISO standard that covers
all aspects of network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s.

60
Summary of OSI Layers

61
Addresses in the TCP/IP protocol suite

62
Frame Relay
 Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol
that operates at the physical and data link layers of
the OSI reference model.
 Frame Relay originally was designed for use across
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
interfaces

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63
Packet Switching
 Frame Relay is based on packet-switched technology.
 The following two techniques are used in packet-switching
technology:
▫ Variable-length packets
▫ Statistical multiplexing

FRAME RELAY 64
64
 Frame Relay Devices
 Devices attached to a Frame Relay WAN fall into the following two general
categories:
▫ Data terminal equipment (DTE)
▫ Data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE)
 Examples of DTE devices are terminals, personal computers, routers, and
bridges.

FRAME RELAY 65
65
 Packet Switching
 DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices.
 The purpose of DCE equipment is to provide clocking
and switching services in a network, which are the
devices that actually transmit data through the WAN.
 In most cases, these are packet switches

FRAME RELAY 66
66
Frame Relay Devices

FRAME RELAY 67
67
Connection Devices

68
Connecting Devices and the OSI Model

69
 Repeater

A Repeater

70
Function of Repeater

71
Bridge

A Bridge

72
Function of Bridge

73
Multiport Bridge

74
Router

75
Routers in an Internet

76
Gateway

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 UDP User Datagram Protocol
• UDP is a transport protocol
▫ communication between processes

• UDP uses IP to deliver datagrams to the right

host.

• UDP uses ports to provide communication

services to individual processes.

• Firewall are often configured to block UDP

TCP/IP
78
 Ports
• TCP/IP uses an abstract destination point called a
protocol port.
• Ports are identified by a positive integer.
• Operating systems provide some mechanism that
processes use to specify a port.
Host A Host B
Process Process

Process Process

Process Process

TCP/IP
79
UDP
• Datagram Delivery
• Connectionless
• Unreliable
• Minimal UDP Datagram Format

Source Port Destination Port

Length Checksum

Data

TCP/IP
80
TCP
Transmission Control Protocol
• TCP is an alternative transport layer protocol
supported by TCP/IP.

• TCP provides:
▫ Connection-oriented
▫ Reliable
▫ Full-duplex timing
▫ Byte-Stream
TCP/IP
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 Connection-Oriented
• Connection oriented means that a virtual
connection is established before any user data
is transferred.

• If the connection cannot be established, the

user program is notified (finds out).

• If the connection is ever interrupted, the

user program(s) is finds out there is a
problem.

TCP/IP
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 Reliable
• Reliable means that every transmission of data is
acknowledged by the receiver.

• Reliable does not mean that things don't go

wrong, it means that we find out when things go
wrong.

• If the sender does not receive acknowledgement

within a specified amount of time, the sender
retransmits the data.

TCP/IP
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Byte Stream
• Stream means that the connection is treated as a
stream of bytes.

• The user application does not need to package

data in individual datagrams (as with UDP).

TCP/IP
84
Buffering

• TCP is responsible for buffering data and

determining when it is time to send a datagram.

• It is possible for an application to tell TCP to send

the data it has buffered without waiting for a
buffer to fill up.

TCP/IP
85
Full Duplex
• TCP provides transfer in both directions (over a
single virtual connection).

• To the application program these appear as 2

unrelated data streams, although TCP can
piggyback control and data communication by
providing control information (such as an ACK)
along with user data.

TCP/IP
86
TCP Ports
• Interprocess communication via TCP is achieved
with the use of ports (just like UDP).

• UDP ports have no relation to TCP ports

(different name spaces).

TCP/IP
87
 Addressing in TCP/IP
• Each TCP/IP address includes:
▫ Internet Address
▫ Protocol (UDP or TCP)
▫ Port Number

NOTE: TCP/IP is a protocol suite that includes IP, TCP and UDP

TCP/IP
88
IP datagram format
• Vers (4 bits): version of IP protocol (IPv4=4)
• Hlen (4 bits): Header length in 32 bit words, without
options (usual case) = 20
• Type of Service – TOS (8 bits): little used in past, now
being used for QoS
• Total length (16 bits): length of datagram in bytes,
includes header and data
• Time to live – TTL (8bits): specifies how long
datagram is allowed to remain in internet
▫ Routers decrement by 1
▫ When TTL = 0 router discards datagram
▫ Prevents infinite loops
• Protocol (8 bits): specifies the format of the data area
▫ Protocol numbers administered by central authority to
guarantee agreement, e.g. TCP=6, UDP=17 …
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IP Datagram format (cont.)
• Source & destination IP address (32 bits
each): contain IP address of sender and intended
recipient
• Options (variable length): Mainly used to
record a route, or timestamps, or specify routing

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 IP Fragmentation
• How do we send a datagram of say 1400 bytes through a link that
has a Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU) of say 620 bytes?
• Answer the datagram is broken into fragments

Net 1 Net 3
Net 2
MTU=1500 MTU=1500
MTU=620

▫ Router fragments 1400 byte datagrams

 Into 600 bytes, 600 bytes, 200bytes (note 20 bytes for IP
header)
 Routers do NOT reassemble, up to end host

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Fragmentation Control
• Identification: copied into fragment, allows destination to
know which fragments belong to which datagram
• Fragment Offset (12 bits): specifies the offset in the original
datagram of the data being carried in the fragment
▫ Measured in units of 8 bytes starting at 0
• Flags (3 bits): control fragmentation
▫ Reserved (0-th bit)
▫ Don’t Fragment – DF (1st bit):
 useful for simple (computer bootstrap) application that can’t handle
 also used for MTU discovery (see later)
 if need to fragment and can’t router discards & sends error to source
▫ More Fragments (least sig bit): tells receiver it has got last
fragment
• TCP traffic is hardly ever fragmented (due to use of MTU
discovery). About 0.5% - 0.1% of TCP packets are fragmented
.
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Internet Addressing
• IP address is a 32 bit integer
▫ Refers to interface rather than host
▫ Consists of network and host portions
 Enables routers to keep 1 entry/network instead of
1/host
▫ Class A, B, C for unicast
▫ Class D for multicast
▫ Class E reserved
▫ Classless addresses
• Written as 4 octets/bytes in decimal format
▫ E.g. 134.79.16.1, 127.0.0.1
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Internet Class-based addresses
• Class A: large number of hosts, few networks
▫ 0nnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
 7 network bits (0 and 127 reserved, so 126 networks), 24 host
bits (> 16M hosts/net)
 Initial byte 1-127 (decimal)
• Class B: medium number of hosts and networks
▫ 10nnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
 16,384 class B networks, 65,534 hosts/network
 Initial byte 128-191 (decimal)
• Class C: large number of small networks
▫ 110nnnnn nnnnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh
 2,097,152 networks, 254 hosts/network
 Initial byte 192-223 (decimal)
• Class D: 224-239 (decimal) Multicast [RFC1112]
• Class E: 240-255 (decimal) Reserved
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Subnets
• A subnet mask is applied to the host bits to
determine how the network is subnetted, e.g. if
the host is: 137.138.28.228, and the subnet mask
is 255.255.255.0 then the right hand 8 bits are
for the host (255 is decimal for all bits set in an
octet)
• Host addresses of all bits set or no bits set,
indicate a broadcast, i.e. the packet is sent to all
hosts.

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Prefix Subnet Mask Prefix
Subnet Mask
Length Length

/1 128.0.0.0 /17 255.255.128.0

/2 192.0.0.0 /18 255.255.192.0
/3 224.0.0.0 /19 255.255.224.0
/4 240.0.0.0 Decimal Octet Binary Number
/20 255.255.240.0
/5 248.0.0.0 /21 255.255.248.0
/6 252.0.0.0 /22 255.255.252.0 128 1000 0000
/7 254.0.0.0 /23 255.255.254.0 192 1100 0000
/8 255.0.0.0 /24 255.255.255.0 224 1110 0000
/9 255.128.0.0 /25 255.255.255.128 240 1111 0000
/10 255.192.0.0 /26 255.255.255.192 248 1111 1000
/11 255.224.0.0 /27 255.255.255.224 252 1111 1100
/12 255.240.0.0 /28 255.255.255.240 254 1111 1110
/13 255.248.0.0 /29 255.255.255.248 255 1111 1111
/14 255.252.0.0 /30 255.255.255.252
/15 255.254.0.0 /31 255.255.255.254
/16 255.255.0.0 /32 255.255.255.255

Subnet Mask Conversions

96
Address depletion
• In 1991 IAB identified 3 dangers
▫ Running out of class B addresses
▫ Increase in nets has resulted in routing table
explosion
▫ Increase in net/hosts exhausting 32 bit address
space
• Four strategies to address
▫ Creative address space allocation {RFC 2050}
▫ Private addresses {RFC 1918}, Network Address
Translation (NAT) {RFC 1631}
▫ Classless InterDomain Routing (CIDR) {RFC
1519}
▫ IP version 6 (IPv6) {RFC 1883}
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Creative IP address allocation
• Class A addresses 64 – 127 reserved
▫ Handle on individual basis
• Class B only assigned given a demonstrated need
• Class C
▫ divided up into 8 blocks allocated to regional
authorities
▫ 208-223 remains unassigned and unallocated
• Three main registries handle assignments
▫ APNIC – Asia & Pacific www.apnic.net
▫ ARIN – N. & S. America, Caribbean & sub-
Saharan Africa www.arin.net
▫ RIPE – Europe and surrounding areas
www.ripe.net
98
Private IP Addresses
• IP addresses that are not globally unique, but
used exclusively in an organization
• Three ranges:
▫ 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 a single class A net
▫ 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 16 contiguous class Bs
▫ 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255 256 contiguous
class Cs
• Connectivity provided by Network Address
Translator (NAT)
▫ translates outgoing private IP address to Internet
IP address, and a return Internet IP address to a
private address
▫ Only for TCP/UDP packets
99
Class InterDomain Routing (CIDR)
• Many organization have > 256 computers but
few have more than several thousand
• Instead of giving class B (16384 nets) give
sufficient contiguous class C addresses to satisfy
needs
▫ < 256 addresses assign 1 class C
▫…
▫ < 8192 addresses assign 32 contiguous Class C
nets

100
 CIDR Supernetting
• Since assigned contiguously, class C CIDR has same most
significant bits & so only needs one routing table entry
• CIDR block represented by a prefix and prefix length
▫ Prefix = single address representing block of nets, e.g
 192.32.136.0 = 11000000 00100000 10001000 00000000 while
 192.32.143.0 = 11000000 00100000 10001111 00000000

21 bit prefix (2048 host addresses)

▫ Prefix length indicates number of routing bits, e.g.
192.32.136.0/21 means 21 bits used for routing
 CIDR collects all nets in range 192.32.136.0 through 143.0 into a single
router entry – reduces router table entries
• Removes address classes A, B & C boundaries
• For more details see RFC 1519

101
Address Recognition Protocol (ARP)
• IP address is at network layer, need to map it to
the MAC (Ethernet address) link layer address
• Use ARP to map 48 bit Ethernet address to 32
bit IP
▫ IP requests MAC address for IP address from local
ARP table
▫ If not there, then an ARP request packet for IP
address is sent using physical broadcast address
(all FFFs)
▫ Host with requested IP address responds with its
MAC address as a unicast packet
▫ On return, host updates ARP table and returns
MAC address
▫ ARP cache times out 102
 ARP cont.
• ARP requests are local only, do not cross routers
Subnet 1 Subnet 2
134.79.10.17 134.79.10.1 134.79.15.1 134.79.15.3
User A User B
• Compare local IP and subnet mask => local
subnet
• Compare local subnet to destination IP
▫ if local, ARP for MAC address
▫ else remote so
 if ROUTE entry, ARP for router to subnet
 if default route, ARP for default gateway
 otherwise, drop packet & return error

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Routing
• Routers must select next hop for packet
• Get route information from other routers via a
routing protocol (RIP, OSPF, EIGRP etc.)
• Note the following are non-routable:
▫ private networks: 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12,
192.168.0.0/16
▫ Loopback 127.0.0.0/24

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105
106
107
Command line tool
• Route print

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Ipconfig

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Ping elephant packets

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tracert

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Homework assignment

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 Abstract on the selected topic:
1. Peer-to-peer networks, customization options. Transfer of information
through a peer-to-peer network.
2. Software Defined Networking (SDN) OpenFlow Protocol is a fundamental for
building SDN Solutions.
3. Multi Cloud Technology. Multi-Cloud Technology is a heterogeneous architecture
of multiple cloud computing and storage devices. A Multi-Cloud Technology utilizes two or
more public clouds along with n number of private clouds. hence it is also known as Multi-
Cloud Environment.
4. Edge Computing. Edge Computing is a distributed open architecture which enables
Internet of Things and Mobile Computing. The device processes by itself or by a local server.
Edge Computing enables data, applications, and computing power to be closer to the users
and away from centralized points.
5G Network Technologies
5G is The Next Generation Mobile Internet Connectivity which offers fast speed and decent
connections on smartphones and other devices. You will now carry vast amounts of data,
which will allow for a smart and connected world. Combining the networks and technology
are the latest research will let 5G Network Technology to be the superficial technology in the
world.

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 Continuation of the list:
6. Intent Based Networking Network Administration is a new form of
Intent-Based Networking (IBN). It is a combination of Artificial
Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning, and Network Orchestration to
automate administrative tasks. Intent-Based Networking reduces the
complexity to create, manage, and enforce network policies for reducing
labor associated with traditional configuration management.
7. Wireless Data Links for Drones
Wireless Networking Technology is mainly applied by the aviation industry. For example,
when we are flying, we can access our e-mail in the flight. Though the bandwidth is limited
but we can check it. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or Drones are now all set to change the
trend.
8. eXpressive Intent Architecture (XIA)
The eXpressive Internet Architecture (XIA) addresses the growing diversity of network use
models, the need for reliable communication, and the increasing set of stakeholders who
coordinate their activities to provide Internet services.

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Continuation of the list:
9. Quantum Computing
Quantum Computing is the use of Quantum Mechanics (includes quantum theory)
phenomenon like entanglement and superposition. Quantum network is a part of
quantum communication and quantum computing. Quantum networks help in the
transmission of information in the form of quantum bits called qubits. A quantum
processor performs quantum logic gates on some qubits. Quantum Networks work
in a similar way to classical networks.
10. Machine Learning
Machine Learning is an application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) which helps the
systems/machines to automatically adapt and learn from experiences. These
experiences are not officially recorded. This process of learning starts with
observations or learning about data.

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And finally:
11. Internet of Things (IoT) Internet of Things is used in physical
and everyday devices or appliances. Devices consist of Internet
Connectivity and Sensors. These devices can interact with each
other and with others all over the internet.
12. Serverless Computing Serverless Computing is a cloud-computing
execution model in which the cloud provider runs the server and dynamically
manages the allocation of machine resources. A Serverless Provider allows the users
to write codes and deploy them without worrying about the infrastructure.
13. Digital Twin The digital representation provides both the elements and the
dynamics of how an Internet of things device operates and lives throughout its life
cycle.
14. Nano Network Technology
Nano Network Technology works in the Biomedical Field (Immune System
Support, Bio Hybrid Implants, Health Monitoring, Genetic Engineering), Military
Technology (Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Defeses), Environmental Research
(Biodegradation, Animal and Biodiversity Control, and Air Pollution Control), and
Industrial Technology and Consumer Goods Application (Food and Water Quality
Control, and Functionalized Fabrics and Materials).

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Thank you very much