3.

HYDRAULIC DESIGNS OF SEWERS

AND STORM WATER DRAIN SECTIONS
1. Difference in the Design of Water
Supply Pipes and Sewer Pipes
2. Hydraulic Formulas for determining Flow
Velocities in Sewers and Drains
 Chezy's Formula

 Manning's Formula

 William-Hazen's Formula
Minimum Velocities
• The silting of sewers can be avoided by
generating such high velocities that would not
permit the solids to settle down; i.e., the
velocity should be such as to cause automatic
self-cleansing effect.
• Shield's expression for self-cleansing velocity
Self cleans necessary to cause scouring and
suspension of solid particles (heavier than
water), can be determined as follows
Sediment at the invert of the sewer
 Now, in order to scour the deposited sediment, and for just
Causing it to slide down the inclined plane, it is necessary that
the drag force ( ) exerted by the flowing water on the surface of
the channel equals the frictional resistance (R) i.e. = R

But we know that the drag force or the intensity of

tractive force Which is exerted by the flowing
water on a channel of hydraulic mean depth r is
given by
Since the velocity of flow developed in a sewer of a
particular material depends only upon the hydraulic
mean depth of the sewer and the slope on which the
sewer has been laid, values of slopes which are
required for generating self-cleansing velocities (0.8 to 1
m/s).
The values of gradients required to generate velocities
of 0.75, 0.90 and 1.05 m/sec. for different diameter.
 Maximum Velocities
• The smooth interior surface of a sewer pipe
gets scoured due to the continuous abrasion
caused by the suspended solids present in
sewage.
• This scouring and wear and tear of the pipe
interior is much more pronounced at
velocities higher than what can be tolerated
by the pipe materials.
• This wear and tear of the sewer pipes will not only
reduce their life spans but will also reduce their
carrying capacities.
• The problem of controlling the high
velocities generated in the sewers mainly
arises in hilly areas, where the available
ground slopes may be very steep.
• In such places, it may, therefore, be
required to limit the design gradient and
to adjust the balance available head by
constructing drops through manholes, at
suitable places along the length of the
sewer.
Effects of Flow Variation on Velocity in a Sewer

• The sewage discharge flowing through a

sewer does not remain constant all the time,
but varies considerably from time to time.
Due to this variation in discharge, the depth
of flow varies, and hence the hydraulic mean
depth (H.M.D. i.e. r) varies.
• Due to the change in hydraulic mean depth,
the flow velocity [which directly depends on
(H.M.D.)
2/3] gets affected from time to time.
• The designer should also ensure that a
velocity of about 0.9 m/sec is developed at
least at the time of the maximum flow and
preferably during the average flow periods
also.
• Moreover, care should be taken to see that at
the time of maximum flow, the velocity
generated does not exceed the scouring value
 Hydraulic Characteristics of Circular Sewer
Sections Running Full or Partial
The circular section is most widely adopted
for sewer pipes.
When they run full, their hydraulic properties
will be as given below:
Area of cross-section
Proportionate Values of Hydraulic Elements for Circular Sewers
when flowing partially full (without being corrected for variations
of roughness with depth)
• From the given in Table below, it can be seen that
the velocities in partially filled circular sewer
sections, equal or exceed those in full sections, so
long as sewers flow more than half full; and the
maximum velocity is obtained not when the sewer is
running full but when the depth of Flow is 0.81 times
the full depth, and is about 12.5 % greater that when
running full.
• Similarly, the maximum discharge is obtained not
when the sewer is running full, but when the depth is
about 0.95 times the full depth, and is about 7%
greater than that when running full.
• But, as the depth of flow goes below half the full
depth, the‘ velocities and discharges, both
decline, and become lesser than those at full
flow.
Hydraulic Particulars of Circular Sewers,
accounting Variations of n with depth
4. SEWERS CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND REQUIRED
APPURTENANCES

Objective of the chapter

At the end of successful completion, one can;

I. Identify constraints of sewerage line construction
and engineering considerations
II. evaluate the most important factors considered to
select sewer material
III. understand the role of sewer appurtenant
structures on ventilation and maintenance of
sewerage system
4.1. General Introduction
• Sewer pipes, as pointed out earlier, are generally circular
pipes laid below the ground level, and generally sloping
continuously towards the outfall.
• They are designed to flow under gravity, except for the
outfall sewer which carries the treated and pumped sewage
into the discharging source, and hence flows full under
pressure.
4.2. Shapes of Sewer Pipes
The sewer pipes are normally circular in section, although
some other sections such as basket handle shape, egg shape,
horse shoe shape, parabolic shape, semicircular shape, semi
elliptical shape, rectangular shape, etc.
 4.3. Forces Acting on Sewer Pipes
The structural design of the sewer pipes should
be such as to enable them to withstand the
various forces likely to come on them.
The following forces generally come into play in
the sewer pipes:
(1) Internal pressure of sewage;
(2) Pressure due to external loads;
(3) Temperature stresses; (4) Flexural stresses
Internal Pressure of Sewage
The pressure exerted by the sewage from
inside the pipe when running full is called
internal pressure.
Such a pressure may be exerted due to
either risky surcharge or due to overflow of
sewers flowing under gravity are designed
as gravity conduits, the internal pressure of
water is not of much problem.
 Pressures due to External Loads
Sewer pipes are mostly buried under the
ground and placed in trenches, which are back
filled.
The weight of the pipe, the weight of the backfill
and the superimposed traffic loads if any, will
then be transferred to the pipe.
This will produce compressive stresses in the
pipe material
 Temperature stresses

• When pipes are laid above the ground, they

are exposed to the atmosphere; and are,
therefore, subjected to temperature changes.
• They expand during day time and contract at
night.
• If this expansion or contraction is prevented!
Due to fixation or friction over the supports,
longitudinal stresses are produced in the pipe
materials.
• The amount of these stresses may be
calculated as below:
 Flexural stresses

Sometimes, the sewer pipes may have to be carried supported

between trestles, or piers, like beams. Similarly, sometimes the
rain water, etc. may wash off the ground from below the pipes
resting on the ground, thus exposing them like beams supported

between two supports.

Under all such circumstances, bending stresses get produced in

the pipe, since the pipe acts like a beam with loads resulting from
the weight of the pipe and the over burden weight.
 4.4. Sewer Materials
Vitrified clay (or stone ware), cement concrete, asbestos cement and
cast iron are the most common materials used for constructing sewer
pipes.
While selecting a particular material for constructing sewer pipes, the
important factors which must be considered are:
(i) Resistance to corrosion
(ii) The sewer pipes are likely to be acted upon by sewer gases, and
thus get corroded, due to the presence of acids and other
impurities in sewage.
(ii) Resistance to abrasion
When the sewage contains a lot of grit and sand particles, moving at a
high velocity at the sewer invert, a lot of wear and tear of the sewer
material may be caused due to abrasion
 (iii) Strength and durability.
The sewer pipes should be strong enough to withstand all
the forces that are likely to come on them.
(iv) Light weight.
The material used for sewers should be light, so
that the sewers can be easily handled and
transported.
(v) Imperviousness.
The sewer material should be impervious as not to
allow any seepage of the sewage from the sewer.
(vi) The economy and cost
The sewer material must be cheaper and less costly
as to cause overall economy in their construction.
(vii) Hydraulically efficient
The sewer material should be such as to provide a smooth
interior surface (with Manning's N as low as possible) so as to
provide a hydraulically efficient surface.
The sewers of different possible materials
and their comparative utilities are described
below:
(1) Asbestos Cement Sewers
Asbestos cement pipes are manufactured from
a mixture of asbestos fiber, silica and cement,
converted under pressure to a dense
homogenous material, possessing considerable
strength, called asbestos cement
The advantage of Asbestos Cement pipes
(i) They are light in weight and hence easy to
transport
(ii) They can be easily cut and assembled
without skilled labour
(iii) Their interior surface is exceptionally
smooth (With Manning's N = 0.011), thus
providing an excellent hydraulically efficient
sewer.
2) Plain Cement Concrete and Reinforced Cement Concrete
sewers
Plain cement Concrete pipes are manufactured in small sizes (i.e., up
to say 0.45 m diameter) while they are reinforced with steel
reinforcement for larger diameter pipes.

• RCC pipes are easily available in sizes up to diameters say 1.8

meters, and may be got manufactured for larger diameters say up
to about 4.5 meters, 1 special orders. These pipes may either be
prepared at site by transporting ingredients (i.e., cement, steel,
aggregates, water, etc.).
 Can be manufactured in factories, and then transported to
site. they are known as cast in situ pipes in the former case,
and precast pipes in the latter case.

The biggest drawback of the concrete sewers, however, is

the fact that they easily get corroded and pitted by the action of
sulphuric acid produced from hydrogen sulphide gas (evolved
from the stale sewage) or from such other chemicals present in
sewage. This not only reduces the life span of the sewers but
also reduces their carrying capacities with time. Besides
corrosion, they are also susceptible to erosion by sewage
containing too much silt and grit.
(3) Vitrified clay or Stoneware or Salt-glazed Sewers.
Vitrified clay pipes are widely used for carrying sewage and
drainage, as house connections as well as lateral sewers.
They are available in size of 5 cm increments from 10 to 30
cm, and in 7.5 cm increments from 30 cm to 90 cm.
4) Brick sewers

Bricks had been used as sewer material since ancient

days. They however where the sewers are required to the
constructed at the site and ingredients required for cement
concreting may not be easily available.
They may also be preferred for constructing large
sized combined sewers, or particularly for storm
water drains.
Brick sewers are generally plastered on their outer
surfaces so as to prevent the entry of tree roots and
groundwater through the brick joints; and are lined
inside with stone ware or ceramic block so as to
render them smooth and hydraulically efficient.
The stoneware or ceramic coating also helps in
resisting sulphide corrosion which is not possible
with the ordinary cement plaster as the same is
easily attacked by sewer gases like hydrogen
sulphide.
• (5) Cast iron sewers. Cast iron pipes are structurally
stronger and capable of withstanding greater tensile,
compressive, as well as bending stresses, but are
costlier, compared to cement concrete or stone ware
pipes. They are, therefore, used as sewers, only under
special circumstances, such
(i) For outfall sewers, for rising mains of pumping
stations, or for inverted siphons, all running under
pressure.
(ii) For sewers to be laid below heavy traffic loads, such as
those laid below highways or railways.
(iii) For sewers carried over piers or trestles while crossing
low. Lying areas.
(iv) For sewers which are to be 100% leak proof, so as to
avoid possible contamination of under ground water
supplies.
(6) Lead Sewers. The lead pipes are
smooth, soft, and can be easily bent to take
odd shapes.
(7) Plastic Sewers. The use of plastics for non-
pressure sewer pipes is of comparatively recent
origin, and is still in the experimental stages.
 4.5. Laying and Testing of Sewer Pipes

• During planning a sewerage system for a city

or a town, the alignment of various laterals,
branches and main sewers are, first of all,
decided on a contour map of the area. The
populations or catchment areas, to be
drained by each pipe, are then marked.
• The required sizes of the pipe sections and
their gradients are then computed, so as to
enable each pipe to pass the maximum
sewage that may enter into it.
Laying of the Sewer Pipes
• Locate the points where manholes are
required to be constructed (as per the
drawing i.e. L-section of sewer), and then
laying the sewer pipe between the centre line
of the sewer may be best marked either by
drawing a line on the ground parallel to it,
and at a suitable offset line, off settled from
the centre line of the sewer by a shalf the
trench width + 0.6 m or so, is therefore,
marked on the ground by at intervals of 15 m
 Excavating trenches
The excavation work is now started. The road
pavements may have to be, first of all, removed.
Softer pavements can be removed with pick axes
using annual labour; whereas, the hard concrete
pavements may be removed by using mechanical
appliances like pneumatic drills or spades.
The earth or rock from below the pavements is then
excavated so as to dig the required trench.
This excavation maybe carried out either by pick
axes using manual labour or by using machines like
power shovels, boom and bucket excavators, track
excavators, continuous bucket excavators, etc.
• The width of excavation at any level will depend
upon the width of the trench at the bottom, and
the additions due to side slopes and due to
timbering etc.
• The trench is excavated between two manholes,
and the sewer is laid between them.
• After completing the laying of the sewer between
two manholes, further excavations are carried
out for laying the pipes between the next
consecutive manholes.
• The process is continued from the outfall end the
sewer towards the uphill, till the entire sewer is
laid out. The excavated material is deposited on
one side of the trench;
 Shaping the trench bottom to correct levels

• The trench should be excavated up to a

level equal to the bottom of the embedding
concrete or up to the invert level of the
sewer pipe if no embedding concrete is
provided.
• Hence, when the trench excavation
reaches the final stages, the bottom
portion of the trench (30 cm or so) should
be excavated carefully, so as not to dug
more than the required
 Testing of the Sewer Pipes
The sewers after being laid and jointed are tested for
watertight joints, and also for correct straight
alignment, as described below (1) Test for leakage,
called Water test
Back-filling of the Trenches.
• After the sewer line has been aid and tested, the
trenches are back-filled.
• While backfilling the excavated earth in the trench, the
earth should be laid equally on either side of the
sewer, and the earth should be filled up in layers about
15 cm thickness. Each layer should be properly
watered, emptied and rammed.
 4.6 Sewer Appurtenances
Sewer appurtenances are those structures which are
constructed It suitable intervals along a sewerage system, and
help in its efficient operation and maintenance.
These devices include:
1. Manholes
2. Drop manholes
3. Lamp holes
4. Clean-outs
5. Street inlets called Gullies
6. Catch basins
7. Flushing tanks
8. Grease and Oil traps
9. Inverted siphons
10.Storm regulators.
• 4.6.1 Manholes
• Manholes are masonry or R.C.C.
• The manholes, thus, help in joining sewer lengths, and
also help in their inspection, cleaning and maintenance.
• If the manhole covers are perforated, they may also assist
in ventilating the sewers.
Location and Spacing of Manholes
The manholes are generally provided at every
bend, junction, change of gradient, or change of
sewer dia.
Classification of Manholes Depending upon their
depth, the manholes may be classified as;
(i) Shallow manholes about 0.7 to 0.9 m in depth
(ii) Normal manholes about 1.5 m in depth
(iii) Deep manholes more than 1.5 m.
4.6.8 Inverted Siphons
Whenever a sewer pipe has to be dropped below
the hydraulic gradient line for passing it beneath a
valley, a road, a railway, stream, a tidal estuary or
any other depression in the earth's surface or…
where it passes beneath some other
obstructions in its path, it will be known as an
inverted siphon * or a depressed sewer or a sag
pipe.
• The sewage through such a pipe line will not flow
under gravity, but will be flowing under pressure
(as in the case of water pipe lines).
• An inverted siphon is thus a sewer section
constructed lower than the adjacent sewer
sections, and it runs full under gravity with
pressure greater than the atmosphere.
Example 4.2
Design a three barrel siphon for carrying sewage
across a river stream.
The total length of the siphon measured along the
centre line including slopes is about 80 m. The invert
levels at the inlet and the outlet ends of the sewer
are 202.38 m and 201.80 m respectively.
The average flow of the sewage is 180 liters per
second, and the maximum and the minimum flows
are 250% and 40% of the average respectively.
Assume the minor losses to be about 6 cm.
Solution The average flow to be carried by the
siphon180 1/s= 0.18
Flow at minimum discharge. Assuming a flow velocity of 0.9
m/sec at the minimum discharge, we have the dia of the pipe
required. Q=A*V
4.6.9 Storm Water Regulators or Storm Relief Works
Storm water regulators are constructed in the combined sewerage
systems, and permit the diversion of excess storm water into a
nearby stream. Say for example, if the combined sewer has been
designed for carrying a maximum combined discharge of three
times the dry weather flow, the excess quantity of sewage after
this limit is crossed, is diverted to some natural stream or river.
 4.7 Maintenance, Cleaning and Ventilation of
Sewers
4.7.1 Maintenance of Sewers
Sewer maintenance generally involves their cleaning to keep
them free from any clogging and to carry out the repairs to
the damaged portions if any, so as to prolong their life and to
ensure efficient functioning.
The proper maintenance of sewers is Therefore absolutely
necessary sewer maintenance generally includes : their
frequent inspection and supervision, measuring the rate of
flow, cleaning and flushing, rap airing the leaking joints or any
other damaged portions( any, protecting them against their
misuse, preventing explosions, etc.
 4.7.2 Cleaning of Sewers

• Sewers should be periodically cleaned so as

to avoid their complete clogging. A full record
of the desalting operations should be kept.
• Proper watch and ward to avoid fake desalting
operations is very important in actual practical
life.
• For cleaning small sewers which cannot be
entered into by manual labour, flushing
operations are essential.
• Precautions to be taken while entering sewers various
poisonous and explosive gases which are generally
found in sewers are: hydrogen sulphide (H2S), carbon
dioxide (C02), and lane (CH4) along with petrol vapors.
• These gases are largely used when the sewage gets
stale and septic, which more corny happens in hotter
climates.
• In order to avoid the large scale presence of these
poisonous and hazardous gases inside the sewers,
ventilation of sewers is generally, various methods are
adopted for ventilating the sewers.
 5. PUMPS FOR LIFTING SEWAGE

5.1 Necessity of pumping Sewage

 5.2. Types of pumps
• Before we discuss the types of pumps used for lifting sewage,
It may be mentioned there are two essential differences
between the requirement pumping station in a water supply
system and a station sewerage system.
(1) Sewage cannot be stored except for short periods of
time the flow is highly variable; hence in sewage pumping
provision must be made for pump capacities capable of
handling peak flows as they arrive at the station. As against
this, water can be stored easily for future use.
• (2) Sewage contains coarse solids, both floating and
suspended, and hence requires special pumps which should
not get clogged. As against this, water does not contain
significant amount of suspended matter
Various types of pumps that are commonly
employed for pumping sewage are:
1. Centrifugal pumps:
2. Reciprocating pumps; and
3.Pneumatic ejectors or Air pressure pumps.
These three types of pumps are discussed
below:
Centrifugal Pumps.-- are most widely used for lifting sewage, as they can be
easily installed in pits and sumps, and can easily transport the suspended
matter present in sewage without getting clogged so often.
Reciprocating pumps-
• In the ram type of a reciprocating pump, a piston or a plunger moves
inside a closed cylinder. On the intake stroke, the liquid enters the cylinder
through the intake suction valve.
• The delivery valve remaining close during intake stroke on the discharge
stroke, the suction valve closes, and the liquid is forced into the delivery
pipe through the delivery valve, which opens during the discharge stroke.
• In the propeller type of a reciprocating pump, a multiple blade screw
rotor or propeller moves vertically inside a pump casing, causing the
sewage to lift up.
 Pneumatic Ejectors
Pneumatic ejectors sometime Air ejectors or Air
pressure pumps are complete lift units i selves,
and are used for pumping smaller quantities of
waste such as for raising wastewaters from the
basements of h and thus discharging it into street
sewers.
Example 6.1
A low lying residential colony is having a
population of 3000 persons. The colony gets a per
capita supply of water at the rate of 140 liters per
day. A separate sewerage system for the colony is
installed. It is further required to lift the entire
sewage of the colony by installing an air-ejector.
Assuming the velocity in the main sewer as 0.9
m/sec, and velocity of compressed air as 5 m/sec
design the ejector Solution assuming that the
entire water supplied appears sewage, We have
the average sewage flow
5.3. Pumping Stations
The building where pumps and other
accessories are installed for lifting sewage is
called a sewage pumping station. Such a
building should be located at a carefully
chosen site.
Proper Location.
These pumping stations should preferably be
located near a natural disposal unit
 • Component Parts of pumping station

A typical sewage pumping station is shown below:

Such an installation has the following major
components:
(1) Grit channel;
(2) Coarse and fine screens
(3) Well, called Sump well
(4) Dry well or Pump room
(5) Motor room
(6) Raising main
(7) Emergency Exit pipe
 SUMMARY

• Circumstances when sewage pumping is

essential; sewage from low laying pockets to
city sewer line flowing under gravity at higher
elevation, the area is flat and needs deeper
excavation, the outfall sewer is lower than the
level of treatment plant and by the time when
pumping is more economical then tunneling
the ridge.
• A selection criterion for sewage pumps is its
ability (efficiency) not to clog irrespective to
the type of the waste to be pumped.
Thank you