History of India From 1206 To 1707 AD

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM
1206 TO 1707 AD
MA History
Paper - III
Bharathidasan University
Centre for Distance and Online Education
Chairman:
Dr. M. Selvam
Vice-Chancellor
Tiruchirappalli-620 024
Tamil Nadu
Co-Chairman:
Dr. G. Gopinath
Registrar
Tamil Nadu
Course Co-Ordinator:
Dr. A. Edward William Benjamin
Director-Centre for Distance and Online Education
Tamil Nadu
The Syllabus is Revised from 2021-22 onwards
Reviewer
Prof. V. Panchapakesan, Asst. Professor Department of History, Periyar E.V.R College, Trichy - 620 023.
Authors
Dr Sumit Verma & Dr Shubhra Singh: Units (2, 4.2, 6.2, 7.2, 8.2-8.3, 9.0-9.1, 9.3-9.9, 10.3)
Paulomi M Jindal: Units (1.2, 1.2.3-1.2.4, 1.3.1-1.3.3)
Eesha Narang: Units (3.2-3.3, 5, 7.4, 9.2)
Vikas Publishing House: Units (1.0-1.1, 1.2.1, 1.2.2, 1.3, 1.4-1.8, 3.0-3.1, 3.4-3.9, 4.0-4.1, 4.3-4.8, 6.0-6.1, 6.3-6.9, 7.0-7.1, 7.3, 7.5-
7.9, 8.0-8.1, 8.4-8.9, 10.0-10.2, 10.4-10.9)
Vikas Publishing House, (Units: 1.6.1, 2.6, 4.3, 7.5, 7.8, 8.6, 8.9-8.13, 9.5, 10.4.4-10.4.5)
"The copyright shall be vested with Bharathidasan University"

All rights reserved. No part of this publication which is material protected by this copyright notice
may be reproduced or transmitted or utilized or stored in any form or by any means now known or
hereinafter invented, electronic, digital or mechanical, including photocopying, scanning, recording
or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission from the Publisher.
Information contained in this book has been published by VIKAS® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. and has
been obtained by its Authors from sources believed to be reliable and are correct to the best of their
knowledge. However, the Publisher, its Authors shall in no event be liable for any errors, omissions
or damages arising out of use of this information and specifically disclaim any implied warranties or
merchantability or fitness for any particular use.
Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

VIKAS® PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT
LTDE-28, Sector-8, Noida -
201301 (UP)
Phone: 0120-4078900 • Fax: 0120-4078999
Regd. Office: A-27, 2nd Floor, Mohan Co-operative Industrial Estate, New Delhi 1100 44
Website: www.vikaspublishing.com • Email: helpline@vikaspublishing.com

SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
History of India from 1206 to 1707 AD
Syllabi Mapping in Book
UNIT I: Sources Unit 1:

(a) Archaeological Sources: Epigraphy, Numismatic, Monuments (Pages 3–28)
and Chronicles
(b) Literary Sources: Persian, Sanskrit and Regional Languages,
Archival, Materials, Foreign Traveller Accounts
UNIT II: Political Developments: The Sultanate Unit 2:

(a) The Khiljis
(b) The Tughlaqs (Pages 29–66)
(c) Sayyids and Lodhis
UNIT III: Foundation of the Mughal Empire–I Unit 3:

(a) Babur
(b) Humayun (Pages 67–95)
(c) The Suris
UNIT IV: Foundation of the Mughal Empire–II Unit 4:

(a) Akbar to Aurangzeb
(b) Decline of the Mughals (Pages 97–133)
UNIT V: Rise and Rule of the Bahmanis Unit 5:

(a) Vijayanagar Kingdom
(b) Bahmanis: Expansion and Disintegration (Pages 135–155)
UNIT VI: The Rule of the Marathas Unit 6:

(a) The Marathas: Shivaji-Shambhuji–Expansion (Pages 157–171)
UNIT VII: Economics Aspects Unit 7:

(a) Agricultural Production: Village Economy: Peasantry
(b) Industries (Pages 173–183)
(c) Trade and Commerce: Internal Trade, European Trade
UNIT VIII: Socio-Religious Movement Unit 8:

(a) The Sufis: Their Orders, Belief and Practices
(b) The Bhakto Movement: Chaitanya, Shankaradeva (Pages 185–202)
(c) The Sikh Movement–Nanak
UNIT IX: Social and Cultural Life Unit 9:

 Classification of Society (Pages 203–222)
 Position of Women
 Development of Literature
 Art, Architecture and Painting
UNIT X: Administration Unit 10:

(a) Sher Shah’s Administrative Reforms
(b) Mughal, Administration–Land Revenue, Mansabdari (Pages 223–252)
(c) Marathas Administration
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1-2
UNIT 1 SOURCES 3-28

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Archeological Sources
1.2.1 Epigraphy
1.2.2 Numismatic Sources
1.2.3 Monuments
1.2.4 Chronicles
1.3 Literary Sources
1.3.1 Sanskrit, Secular and Regional Language Writings
1.3.2 Archived Materials
1.3.3 Foreign Travelers’ Accounts
1.4 Summary
1.5 Key Terms
1.6 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.7 Questions and Exercises
1.8 Further Reading
1.9 Learning Outcomes
UNIT 2 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS: THE SULTANATE 29-66

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Unit Objectives
2.2 The Khiljis
2.3 The Tughlaqs
2.4 Sayyids and Lodhis
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Terms
2.9 Further Reading
UNIT 3 FOUNDATION OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE-I 67-95

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Objectives
3.2 Ascension and Fall of Babur
3.3 Ascension and Fall of Humayun
3.4 The Suris
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Terms
3.9 Further Reading
UNIT 4 FOUNDATION OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE-II 97-133

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Unit Objectives
4.2 Akbar to Aurangzeb
4.3 Decline of the Mughals
4.4 Summary
4.5 Key Terms
4.8 Further Reading
UNIT 5 RISE AND RULE OF THE BAHMANIS 135-155

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Unit Objectives
5.2 Vijaynagar Empire
5.3 Expansion and Disintegration of Bahmanis
5.4 Summary
5.5 Key Terms
5.8 Further Reading
UNIT 6 THE RULE OF THE MARATHAS 157-171

6.0 Introduction
6.1 Unit Objectives
6.2 Rise of Shivaji
6.3 Reign of Shambhuji
6.4 Fall of the Marathas
6.5 Summary
6.6 Key Terms
6.9 Further Reading
6.10 Learning Outcoems
UNIT 7 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE PERIOD 173-183

7.0 Introduction
7.1 Unit Objectives
7.2 Agricultural Economy: Villages and Peasantry
7.3 Industries
7.4 Trade and Commerce: Internal and European
7.5 Summary
7.6 Key Terms
7.9 Further Reading
UNIT 8 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS 185-202

8.0 Introduction
8.1 Unit Objectives
8.2 Sufis: Orders, Beliefs and Practices
8.3 Bhakti Movement: Chaitanya and Shankaradeva
8.4 Sikh Movement: Guru Nanak
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Terms
8.9 Further Reading
UNIT 9 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 203-222

9.0 Introduction
9.1 Unit Objectives
9.2 Classification of Society
9.2.1 Position of Women
9.3 Development of Literature
9.4 Art, Architecture and Painting
9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Terms
9.9 Further Reading
UNIT 10 ADMINISTRATION OF VARIOUS EMPIRES 223-252

10.0 Introduction
10.1 Unit Objectives
10.2 Sher Shah Suri’s Administrative Reforms
10.3 Mughal Administration, Land Revenue System and Mansabdari
10.4 Maratha Administration
10.5 Summary
10.6 Key Terms
10.9 Further Reading
10.10 Learning outcomes
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
The culture and history of India are undoubtedly dynamic, unique and intriguing. It is one
of the first civilizations to have come into existence. Historical records trace the beginnings NOTES
of this nation to the Indus Valley Civilization – one of the oldest known civilizations in the
world and an architectural marvel.
India was plundered and invaded repeatedly by foreign rulers such as Timur
and Mahmud Ghazni. These invasions laid the foundation for the establishment of
Muslim rule in India by Qutub-din-Aibak. He was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate
and also the founder of the Slave dynasty. Aibak was followed by Iltutmish, who was
followed by Razia Sultan – the first female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. However, she
could not rule for long and the reigns ultimately went into the hands of Jalal-ud-din-
Firuz Khilji. He established the Khilji Sultanate. After his death, the Delhi Sultanate
was left without any leader. Any subsequent rulers were defeated by Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq. His victory led to the transfer in power of the Delhi Sultanate. Muhammad-
bin-Tughlaq and Feroz Shah Tughlaq were the two famous rulers of this dynasty.
This dynasty was followed by the Sayyid and Lodhi dynasties. However, none of
them could hold on to power for long and eventually Babur – the first Mughul emperor
of India – defeated and conquered them.
In AD 1526, Babur, a descendant of Timur, from Central Asia, swept across
the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which lasted for over 200 years.
The Mughal Dynasty had taken hold of most of the Indian subcontinent by AD 1600.
It went into a slow decline after AD 1707 and finally came to an end following defeat
in the Indian Mutiny of 1857.
The Mughal period marked a vast social change in the subcontinent, as the
Hindu majority was ruled over by the Mughal emperors. Some emperors showed
religious tolerance, others liberally patronized Hindu culture, while some others
destroyed the historical temples and imposed taxes on the non-Muslims. During the
decline of the Mughal Empire—which at its peak occupied an area slightly larger
than the ancient Mauryan Empire—several smaller empires rose to fill the power
vacuum, and subsequently contributed to the decline of the Empire.
This book – History of India from 1206 to 1707 AD has been designed keeping
in mind the self-instruction mode (SIM) format and follows a simple pattern, wherein
each unit of the book begins with the Introduction followed by the Unit Objectives for
the topic. The content is then presented in a simple and easy-to-understand manner, and
is interspersed with Check Your Progress questions to reinforce the student’s
understanding of the topic. A list of Questions and Exercises is also provided at the
end of each unit. The Summary, Key Terms, and Activity further act as useful tools
for students and are meant for effective recapitulation of the text.
This book is divided into ten units:
Unit 1: Cover the various sources that help us trace the history of a particular period,
such as, coins, monuments, chronicles and so on.
Unit 2: Examines the rules of the Khilji dynasty, the Tughlaq dynasty and the Sayyeds
and Lodhis.
Self-Instructional
Material
Introduction Unit 3: Traces the rise and fall of two significant Mughal rulers—Babur and Humayun.
Unit 4: Begins with the greatest emperor of India, Humayun’s son, Akbar and discusses
in detail the Second Battle of Panipat, Akbar’s policies; it also covers in brief the reigns
of Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
NOTES
Unit 5: Introduces you to the Vijaynagar Empire and the rise and fall of the Bahamani
kingdom.
Unit 6: Explores the historical background of the Marathas and the causes and
consequences of the Third Battle of Panipat.
Unit 7: Familiarizes you with the economic aspects of the Mughal period, with focus
on agriculture, industry and trade.
Unit 8: Discusses the spread of Sufism in India, the development of the Bhakti
movement and the Sikh movement, including the role of Guru Nanak.
Unit 9: Describes the classification of society in Mughal times, and traces the
development of literature, art and architecture in the Mughal era.
Unit 10: Covers the administrative reforms and systems of Sher Shah Suri, the Mughal
kings and Shivaji, the Maratha ruler.
Self-Instructional
Material
Sources
UNIT 1 SOURCES
Structure
NOTES
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Archeological Sources
1.2.1 Epigraphy
1.2.2 Numismatic Sources
1.2.3 Monuments
1.2.4 Chronicles
1.3 Literary Sources
1.3.1 Sanskrit, Secular and Regional Language Writings
1.4 Summary
1.5 Key Terms
1.8 Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The study of history is important because our past determines the way we deal with
the present, and therefore, it dictates what answers we offer to existing problems.
The past must not be forgotten and it is essential to understand what history means,
its scope in understanding our present, and its effect on the future. Spanish philosopher
and novelist George Santayana once said, ‘Those who cannot remember the past are
condemned to repeat it’.
The discipline of history can be defined as ‘the discovery, collection,
organization, and presentation of information about past events’. Historians believe
that discussions on the problems and issues of the past may lead to answers for the
problems being faced in the present.
As a field of study, history encompasses many sub-fields, such as cliometrics,
historiography and chronology amongst others. However, the most basic and essential
one of these is historiography which is the history of historical study, its methodology
and practices.
In this unit, you will study the various sources that help us trace the history of
a particular period, such as, coins, monuments, chronicles, writings, archived materials
and foreign travellers’ accounts.
1.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Identify the significance of various archeological sources in tracing the history
of India, such as coins, monuments, epigraphy and chronicles
 Describe the various available literary sources of the times, including Sanskrit,
secular and regional language writings, archived materials and foreign travellers’
Self-Instructional
accounts Material 5
Sources
1.2 ARCHEOLOGICAL SOURCES
Historiography deals with how history itself is documented or passed down through
NOTES the ages. It examines various means by which the historical source is formed, especially
the credibility of the sources that are used, the intention of the historian composing
the history, and the authenticity of the sources.
The existence of historical sources provides valuable inputs regarding the past.
Historiographers tend to differentiate these sources in the context of written and oral
histories. Oral history is dynamic because it is spread by word-of-mouth; on the other
hand, written history is fixed and emphasizes the recording of facts.
Historiography tries to place various sources of information into specific
contexts. This means that the historiographer does not merely accept the content of a
source at face value but identifies the source, looking for various motifs in its formation.
While reconstructing a historical event, it may be possible that the historiographer
may include or exclude facts, because of various reasons. In such a scenario, one of
the questions the historiographer must investigate is how some facts are included or
excluded from a history. Comparing different accounts of a single event can highlight
inclusions or exclusions from a history. In contrasting these sources, one can understand
not only the event but also the precise perspective of the author of the source.
The historical method comprises how historians use sources to research and write
history. A sound historical method uses a number of guidelines to construct an authentic
historical account. Some of the key guidelines a historian keeps in mind are as follows:
 Time when the source, written or unwritten, was produced
 Place where the source was produced
 Entity that produced the source
 Pre-existing form from which the source was produced
 Originality or integrity of the source
 Credibility of the source
Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur at a certain
period of time. Historians name these periods to organize and classify different events
in history. However, the periodization of history can vary with geographical location,
as can the dates of the start and end of a particular period.
Centuries and decades are commonly used as periods and the time they represent
depends on the dating system used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively;
therefore, reflect value judgments made about the past. The manner in which periods
are constructed and named can affect the way they are understood and studied.
Sometimes, historians resort to periodization by tools and weapons. For example,
the reference to Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age and their further sub-divisions like
the Old Stone Age, the Middle Stone Age, the New Stone Age or the Palaeolithic
Age, the Mesolithic Age and Neolithic Age.
The terminologies—ancient, medieval and modern—are also used, almost
universally, to classify periods in history. A student who is interested in the history of
Islam may be asked to study a book called ‘Medieval Islam’. The book describes that
period of Islamic history which corresponds to the medieval period in European history.
Self-Instructional
4 Material
The classification of history into ancient, medieval and modern was a European Sources
effort, meant to divide the different phases of European history, which was later adopted
by historians around the world to define and reconstruct their own history.
Before the collection of the source material begins, the researcher has to make
sure that he has selected a topic for which the source material is easily available. NOTES
Sometimes the source material for a particular topic is spread over a wide area which
means the researcher would have to travel to different places for the collection of his
source material. This may sound adventurous and exciting to some but this process is
time consuming and tedious. Also, the researcher may have to deal with different
cultures which would make his job even more difficult. A well chosen subject would
enable the scholar to gather his source material easily.
Category of sources
Sources for historical research are distinguished under three main categories. They
are as follows:
1. Primary sources: Contemporary history is largely dependent upon the correct
usage of the primary sources. Philosophers have done a great job in identifying
this aspect of historical research methodology. It was done through their scientific
study of the primary sources. Thus, three vital points were achieved through
their scientific study. These points are as follows:
 Historical reconstruction should be done mainly depending upon the primary
sources.
 Scientific evidence should be present for the correct analysis of these sources.
 Testimony from the other authentic writers should be taken into account on
the concerned subject.
Primary sources are basically both archeological and literary.
(i) Archeological sources: Archeological material for historical research is
found in a great variety all over the world. These include numismatic
materials, old settlements, whole towns and cities, sites and ruins, old
buildings, tombs, monuments, arts and crafts.
(ii) Literary sources: Written sources fall under literary sources and comprise
the decrees, edicts, travelogues, charters, treaties, private letters, rent-
rolls, official correspondence, diaries and memoirs. Most of these materials
are raw sources and can only be used for research work once they are
simplified by the usage of historical techniques such as linguistics,
paleography and philology.
2. Secondary sources: Secondary sources mainly comprise those sources which
are derived from the primary sources. So any article, books or dissertation
which is written with the use of the primary source falls under this category.
Secondary sources are used by laymen and any beginner in the field of historical
research as they have been found to be easier to interpret than the primary
sources which can be multifaceted and complex. It is not true that historians do
not have any use for the secondary sources. In fact, historians make great use
of secondary sources as they make the historians’ work easier.
3. Hybrid sources: There are certain historical sources that fall under the category
of primary sources when looked upon from one angle and fall under secondary
source material when looked upon from a different viewpoint. These are called
hybrid sources. One typical example of such a source material could be an
Self-Instructional
Material 5
Sources autobiography. Although an autobiography is treated as secondary source
material, it is still the primary account of the author’s life.
Collection of source material
NOTES India has a rich heritage and a very colorful history. Different parts of the sub-continent
have different histories, legends and stories stretching and living for thousands of
years. The history is available from varied sources both oral and substantive like
written records, paintings, rock edicts and coins. All these put together help in
constructing and creating a picture of India through the many millennia. These
manuscripts, texts and artifacts are available at various locations.
1.2.1 Epigraphy
Archaeologists and historians study the remains of past civilizations. Archaeology is
the study of the remains of our past like monuments, tools, pottery, coins, weapons,
paintings and the other artefacts. Thus, archaeology provides us direct evidence from
the past, which serves as clues to reconstruct the bygone time.
Most of our information about pre-historic man, the Indus Valley people and
the other ancient civilizations is based upon the archaeological findings. Archaeology
has contributed a lot to the history of ancient India and its importance cannot be over
emphasized. Indian archaeology is a science of recent growth but it has made wonderful
progress during that brief period. The pioneer work was done by the Europeans but
the same is being carried out now by the Indians. The study of the Indian antiquities
was initiated by scholars like Sir William Jones who founded the Asiatic society of
Bengal in 1774.
A large number of researches were hampered by the ignorance of the script but
that difficulty was solved by Jones Prinsep in 1838 by his discovery of the Brahmi
script. After that discovery, the task of deciphering the inscriptions became an easy
one and a lot of work was done by historians like Fergusson, Cunningham, Dr. Rajendra
Lal Mitra, and Dr. Bhau Daji. The greatest contribution was made by General
Cunningham who was appointed in 1862 as the Archaeological Surveyor to the
Government. He devoted about half a century to the study of ancient Indian history.
By his personal investigations, he gathered a lot of information regarding the geography
of ancient India. He also collected a large number of Indian coins. Digging was also
started at places like Bodh-Gaya, Bharhut, Sanchi, Sarnath and Taxila.
Lord Curzon set up a separate Department of Archaeology and appointed Dr.
Marshall as the Director-General of Archaeology. With him were associated scholars
like Dr. Vogel, Dr. Stein, Dr. Bloch and Dr. Spooner. Under the direction and
supervision of Dr. Marshall, the ancient sites of Taxila covering an area of about 25
sq. miles were excavated and a lot of useful information was collected. The ancient
city of Pataliputra, too, was excavated by Dr. Spooner but much information could
not be extracted on account of waterlogging.
Check Your Progress
Dr. Spooner also promoted the mine laying of the Buddhist sites of Nalanda
1. Name one hybrid university and a lot of material was secured within the next two decades. In 1922,
source of historical
research. R.D. Banerjee started the same work at Mohenjo-daro in Sind and the same procedure
2. How did Europeans was followed at Harappa. The information collected from Harappa and Mohenjodaro
classify history? was fused together and Sir John Marshall wrote his monumental work on the Indus
Valley Civilization. A lot of work was done by the Hungarian scholar Aurel Stein in
Baluchistan, Kashmir and Turkestan. N. G. Mazumdar and Dr. Mackay also made
Self-Instructional
6 Material
their contribution to the already existing works on the Indus-Valley Civilization. A lot Sources
of archaeological work is being carried out at present in various parts of India.
In ancient times, the rulers engraved important messages for people on rocks,
pillars, stone walls, clay tablets and copper plates. These writings were known as
inscriptions. The study of the inscriptions is called epigraphy. A study of these NOTES
inscriptions throws light upon the language of the people, names of the rulers, the
years they ruled, their military achievements, the religious and social conditions of
the people and many other details. For example, the edicts of Asoka are a collection
of 33 inscriptions on the pillars of the Emperor Asoka of the Mauryan dynasty (269
BC to 231 BC). An edict was a formal announcement of the ruler to inform the
public. The Asokan edicts on pillars gave us information about the extent of his empire.
Regarding the inscriptions, they are of a very great value as they are engraved
upon stones and metals and they cannot be tampered with without detection.
Consequently, we can be sure while using the material from the inscriptions that they
contain what was originally written. While in the case of books, there is the possibility
of interpolations by the known and unknown authors, however, that is not the case
with these inscriptions. Their genuineness cannot be doubted. The inscriptions also
give us a correct idea of the method of writing followed at the time when they were
actually inscribed. The character of the script inscribed also enables us to fix their
approximate age. Location can also throw some valuable light. The difficulty in
deciphering the instructions has been overcome in most of the cases although the
script of the Indus Valley still remains a mystery.
If we analyse the contents of the inscriptions, they can be grouped under the
following heads—commercial, magical, religious, didactic, administrative, eulogistic,
votive or dedicative, donative, commemorative and literary. In the case of commercial
inscriptions, their specimens are found on the seals of the Indus Valley. Some of these
seals must have been used for the stamping of bales of merchandise and commodities
like potter etc. It is possible that the shorter inscriptions (on the seals) are simply the
owner’s name and longer ones include titles that the owner of the seal happens to
possess. These seals may have been used by the seafaring traders engaged in foreign
trade. It seems that Nigamas and Srenis (which were commercial organizations) had
the power of minting their coins and they must have possessed seals to be used for
such commercial purposes. Their record on the perishable materials must have
disappeared. However, there are references to the use of seals for commercial purposes
in other inscriptions, e.g. the Mandasore stone inscription of time of the Kumaragupta
and Bandhuvarman (Malwa Era 529).
Some specimens of magical inscriptions are found in the Harappan seals which
were used as amulets and contained a magical formula on them. The seals have not
been deciphered as yet and it is difficult to know their contents. However, they are
very likely to contain the names of the deities which are represented by the animals.
The animals represented on the amulets are the antelope, buffalo, Brahmi bull, elephant,
goat, hare, human figure, monkey, rhinoceros, short-horned bull and tiger. Some of
the deities represented by them are Moon, Yama, Siva, Indra, Brahma and Durga. It
is to be observed that magical formulae continued to be written on metals as well as
on birch-bark (Bhojapatra) and other materials.
Religious and didactic inscriptions deal with religious and moral matters.
Possibly, some of the seals and tablets of the Indus Valley were the objects of worship
and their use as amulets was forbidden. The inscriptions of Asoka are the best specimen
Self-Instructional
Material 7
Sources of the religious and didactic types. The edicts of Asoka are appropriately called
Dhamma-Lipi.
Asoka’s edicts are also a specimen of the administrative inscriptions. An extract
from one of his inscriptions reads thus: ‘Everywhere in my dominions, the Yuktas, the
NOTES Rajukas and the Pradesikas shall proceed on circuit every five years as well for this
purpose (for the instruction of Dhamma) as for other business.’ The Sohagaura copper
plate inscription of the third century BC is an example of pure administrative inscription.
The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman I also contains some administrative
material. A large number of copper plate inscriptions have been found both in the
north and south and they contain many useful administrative details. Reference may
be made in this connection to the Banskhera copper plate inscription of Harsha.
The eulogistic inscriptions (Prasastis) are very important from the political point
of view. Generally, they contain an elaboration concerning the King, his military,
political and administrative system and achievements, the existence of the contemporary
states coming into conflict with him and the inter-state relations, the personal
accomplishments of the Kings, his patronage and charity and mythological or Puranic
allusions by way of comparison and similes. One great difficulty in these inscriptions
is that there is a tendency on the part of the authors to exaggerate the achievements of
their patrons.
Eulogistic inscriptions can be further subdivided into two parts viz. pure eulogy
and eulogy mixed with other types. The edicts of Asoka form a category by themselves.
The Hathigumpha inscription of Kalinga belongs to the category of pure eulogy. It
describes in detail the achievements of Kharavela in a chronological order. To the
same category belongs the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta. The number
of inscriptions which contain eulogy mixed with other matter is very large. Practically,
in every document of a permanent nature, reference is made to the glories of the
ruling sovereign and his ancestors. Important specimens of the mixed type are to be
found in the Nasik Cave inscription of Usavadata, the Junagadh rock inscription of
Rudradaman I, the Nasik cave inscription of Gautami Balasri, the Mehrauli iron pillar
inscription of Chandra, Junagadh rock inscription of Skandagupta, the Bhitari stone
pillar inscription of Skandagupta, the Mandasor stone pillar inscription of Yasodharman,
the stone inscription of Isanvarman, the Aihole stone inscription of the time of Pulakesin
II, the Talagunda stone pillar inscription of the time of Santivarman, the Nagarjunakonda
inscriptions of Vira purusdatta, Mandasor stone inscription of the time of Kumaragupta
II and Bandhuvarman etc.
We have a large number of votive or dedicative inscriptions. It is possible that
some of the tablets found in the Indus Valley contain votive inscriptions. The Piprahwa
vase inscription records the dedication of the relic casket of Lord Buddha. The Besnagar
Garuda pillar inscription of Heliodors also belongs to this category. Many of the
dedicative inscriptions deal with the installation of images and the construction of
temples. Reference may be made in this connection to the Mandasor inscription of the
time of Kumaragupta Nand Bandhuvarman and the Bhitari pillar inscription of
Skandagupta and the Aihole Inscription of the time of Pulakesin II.
The number of donative inscriptions is quite large as many occasions offered
themselves for this purpose to the rulers and the subjects. Some of the inscriptions
refer to the donations of caves or other buildings for the residence of monks and
ascetics. Some refer to the donation of money in the form of a permanent endowment.
Out of these funds, the Brahmins and the needy were fed and lamps were lighted in
Self-Instructional
8 Material
the temples. In some inscriptions, there is a reference to the donation of lands and Sources
villages to the monasteries, educational institutions and the Brahmins.
Commemorative inscriptions record births, deaths or other important events.
The Rummindei Inscription of Asoka reads ‘King Priyadarsin, beloved of the gods,
when he had been consecrated many years, came in person and did worship. Because NOTES
here the Shakya sage, Buddha, was born, he caused a huge stone wall to be made and
a stone pillar to be erected.’ A large number of commemorative inscriptions refer to
the Silaharas of Kohlapur, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Rashtrakutas, the Yadavas,
etc.
Some inscriptions contain poetic compositions and dramatic works and their
purpose is primarily literary. From the Mahanirvana Stupa at Kusinagara in Uttar
Pradesh was discovered a copper plate containing 13 lines the Udana-Sutra of Buddha.
Inscriptions have been found on stone and copper plates and other materials.
The details of Asoka’s reign tell us that he got his edicts engraved on stone so that
they may last for a long time. Writings on stone were done on rocks, pillars, slabs,
pedestal or the back of images, rims and lids of vases, caskets, prisms of crystal,
walls of temples, pavements of pillars of colonnades, and caves etc.
Copper was the material which was commonly used for the writing of
inscriptions. A copper-plated inscription was called Tamrapatra, Tamrasasana,
Sasanapattra or Danapattra according to its contents. It is remarkable to note that the
land-grants were invariably inscribed on the copper plates and were handed over to
the concerned so that they may serve as title deeds.
Fa-Hien tells us that in many Buddhist monasteries he found those copper
plates which referred to the grant of land. Some of them were as old as the time of
Buddha. The discovery of Sohgaura copper plates of the Mauryan period confirms
this statement of Fa-hien. Hieun Tsang tells us that emperor Kanishka used to summon
a Buddhist council which prepared these commentaries. These were later engraved
on copper plates and kept in stone caskets which were placed in the Stupas built over
them. It is also stated that the commentaries of Sayana on the Vedas were engraved
on copper. Some specimens of the books inscribed on copper plates are to be found in
the British Museum. The use of copper for writing purposes was not very common
up to the sixth century AD but it remained quite popular for the next six centuries.
Copper plates were of different sizes and thickness. Some of them were so thin that
they could be bent easily and there were others which were very thick and heavy. The
size of a copper plate depended upon two factors, the contents of the document and
the size of the commonly used writing material in the district where the copper plate
was issued. Sometimes, a document was inscribed not on one copper plate but on
many and in that case the copper plates were fastened together by means of copper
rings. In this way, the copper plates looked like a book which would be opened easily.
Sufficient margin was left on the copper plates.
1.2.2 Numismatic Sources Check Your Progress

3. Who initiated the
The study of coins is called numismatics. Coins in the ancient times were made of study of Indian
metals like gold, silver and copper and were therefore not easily destroyed. They had antiquities?
the names and images of rulers stamped upon them. They gave information such as 4. Which metal was
the date of accession and death of the ruler. For example, Roman coins discovered in commonly used for
India give us an idea about the existence of contacts with the Roman Empire. The inscriptions?
Self-Instructional
Material 9
Sources coins of these dynasties throw light on the improvement in the coin artistry of India.
Portraits and figures, Hellenistic art and dates on the coins of the western satraps of
Saurashtra are remarkable sources for reconstructing the history of this period.
The history of the Satavahanas is ascertained from the Jogalthambi hoard of
NOTES coins. The circulation of coins in gold and silver during the Gupta Empire provides a
fair idea of the economic condition during the rule of the Guptas. The principal source
of information of the Bactarian; Indo-Greeks and Indo-Parthian dynasty is numismatics
(Figure 1.1).
Fig. 1.1 Coins
A study of ancient Indian coins enlightens us a great deal regarding the history of
ancient India. The Numismatic Society of India is doing a lot of useful work in this
connection. We have, at present, a large number of coins excavated from various
parts of India dealing with the different aspects of ancient Indian history. Coins are of
various metals viz. gold, silver and copper.
Coins help to build up the history of the country in many ways. They give us the
names of the kings who ruled at various times in different parts of the country. In
many cases, the coins are the only sources of information we have regarding the
existence of certain kings.
Without these coins, the very existence of those kings would have remained
unknown. Many times, the information from the coins can be used to corroborate the
evidence extracted from other sources such as the Puranas and other religious literature.
The coins also help us to fix up the chronology as they mention the year in which they
were issued. The existence of a large number of coins issued during the different
years of the reign of a king helps us to fix the exact dates for the accession and the
death of the king. Coins have helped us to fix the dates of Samudragupta. The location
of coins helps us to determine the extent of the territory of a king.
The discovery of a large number of Roman coins in India confirms the fact that
there was a brisk trade between India and the Roman Empire. That also refers to the
economic prosperity of India and the coastal activities of its people. The figures of the
various kings appear on the coins from where we can get an idea of the head-dresses
and attire of those kings. Sometimes, the hobbies or the amusements of the rulers can
also be known from studying their coins.
Coins give an indication of the prosperity (or otherwise) of a country. If people
have gold or silver coins, they are likely to be prosperous. The case is opposite if they
have copper coins alone or more of them than those of gold or silver. Sometimes, the
depreciation of coinage gives an indication that the country was passing through
Self-Instructional
10 Material
abnormal times. During the Huna invasion of India, the Gupta currency depreciated. Sources
The symbols on the Gupta coinage refer to their zeal for Hinduism. The coins give us
genuine information regarding the history of ancient India as there is no possibility of
their being tampered with. Coins were issued by the rulers and other authorities like
Srenis etc. and there is no possibility of their being issued merely to deceive people. NOTES
The earliest coins of India have only figures, devices or symbols and no legends.
Sometimes, the coins were cast in a dye but very often symbols were punched metal
pieces. These symbols varied from time to time and were punched with a view to
guarantee their genuineness and value. On account of the absence of legends on them,
much information is not available.
After the Greek invasion of India, the practice of writing the names of the kings
on the coins was started. A large number of coins were issued by the Indo-Bactrian
rulers who had under their control Punjab and the North-Western Frontier. These
coins possessed a high degree artistic excellence and ultimately had a tremendous
influence on the Indian coinage. The inscription on the Indian coin usually was the
name and the portrait of the ruler. The Greek coins refer to about 30 Greek kings and
queens who ruled in India. The classical writers refer to only four or five of them and
had these coins remained undiscovered, the names of other rulers would have remained
absolutely unknown. The coins of the Scythians and Pratiharas are of an inferior
quality but they also give us a lot of historical information. Their coins have enabled
us to have an outline of the history of their rulers and without them even the outlines
would have been missing. A branch of the Scythians settled in Gujarat and Kathiawar
issued coins in which the names of the ruling kings and their fathers were mentioned
in the Saka era. These have helped us to reconstruct the history of the Western Satraps
for more than three centuries. The Kushans also issued a large number of coins. The
existence of the Malawas, Yaudheyas and the Mitra rulers of Panchala is known only
from the coins. The coins of the Satavahanas supplement, correct and corroborate the
accounts of the Puranas. The Gupta coins also give us a lot of useful information. The
coins of Samudragupta are particularly remarkable.
The Indian coins after the Gupta period do not give us much historical
information. According to historians V.A. Smith and Rapson, the punch-marked coins
represent a private coinage. The view of Smith is that they were issued by guilds and
goldsmiths with the permission of the ruling power. The numerous obverse punches
were made by different money lenders through whose hands those coins passed. The
reverse marks were the signs of approval by the controlling authority. According to
Rapson, the obverse marks were the private marks of the money-changers and the
reverse marks denoted the locality in which the coins were issued. However, recent
researches have proved that the punch-marked coins were issued by a regular public
authority. A few of them found at Pataliputra have been ascribed by Dr. K.P. Jayaswal
to the age of Chandragupta Maurya. A large number of coins are to be found in the
government museums and municipal museums and the private collectors. A critical
study of all of them is bound to give a lot of additional evidence. Check Your Progress
5. The history of the
Satavahanas is
ascertained from
which group of
coins?
6. What do the
symbols on the
Gupta coinage
signify?
Self-Instructional
Material 11
Sources 1.2.3 Monuments
The archeological sources such as buildings and monuments also act as a source of
information. Excavations have been done at various parts of the country and these
NOTES excavations have become a rich source of material.
The Indus region was home to the largest urban civilization named as the Indus
Valley Civilization. A great part of its ruins including major cities have not been
excavated as yet. Many mysteries remain, including the origins of the people and the
script, which has not been deciphered yet.
The society was very complex and well developed. Harappa flourished between
the years 2,600–1,700 BCE. The Harappans used similar size of bricks and
standardized system of weights that were used in the cities of Mohenjo-Daro (Figure
1.2) and Dholavira.
Fig. 1.2 Ruins of Mohenjo-Daro
These cities were planned meticulously and had wide streets, drainage systems, wells,
bathing platforms and reservoirs as can be seen in Figure 1.3.
Fig. 1.3 The Great Bath
There were other well developed cultures in neighboring regions of Baluchistan and
Central Asia. Material culture and skeletons found in Harappa cemetery along with
the other sites confirm the continual mélange of communities from the east as well as
the west. Harappa was settled much before what is known as the ancient Indus
civilization. Another important excavation reveals the details of the Kushanas. This is
at Taxila (Figure 1.4). This was an important city because it lay at the cross roads of
Self-Instructional
12 Material
many trade routes such as Grand Trunk Road and the Karakoram highway. Sources
NOTES
Fig. 1.4 Ruins of Taxila
1.2.4 Chronicles
Manuscripts and court records are rich sources of written evidence. The ancient Indian
texts provide an abundant source of Indian life and heritage and also about scientific
and technical achievements. The four Vedas, the Rig Veda, the Sama Veda, the Yajur
Veda and the Atharva veda are amongst the original ancient texts. The other texts are
as follows:
 Brahmanas
 Aryankas
 Upanishads
 Puranas
 Brahmashastras
A manuscript is a recording of information, which has been created manually (by
hand) by someone. The term is also used for information that is hand-recorded in
other ways than writing, which includes inscriptions that are chiseled upon any hard
material or carved with knife or with a stylus on a waxed tablet, which is the way
Romans used to make notes.
Manuscripts cannot be defined through their contents, since it may be an
amalgamation of writing with maps, mathematical calculations, explanatory figures
and/or illustrations. Manuscripts might be in form of scrolls or book form and can
now also be found often in codex format.
Before the woodblocks were invented, printing all the written documents in
any printing press needed to be done by hand. Historically, manuscripts were formed Check Your Progress
in the form of scrolls or books (codex, plural codices), although methods also varied
7. In which period of
from country to country. history did the
 India: In India the palm-leaf manuscripts, which had a typical long and Harappa
civilization
rectangular shape were used. They were used from the ancient times till the flourish?
19th century (Figure 1.5). 8. What were the
 Russia: In Russia, birch bark documents were used. characteristics of
Mohenjo-Daro
 Egypt: In Egypt, papyrus was widely used for the manuscripts. cities?
Paper came to the Islamic countries through China and further spread to European
Self-Instructional
Material 13
Sources countries by 14th century, and by the middle of the 15th century, it had replaced
parchment for numerous purposes.
Some of the oldest manuscripts ever written have been preserved by the perfect
dryness methods, which were used in their Middle Eastern countries. A perfect example
NOTES of this could be the Egyptian tombs. Interestingly, some were used in mummy-
wrappings as well.
Fig. 1.5 Indian Manuscript
In India, manuscripts are classified under two types. They are as follows:
1. Palm-leaf manuscripts: Palm leaves were usually the most prevalent form of
writing material during the ancient Indian times. They were called by many
names such as tadapatra or panna. The leaves were collected from the palm
tree, which were widely available all over the country. Then they were dried
and cut into the required lengths. Two holes were usually made so that a string
could be passed to tie the leaves together.
2. Paper manuscripts: Paper usage came to India much later. There are no exact
dates as to when it started. Paper was made by hand using cellulose vegetable
material; the ink used for the purpose of writing was called masi or mela. This
ink was available in many colours such as red, black, silver and gold. Black
was the most used colour and the permanent black ink got prepared by mixing
the lamp soot of sesame oil with the gum of acacia.
Rainwater was also used. The pens got made from either wood or bamboo. The
papers got dipped in turmeric water. This was done to protect them from being damaged
by insects.
1.3 LITERARY SOURCES

It took humans a long time to develop the art of writing. Before paper was invented,
people wrote on palm leaves and on the bark of birch trees. These written records
which include both religious and secular literature are called manuscripts.
Check Your Progress

Religious literature
9. What kind of Religious literature includes the religious texts of the Hindus, Buddhists and Jains.
manuscripts were
commonly used in Hindu religious texts
India?
10. How were papers The first literary source of the Hindus is the Samhita which includes four Vedas
protected from namely the Rig Veda, the Samveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda. Besides
insects?
these, there are the Brahmins (the Satapatha, Panchavis, Atreya etc.), the Upanishads
(the Kathaka, the Isa, the Svetasvatra etc.), the Aryanakas, the Sutras (the Manu, the
Self-Instructional
14 Material
Vishnu, the Narad, the Brihaspati etc.), the Puranas (the Vishnu, the Vayu–18 in all) Sources
and the epics (the Ramayana and the Mahabharata) which assist one in deciphering
and understanding the the history and culture of India from the Vedic up to the Gupta
age. The Rig Veda provides us some significant information about the civilization of
the early Vedic Age while the rest of the three Vedas illuminate upon the specificity of NOTES
the cultural aspects of the later age. The Brahmins provide us some critical knowledge
concerning the Aryans–their attitude towards east India, religious beliefs, and rituals
to be conducted especially during the later Vedic age. The Upanishads, too, were
concerned with the philosophical speculations and beliefs of the Aryans such as the
trans-migration of soul, Brahma and salvation. The Shastras inform us about the
rituals while performing different Yajnas and the religious, social, moral and political
responsibilities of an individual. The Smiritis reveal to us the social and religious
conditions of the Indians between 200 BC to AD 600. The Ramayana and the
Mahabharata are useful for knowing the living conditions of the Aryans during the
later Vedic age while the Puranas help us in finding out the history of the rulers and
their kingdoms which existed in India after the war of the Mahabharata till the 6th
century AD.
Buddhist religious texts
The original Buddhist texts are known as the Tripitaka. They are three in number and
can be categorized as follows:
1. The Vinya pitaka which describes the rules and regulations for the guidance of
the Buddhist monks and the general management of the Church
2. The Sutti-pitaka is a collection of the religious discourses of Buddha
3. The Ahbidhamma-pitaka which contains an exposition of the philosophical
principles underlying religion.
Afterwards, the Mahayana and the Tantrika sects of Buddhism created vast religious
literature of their own and the penultimate Jataka stories (nearly 549 in number) of
Mahayanism describing various life-stories of Mahatma Buddha were also written.
All of them constitute the sources of approaching the contemporary culture and history
of India. These Buddhist religious texts provide useful information to us concerning
the polity, political life, different rulers, their dynasties, their rule and their kingdoms
up to the 6th century BC and also the social, economic, religious and cultural life of
people in that age. The religious texts, the Mahavansa and the Dipavansa, prepared
by the scholars of Sri Lanka, also provide us useful information concerning the history
of ancient India.
Jain religious texts
The original Jain religious texts were called Agams. Afterwards, these were compiled
into 14 Purvas and further, the first ten Purvas were re-arranged in 12 Angas in the
fifth century AD. Now, only 11 Angas are available. Besides, a vast literature was
created by Jain scholars afterwards which also provides us useful knowledge
concerning the history, culture and civilization of ancient India. The Bhadrabahu
Charita refers to several events belonging to the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. The
Katha Kosh and other similar Jain religious texts have churned out some useful
historical material. Among the later Jain religious texts, one of the most prominent
ones is the Parisista Parva which was prepared during the 12th century.
Self-Instructional
Material 15
Sources 1.3.1 Sanskrit, Secular and Regional Language Writings
The Vedas, the oldest recorded text of the Aryans, and the Buddhist texts are written
sources, which tell us about the past. But since these scripts are associated with
NOTES rituals or religious practices of the past, these are called religious sources. Other
examples are the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Gita and the Puranas. However,
there could be books written in the past, e.g., accounts of foreign travellers who came
to India and wrote about the Indian society. The literature not connected with the
religion of the times is called ‘secular’. For example, the Arthashastra, which was
written by Kautilya. This book dealt with legal issues and state craft.
India has a history spanning many thousands of years. The Indus Valley
Civilization was at par with the rest of the early civilizations. However, one point
which has been lacking is the absence of recorded history. This has been so evident
that a very prominent historian R. C. Majumdar has quoted: ‘One of the gravest
defects of Indian culture, which defies rational explanation, is the aversion of Indians
to writing history. They applied themselves to all conceivable branches of literature
and excelled in many of them, but they never seriously took to the writing of history,’
with the result that ‘for a great deal of our knowledge of ancient Indian history we are
indebted to foreigners’.
So, while we have many linguistic records of Indian history, the records are sketchy at
best. The earliest records begin with early pictures which later transformed into pictorial
scripts and engravings, which later evolved into modern orthographies. Modern Indian
languages belong to the following families of languages:
 Indo-Aryan languages
 Tibeto-Burman languages
 Dravidian languages
Sanskrit
The earliest form of Sanskrit is Vedic Sanskrit. It is an old Indo-Aryan language
which has descended from the Proto-Indo-Iranian origin and is closely related to
Avestan—the oldest preserved Iranian language. Vedic Sanskrit is thus the oldest
attested language of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. The other
languages descending from Vedic or sister dialects include: Kashmiri, Konkani, Dogri,
Garhwali, Punjabi, Kumaoni, Sindhi, Brajbhasha, Multani, Awadhi, Haryanvi, Bagheli,
Marwari and many more others.
The name Vedic Sanskrit takes its name from the Vedas, the language in which
these great texts were compiled. Vedic Sanskrit was originally preserved from the
oral traditions of Vedic chanting. This predated the written records by many centuries.
Due to the absence of epigraphic evidence and an unbroken manuscript tradition,
Vedic Sanskrit is also considered a reconstructed language. This is more so in the
case of the Rig Veda, the earliest Veda. This is because the hymns of the Rig Veda
were composed much earlier than the written records and were passed on from
generation to generation by means of oral chanting.
The oldest core of the Vedic Sanskrit predates 1500 BC. From around 600 BC,
Vedic Sanskrit gave way to Classical Sanskrit after the great grammarian Panini defined
the grammar of Sanskrit. Sanskrit has a vast and rich tradition of literature comprising
poetry and drama. Along with this, there is a huge resource of scientific, technical,
Self-Instructional
philosophical and religious texts. In the modern day, though Sanskrit is used as a
16 Material
language of the religious institutions in the form of singing of mantras and chants, it Sources
continues to be widely used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals in the
forms of hymns and mantras. However, as a language of the masses it has all but
faded out of use.
NOTES
Prakrit
Prakrit is a language derived from the middle Indic group of the Indo-Aryan languages.
The roots of the words are indicative of its usage. The name Prakrit is derived from
the word ‘Parikrit’. This has many meanings, some of which are normal, artless,
ordinary, usual, or vernacular. This origin is very interesting as it denotes the general
usage of the language by the ordinary people as opposed to the religious language
which was Sanskrit. Another way of looking at it is that it has evolved in an ordinary
or normal way. Prakrit came to be the language of the Kshatriya caste and was
patronized by kings.
The earliest usage of Prakrit is the corpus of inscriptions of the Great Emperor
Asoka. Asoka was a great follower of Buddha. It is not surprising therefore to find
Prakrit appearing in the literature of the Pali canon of the Hinayana Buddhists. It is
also seen in the writings of the Jains. Various forms of the Prakrit languages are
associated with different dynasties, with different religions and different literary
traditions, as well as different regions in the Indian subcontinent.
Pali
Pali, another language derived from Prakrit, is of the Middle Indo-Aryan language
heritage. It is best known as the language of many of the earliest Buddhist scriptures,
collected in the Tripitaka, and is the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism. The
inscriptions in Pali can be found on the iron pillar at Qutub Minar and are still present
for all to view.
Dravidian
The Dravidian family or group of languages is spoken by more than 200 million
people. The spread of the Dravidian languages and its more than 85 sub groups is
found mostly in southern, eastern and central parts of India. They are also present in
the following countries:
 Malaysia
 Singapore
 Sri Lanka
 Pakistan
 Nepal
 Bangladesh
 Afghanistan
 Iran
Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam and Telugu are the most widely spoken Dravidian
languages and have millions of speakers, spread across South India and even in South-
East Asia.
An interesting point is that there are small pockets where Scheduled Tribes
speak Dravidian-based languages, and yet are cut off from mainstream communities.
Self-Instructional
Material 17
Sources There is an offshoot of the Dravidian language, called Brahui, which is spoken in the
northwestern regions of Pakistan and some regions of Iran and Afghanistan. The
interesting point is that this is spoken nowhere else in the Indian sub-continent. Brahui
is similar to Baloch or Baluch and is spoken extensively in the Kalat region of
NOTES Baluchistan.
Evolution of Scripts
Let us discuss the evolution of various scripts in India.
Indus script
The Indus script was used by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization. This has
been ascribed to the period between the 26th and the 20th century BC. Many historians
and linguists have tried to decipher this but have not been successful. The fact that
there was even a script in the Indus Valley civilization was not clear.
However, what has been referred to as the Indus script comprised short strings
or groups of symbols. It is presumed that there may have been an underlying script
but even that has not been identified. However, it is assumed by some scholars that
this script was a Dravidian language.
Based on the various discoveries of seals, it is assumed that there was a script.
Since the first discovery in the 1870s, more than 4,000 seals and other symbol bearing
objects have been found. Some of these have been found as far away as Mesopotamia,
which suggests both contact and possibility of trade.
The average Indus inscription contains five signs (Figure 1.6), and the longest
inscription is only 17-signs long. Some scholars believe that the Indus script was the
precursor to the Brahmi script, while other scholars think that the precursor for the
Brahmi script was Aramaic.
Fig. 1.6 The Typical 5 Characters
Brahmi script
Asoka’s rock-cut edicts are considered to be the best available inscriptions in Brahmi.
They date back to the 3rd century BC. For a long period of time, these were discoveries
taken to be the earliest Brahmi writing examples. The recent archaeological findings
in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka give evidence of the earliest use of the Brahmi script in
about 6th century BC. This dating has been affixed with the help of thermo-
luminescence dating and the radiocarbon dating methods.
Self-Instructional
18 Material
Sources
ACTIVITY
Write down the most important characteristics of Sanskrit writings. NOTES
Fig. 1.7 Brahmi Script on a Segment of the Ashoka Pillar
The Brahmi script is the script of origin for many Manchurian, Mongolian, Tibetian,
South-east Asian and South Asian scripts. It is thought that it is also the language of
origin for Korean Hangul. The Brahmi numeral system is ancestor to the Hindu-
Arabic numerals that are in use across the world.
The origin of Brahmi is itself clouded in mystery. To many scholars, the origin
of Brahmi lies in the old Aramaic script. For some, the origins lie in the Kharosthi
script, which was introduced by the expansion of the Achaemenid Empire in north-
western India. Rhys Davids believes that Brahmi was introduced to India by traders
from the Middle-East, who in turn, had got it from Mesopotamia.
For some scholars, it had its origin in Sri Lanka where some of the earliest
samples have been found in the trading town of Anuradhapura. Needless to say, the
evolution of the language till the time of Asoka’s rule was sufficiently advanced for
the issuing of rock edicts. Figure 1.7 shows Brahmi script on a segment of Asokan
pillar.
Pieces of pottery found in Tamil Nadu in Adichanallur give a yet earlier evidence
of Brahmi script. Radio-carbon testing on the pottery fixes its time to 6th century BC.
English scholars F. Raymond Allchin and G.R. Hunter and a few others opine that
Brahmi was of completely indigenous development, and its predecessor could have
been the Indus script.
Kharosthi script
This script is also known as Gandhari. The ancient North-West India’s Gandhara
culture used it to write Sanskrit and Gandhari languages. It was employed for writing
from 4th century BC till about 3rd century AD when it went out of use. However,
along the Silk Route, there is evidence of its use and of its being employed in the
remote stations of Niya and Khotan right up to the 7th century AD.
The origin of the Kharosthi script is also not clear with scholars divided in their
opinion. Some are of the opinion that it evolved gradually, while others think that it
was the result of a specific effort by a group of people to develop a new script. There
Self-Instructional
Material 19
Sources seems to be its specific dependency on Aramaic with changes to suit and support
sounds from the sub-continent. The importance of Kharosthi is with particular reference
to the historical importance.
Manuscripts on birch wood bark have been discovered with Buddhist texts
NOTES from the Gandharv Period. These are the oldest Buddhist mansucripts available. They
are currently in the British Library. The strip belonging to the 2-5th centuries is
preserved in Xinjiang Museum in China.
Gupta script
The Gupta script also sometimes referred to as Gupta Brahmi Script or Late Brahmi
Script was employed for sanskrit writing. It is associated with the Gupta rules which
witnessed immense prosperity and development both in science and religion. The
Gupta script itself came out of Brahmi and was further used to create the Siddham,
Sharada and Nagari scripts. These scripts in turn gave rise to many important scripts
of India, including Devanagari script (the most common script used for writing Sanskrit
since the 19th century), the Gurmukhi script for Punjabi language and the Tibetan
script.
Siddham script
Siddham script has descended from Brahmi and was in use in the Gupta period. This
script is different because each character in it represents a syllable. From this script,
it is assumed, arose Devanagari and Tibetan. While this script is no longer in use in
any significant place, it still finds usage by practitioners of Shingon Buddhists in
Japan. This script is thought to have reached Japan through a Buddhist scholar Kukai,
who had studied it in China with some Nalanda-educated scholars.
It is clear that while the practice of writing has been in existence in India for at
least five thousand years, the existence of historical records of Indian origin has been
only since the Arab invasions in 11th century. Thus, the best source of historical
records is from foreign travellers. These include Megasthenes, the Greek historian
who was the ambassador from Greece to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His
historical work is known as Indica. Another Greek, Ptolemy, has extensively mentioned
India in his Geographia. The works of Fa-hien and Huen Tsang are well known.
Thus, from ancient India we have more historical content which was originally
passed on from generation to generation in the form of oral records till the first books,
the Vedas, were written which give some account of the social structure and practices
of those times.
Secular Literature
As the term suggests, the writings included in this section are not restricted to a
particular religious sect or social class. Rather, it focuses upon sorting out those major
texts which were composed by neutral and intellectual personalities so as to compile
an exact and a precisely transparent record of Indian culture and heritage. Therefore,
it includes writings by foreigners, biographical works of great historical persons,
historical texts and literary compositions.
The Greek, Roman, Chinese and Muslim writers and travellers have left fairly
interesting sources of information in their accounts. Amongst the Greek and Roman
writers, Strabo, Skylex, Justin, Herodotus, Curtius, Diodorus, Arrian, Plutarch,
Self-Instructional
20 Material
Ptolemy and the anonymous author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea have left Sources
interesting accounts of India. But the most popular amongst them is Indica written by
Megasthenes who lived for some time in the court of Chandragupta Maurya as an
ambassador of Seleucus. Amongst the Muslims, Sulaiman and Al Masudi left brief
records of India while Alberuni who came to India with Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni NOTES
wrote the best ever foreign account of India that this age has produced. The Chinese
travellers Fa-hien, Hiuen Tsang and I-tsing recorded their experiences in bulky volumes
which provide us with useful and relevant information. Besides these important writers
and travellers there are many other Greek, Muslim and Chinese authors whose works
play a crucial role in educating us regarding the contemporary Indian cultural beliefs.
Accounts apart, the contemporary biographical works also prove to be a source
of authentic and filtered information. The most important of these works are
Harshachairta of Banabhatta, Gaudavaho and Vikramankadeva-charita of Vakapati
and Bilhana describing the exploits of Yasovarman and Vikramaditya of the later
Chalukya dynasty, Kumarapala-charita of Jayasimha, Kumarapala-Charita of
Hemachandra, Hammir-Kavya of Nayachandra, Bhoj Prabandha by Ballal, and
Prithviraja-Vijaya by an anonymous writer. Amongst the historical writings, the most
famous is the Rajataragini, the history of Kashmir written by Kalhana. After him,
writers like Jonaraja, Srivara, Prajya Bhatta and Shuka carried on this work and
scribbled down the history of Kashmir till a few years after its conquest by the Mughal
emperor Akbar. The Gujarat chronicles like Ras-Mala, Kirti Kaumudi Hammira
Mada-Mardana, Vasanta-Vilasa, the Persian translation of Chachanama which gives
a detailed account of the Arab conquest of Sind, the Vansavalis of Nepal and Tamil
literature, particularly of the Sangam age, also throw a valuable light on the
contemporary history and culture of their respective places.
Pure literary works such as drama and poems and prose works on polity,
economy and grammar carried out by scholars in the other branches of knowledge
are also of valuable help. Among them, the most notable are Arthashastra of Kautilya,
Mohabhashya of Patanjali, Astadhyayi of Panini, Mudra-Rakshasa of Vishakhadatta,
and the Katha Sarita Sagar of Somdeva dealing with the period of the Maurays. The
Nitisara written by Kamandaka provides an insight into the polity of the Gupta rulers,
the Mahabhashya of Patanjali and the Malvikaganimitram written by Kalidas help
Check Your Progress
us in finding out the material concerning the history of the Sungas and the
Mricchakatika of Sudraka and the Das Kumara-Charita written by Dandin throw 11. Which is the first
literary source of
useful light on the contemporary socio-political and economic life. the Hindus?
Judging by the same standards, the Sangam literature written in Tamil language 12. What do the
becomes a sort of mirror reflecting the social and political realities of the Chera, the Shastras explain?
Chola and the Pandya dynasties of the far South up to 3rd century AD. 13. Which families of
language do the
However, the list is not complete. Different scholars wrote religious and secular modern Indian
languages belong
texts in Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Tamil and other languages at different points of time.
to?
Among them, many are well known and many more might have been missed. Besides, 14. What is the origin
a student of history should be cautious while going through this literature, whether of the name
religious or secular, in an effort to dig out ancient Indian history, as religious history is ‘prakrit’?
no historical chronicle and the object of biographical works, in most cases, remains 15. Which are the best
available
the glorification of the kings while the writings of the foreigners are mostly based inscriptions in
upon second-hand information. Yet, though suffering from these handicaps, the literary Brahmi?
sources certainly provide valuable help to the students of Indian history.
Self-Instructional
Material 21
Sources
Medieval India saw probably the first recorded historical events in India. However,
as has been discussed earlier, the recording of events was not from Indian historians
NOTES but from a foreign scholar, Alberuni, who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni in his
invasions of India. This was the period when the recording of history actually began
in a systematic manner due to active encouragement of the Muslim rulers. Babar has
left behind a very detailed memoir, Baburnama.
Another source of historical information on Northern India is ‘Prithviraj Raso’,
a ballad written by the court poet, Chand Bardai on the ruler Prithviraj Chauhan, the
last Hindu ruler before the ascension of the slave dynasty.
Prithviraj Raso cannot be considered strictly historical for a number of reasons. The
main reason is that it is a poem based on some incidents of the life of Prithviraj
Chauhan and not a historical recording. Another reason is that it has been embellished
and expanded over time to such an extent that the original text probably comprises a
small portion of the complete ballad as it exists today. Thirdly, today’s available text
is based mainly on the compilation of the seventeenth century Amar Singh, a good
many centuries after the actual occurrence. In the words of Lord Acton, it is rightly
said: ‘History to be above evasion or dispute, must stand on documents, not opinions.’
With the advent of Arab invaders, there was an infusion of historical texts and memoirs,
a majority of which had a religious bias. This is evident in the following types of text:
 Sirahor (biographies)
 Ansab (genealogies)
 Tabaqator (sketches)
 Malfuzator (memoirs)
 Maghazior (war narratives)
Religious influence in such texts is mainly evident as the new religion (Islam) needed
to be explained in the context of military conquest. There were some writers like Ibn
Khaldun who were secular in their outlook, while others like Barani considered the
conquests in terms of divine planning.
Some of the more famous writings of the medieval period included the following:
 Works of Ziyauddin Barani and Abdul Qadir Badaoni
 Gulbadan Begum, the daughter of Babur wrote an autobiographical sketch
called the Humayunnama
 Jahangir memoirs ‘Tuzuk – I – Jahangiri’.
Shah Nawaz Khan Sahamsuddaula was born at Lahore in 1669, and was originally
called AbdurRazzak al Husain. He composed the Ma-’asiru-l Umra, a biographical
dictionary of the illustrious men who flourished in Hindustan and the Deccan from
the time of Akbar. Azad Bilgrami was another historian. His actual name was Mir
Ghulam Ali Husaini Wasiti and he was born in Central India in a place called Bilgram
from where he got his name. Though he was well versed in religious works, he has
produced some important works, such as:
 Yad-i-Baiza, which is a biography of many poets.
 Ma asirul-KiramTarikh-i-Bilgram, which was a composition of some important
personalities in his hometown.
Self-Instructional
22 Material
 Ghizlanul Hind, which was a book on Indian womanhood Sources
 Anisul Muhaqqiqin, which was a book on Indian saints

The arrival of the Europeans, especially the British, brought about another set of
scholars who tried to understand the land and its people. Their contribution started
NOTES
with translation of the medieval historical works into English.
The main problem with most of the historical works of the medieval period
was that they exhibited extreme biasness. A lot of it was due to a belief in ‘divine
right’. Another reason for this was that most court historians were ordered to write
records with the objective of presenting their kings in good light. So, even where
there would have been acts of cruelty, on the part of rulers these acts were shown with
a positive spin, showcasing their necessity.
The History of Modern India presents an overview of the history of what was
known as British India from the times of the British East India Company and is inclusive
of the nationalist movement including the contributions of different people. The British
rule over India altered the course of history in the country. The British came to India
at the beginning of the seventeenth century. This was the time when the British East
India Company was established in India to break the Dutch monopoly over the spice
trade. The East India Company gradually increased its powers over time and started
to administer the country. However, its policies were disliked by Indians, who revolted
strongly against the company in 1857. This led to the downfall of the company and
the administration of India went directly under the Queen.
The British annexed many princely states and formed laws and policies of their
own. Hence, the entire Indian sub-continent came under the British rule slowly but
steadily. By the mid-nineteenth century, the British introduced the railways, telegraph
and postal service in India, making easy the communication in the country. However,
this was a move to establish their rule permanently in India. The actions and effects of
British rule are available from a variety of sources, such as:
 Land records
 Communication dispatches
 Legal decrees and Acts passed by the British
 Historians of repute
K. A. Nilakanta Sastri was a famous historian from South India. He is generally
regarded as the greatest and the most prolific among professional historians of South
India. There are other important historians of Modern India, such as Jadunath Sarkar,
whose works have provided a key insight into modern Indian history.
A big problem with the writers of modern Indian history is that they need to be
very cautious in their interpretation of historical events. This can be seen from attacks
on persons writing history today as sometime it seems to clash with perceptions built
over time. This can be seen by the attack on the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
due to its research support to the book ‘Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India’. Even
Bollywood films loosely based on historical events have been targeted because their
depiction happens to deviate from popular perceptions.
Land records and details of tax collection are another source of information
and historical data in India. The land revenue system which was used by Emperor
Akbar was inspired by the system of Sher Shah Suri. Although an enemy, Akbar had
great respect for the systems that were adopted by Sher Shah and the kind of impact
that he had left in his short reign.
Self-Instructional
Material 23
Sources Under this system, instead of taxing the whole area with similar rates, a selected
area was taxed trough rates, which were fixed on the basis of the productivity of the
crops in that particular area. This system was highly efficient as it did not over burden
the peasant class. Although this system also had certain difficulties as the prices which
NOTES were fixed under the reign of Akbar were at times too high. Moreover there were
cases of corruption as the whole system was decentralized. Eventually this system
was replaced by another one known as Dahsala.
This new found system was credited to a man who had worked under Sher
Shah Suri. His name was Raja Todar Mal. Under this new system of Dahsala an
average production for ten years were calculated for an area. Then one third of the
calculated amount for every year was taken from the peasants in the form of cash.
This system was less complex than the previous one. Also under this system, there
were remissions given in case of natural disasters such as droughts and floods. Since
agriculture was the main source of revenue collection Akbar paid great attention
towards progress in this regard. He knew that overburdening the peasants with taxes
would only make the progress slow in every regard, thus he kept a close look in the
assessments of the areas for tax collection. He was actively involved in the improvement
of agriculture as well as its extension. The lands that were uncultivated because they
were not suitable for agriculture were also taxed but with much concessional rates.
The emperor was benevolent towards the peasants in every manner. Zamindars
were given orders by the state through which they were bound to provide loans to the
peasants. They also were required to aid the peasants with the agricultural equipments.
The peasants were encouraged to grow food crops using high quality seeds. They
held hereditary rights on the lands of their fathers and forefathers.
The revenue officials however were not so happy with the new found system,
may be because it did not provide a system under which they could collect taxes in an
unlawful manner, which they did under the previous system. They were at first officials
who were employed by Mughals. They collected taxes from the peasants. The
zamindari system was based on the ‘bhuiyan land tenure system,’ which existed
from pre-Mughal period and was used by Mughals as an economic institution to put
into practice the sharia-based Islamic rule over zamindars.
During the Mughal period, the zamindari system guaranteed an appropriate
collection of tax from the peasants. The supremacy and power of the Mughals were
on the decline. The title of zamindar became relevant after Mughal conquest of Bengal.
All the zamindars under Mughals were entailed to perform certain duties which were
judicial, military as well as police. They were public functionaries. Zamindars were
the real owners of their land although they were given judicial powers by the state.
The zamindars ruling a territory had certain judicial powers. They even had courts,
which were known as the Zamindari adalats. These adalats worked in two ways—
it vested great powers into the hands of the zamindars and secondly it was the source
of the additional income for the zamindars.
Over the centuries many visitors have come to India from foreign lands and have
Check Your Progress provided a rich source of material for understanding the culture, socio-economic and
16. Who wrote political status of India.
Prithviraj raso? A very famous Buddhist monk, named Fa-Hien, visited India between the years
17. What was the 399 and 412 CE. His journey, mainly a search for Buddhist scriptures, also spanned
Ma-’asiru-l Umra
other Asian regions such as Nepal and Sri Lanka. He came from China. He is
about?
remembered for the pilgrimage to Lumbini, which was the birthplace of Lord Buddha.
Self-Instructional
24 Material
Sources
NOTES
Fig. 1.8 Fa-Hien
Another important visitor who came to India was Abu al-Rayan Muammad ibn Amad
al-Biruni; who was born in the year 973 AD. He was a famous Persian scholar. Al-
Biruni had great interest in numerous practical and scholarly fields. These fields
comprise the modern day study in physics, geography, chemistry, history, anthropology,
astrology, medicine, theology, philosophy, sociology and mathematics.
He is arguably the first among the Muslim scholars who studied the Brahminic
traditions of India. Al-Biruni is best known for his seminal work Al-Hind, which
provides fascinating glimpses of India.
Another famous monk who visited India was Xuanzang, also called Huen-
Tsang. His period of travel was between 602 and 664 CE. He was a scholar and a
translator of various languages. He had entered Buddhist monkhood when he was
merely thirteen. Megasthenes was a Greek ethnographer who was the author of Indica.
He was born in Asia Minor, which is situated in modern day Turkey. He was an
ambassador from Seleucus I of Syria to the court of Chandragupta Maurya in
Pataliputra. He came to India before 288 BCE.
Megasthenes entered India through Pentapotamia, which is situated in present
day Punjab. He has written about the rivers of Punjab in his autobiography in great
detail. He then went on to Pataliputra. There are accounts of Megasthenes visiting
Madurai. Madurai in those times was an active city and was the capital of the Pandya
kingdom. At the beginning of his book he referred to the older Indians who know
about the prehistoric arrival of Dionysus and Hercules in India. Particularly, he
described in detail about the religions of the Indians. He mentions the devotees of
Hercules (Shiva) and Dionysus (Krishna), although there are no accounts by him on
Buddhist religion or Buddhist writings.
1.4 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that:
 The study of history is important because our past determines the way we deal Check Your Progress
with the present, and therefore, it dictates what answers we offer to existing 18. Who wrote Al-Hind
problems. and what is it
about?
 Historiography deals with how history itself is documented or passed down
19. From where did
through the ages. It examines various means, by which the historical source is Megasthenes enter
formed, especially the credibility of the sources that are used, the intention of India?
the historian composing the history, and the authenticity of the sources.
Self-Instructional
Material 25
Sources  The historical method comprises how historians use sources to research and
write history. A sound historical method uses a number of guidelines to construct
an authentic historical account.
 Sources for historical research are distinguished under three main categories:
NOTES Primary, secondary and hybrid sources.
 A study of inscriptions throws light upon the language of the people, names of
the rulers, the years they ruled, their military achievements, the religious and
social conditions of the people and many other details.
 Eulogistic inscriptions can be further subdivided into two parts viz. pure eulogy
and eulogy mixed with other types.
 Coins in the ancient times were made of metals like gold, silver and copper and
were therefore not easily destroyed. They had the names and images of rulers
stamped upon them. They gave information such as the date of accession and
death of the ruler.
 The archeological sources such as buildings and monuments also act as a source
of information. Excavations have been done at various parts of the country and
these excavations have become a rich source of material.
 Manuscripts and court records are rich sources of written evidence. The ancient
Indian texts provide an abundant source of Indian life and heritage and also
about scientific, technical achievements.
 It took humans a long time to develop the art of writing. Before paper was
invented, people wrote on palm leaves and on the bark of birch trees. These
written records which include both religious and secular literature are called
manuscripts.
 The Vedas, the oldest recorded text of the Aryans, and the Buddhist texts are
written sources, which tell us about the past. But since these scripts are
associated with rituals or religious practices of the past, these are called religious
sources. Other examples are the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Gita and the
Puranas.
 Medieval India saw probably the first recorded historical events in India.
However, as has been discussed earlier, the recording of events was not from
Indian historians but from a foreign scholar, Alberuni, who accompanied
Mahmud of Ghazni in his invasions of India. This was the period when the
recording of history actually began in a systematic manner due to active
encouragement of the Muslim rulers.
 Land records and details of tax collection are another source of information
and historical data in India. The land revenue system which was used by Emperor
Akbar was inspired by the system of Sher Shah Suri. Although an enemy,
Akbar had great respect for the systems that were adopted by Sher Shah and
the kind of impact that he had left in his short reign.
 Over the centuries many visitors have come to India from foreign lands and
have provided a rich source of material for understanding the culture, socio-
economic and political status of India.
1.5 KEY TERMS

 Historiography: It is the history of historical study, its methodology and
practices. It deals with how history itself is documented or passed down through
Self-Instructional the ages
26 Material
 Archaeology: It is the study of the remains of our past like monuments, tools, Sources
pottery, coins, weapons, paintings and the other artefacts
 Epigraphy: In ancient times, the rulers engraved important messages for people
on rocks, pillars, stone walls, clay tablets and copper plates. These writings
were known as inscriptions. The study of the inscriptions is called epigraphy NOTES
 Numismatics: The study of coins is called numismatics. Coins in the ancient
times had the names and images of rulers stamped upon them. They give
information such as the date of accession and death of the ruler
 Manuscript: Amanuscript is a recording of information, which has been created
manually (by hand) by someone. The term is also used for information that is
hand-recorded in other ways than writing, which includes inscriptions that are
chiseled upon any hard material or carved with knife or with a stylus on a
waxed tablet
1.6 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’

1. One hybrid source of historical research is a autobiography
2. The Europeans classified history into ancient, medieval and modern periods.
3. The study of the Indian antiquities was initiated by scholars like Sir William
Jones who founded the Asiatic society of Bengal in 1774.
4. Copper was commonly used for inscriptions.
5. The history of the Satavahanas is ascertained from the Jogalthambi hoard of
coins.
6. The symbols on the Gupta coinage refer to their zeal for Hinduism.
7. Harappa flourished between the years 2,600–1,700 BCE.
8. These cities were planned meticulously and had wide streets, drainage systems,
wells, bathing platforms and reservoirs.
9. In India the palm-leaf manuscripts, which had a typical long and rectangular
shape were used.
10. The papers were dipped in turmeric water to protect them from being damaged
by the insects.
11. The first literary source of the Hindus is the Samhita which includes four Vedas
namely the Rig Veda, the Samveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda.
12. The Shastras inform us about the rituals while performing different Yajnas and
the religious, social, moral and political responsibilities of an individual.
13. Modern Indian languages belong to the following families of languages:
 Indo-Aryan languages
 Tibeto-Burman languages
 Dravidian languages
14. The name Prakrit is derived from the word ‘Parikrit’. This has many meanings,
some of which are normal, artless, ordinary, usual, or vernacular.
15. Asoka’s rock-cut edicts are considered to be the best available inscriptions in
Brahmi. They date back to the 3rd century BC.
16. Chand Bardai wrote Prithviraj Raso.
Self-Instructional
Material 27
Sources 17. It is a biographical dictionary of the illustrious men who flourished in Hindustan
and the Deccan from the time of Akbar.
18. Al-Biruni wrote Al-Hindu with fascinating Stories about India.
NOTES 19. Megasthenes entered India through Pentapotamia, which is situated in present
day Punjab.
1.7 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. What is the study of coins called? How is it useful?
2. How are Vedas divided?
3. Name the European who declared that there is a definite relation between
Sanskrit, the literary language of the Indo-Aryans and some European languages.
4. How are land records a great source of information on history of India?
5. Write short notes on primary and secondary sources of history.
6. Elaborate upon the initiatives taken by the British officials in exploring Indian
literature and history. Name a few prominent officials and their literary
contributions. What do you think was their motive behind undertaking such an
extensive task?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Describe the use of monuments as a source for studying ancient Indian history.
2. Discuss the features of Palm-leaf manuscripts and paper manuscripts.
3. Evaluate the role of chronicles in understanding the history of Ancient India.
4. Write a detailed account of various ancient religious scriptures and the
information contained in them. Compare and contrast their content with that of
the travelogues and biographical memoirs.
1.8 FURTHER READING

Basham, A.L.; The Wonder that was India, 2nd (ed.) Picador, London 1963.
Bhandarkar, D.R.; Asoka. Asian Education Service, Chennai, 2000.
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A.; A History of South India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
1955.
Thapar, Romila; A History of India, (Vol. 1), Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2000.
J.C. Sharman 2021 Empires of the weak
1.9 LEARNING OUTCOMES

 The significance of various archeological sources in tracing the history of India,
such as coins, monuments, epigraphy and chronicles
 The various available literary sources of the times, including Sanskrit,secular and
regional language writings, archived materials and foreign travellers’accounts
Self-Instructional
28 Material
Political Developments:
UNIT 2 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS: The Sultanate
THE SULTANATE
NOTES
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Unit Objectives
2.2 The Khiljis
2.3 The Tughlaqs
2.4 Sayyids and Lodhis
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Terms
2.9 Further Reading
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Muslim rule in India saw the emergence of a number of different ruling dynasties
who ruled over the subcontinent at successive intervals. The Slave Dynasty in India
lasted from AD 1206–1290, lasting eighty-four years. This was the first Muslim
dynasty to rule India. Qutb-ud-din, Iltutmish and Balban were the three great Sultans
of the era.
There were many causes for the Muslim conquest of India but the major reason
was the spread of Islam. Muslims dominated Kabul, the Punjab, and Sind, before
intruding into India. One of the major factors that attracted the Muslim rulers was the
wealth of India. The inter-rivalry between the kingdoms in India paved the way for
their entry into India.
After the decline of the Slave dynasty, the Sultanate became even more fragile
and unstable due to the numerous revolts and internal aggression. The Khilji dynasty,
also known as the Khalji dynasty, started with the crowning of Jalaluddin Khilji by
the nobles. This was around the year AD 1290. However, within a few years he was
killed by his nephew Alauddin Khilji. The history of the dynasty is marked by brutal
wars and internal conflicts among the rulers.
The Khilji Dynasty was followed by the Tughlaq dynasty and then the Sayyeds
and the Lodhis. The commonality between all the dynasties was that they all saw a lot
of bloodshed and merciless killing of innocent people, and frequent lootings of villages
and temples.
2.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

 Trace the reign of the Khiljis
 Identify the features of the Tughlaq dynasty
 Explain the ascension and fall of the Sayyeds and Lodhis
Self-Instructional
Material 29
The Sultanate 2.2 THE KHILJIS
Jalaluddin Khilji
NOTES
The first Indian ruler of the Khilji Dynasty was Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji, who ruled
from AD 1290–1294. He invaded India and built his capital in Delhi, though he never
really ruled from there. He constructed another capital at Kilughari, and ruled from
there for about six years. During the time the Mongols attacked the country, Jalaluddin
Khilji put up a brave front and through smart negotiations made the Mongols depart.
There is hardly any authentic account on the early life of Jalaluddin Khilji.
During the time of Balban, he was with the army responsible for the defense of the
frontiers. During the time of Sultan Kaikubad, he was the head of his bodyguards.
Following the win against the Mongols, Kaikubad elevated Jalaluddin to the
post of army minister. Jalaluddin soon became the leader of the Khiljis. A paralytic
attack confined Sultan Kaikubad to bed. This initiated the struggle between the Turkish
nobles and Jalaluddin for acquiring the throne. In an attempt to keep the throne to
themselves, the Turkish nobles installed Kaikubad’s infant son on the throne. Jalaluddin
Firoz, who was the commander at this time won over many of the military officials to
his side and imprisoned Kaikubad’s son.
The Turkish nobles were dead against the Khilji chiefs. Even though they tried
to free Kaikubad’s son from Jalaluddin’s hold, they did not succeed. The Turkish
chiefs then made a plan to destroy the power of the non-Turkish chiefs and murder
Jalaluddin. He, however, proved himself cleverer than all of them. He himself sat on
the throne of Delhi by murdering the minor son of Kaikubad.
Jalaluddin ascended the throne of Delhi on 13 June, AD 1290 and assumed the title of
Jalaluddin Firoz Shah. He made Kilughari his capital as he had not yet entered Delhi.
He was seventy years old at the time of his accession and had many opponents. He
had the enthusiasm of a young Sultan and hated bloodshed and wanted to rule with
love and goodwill. He did not bring about many changes in the administration. Even
so, the people of Delhi and the amirs were not happy with him. His unpopularity was
due to the following reasons:
(i) People considered him a usurper. They were not ready to condone the
ungratefulness of Jalaluddin in bringing to an end the dynasty of Balban.
(ii) The officials who were the colleagues of Jalaluddin before accession were not
prepared to consider him as their superior or as the Sultan.
(iii) Many considered him to be an Afghan and not a Turk. Both the people and the
Turkish amirs of Delhi considered royalty to be the monopoly of the Turks
only.
(iv) Jalaluddin Khilji belonged to a family about which nothing noteworthy was
known. Hence, it was difficult for the people to consider him worthy of royalty.
Initial Period of Jalaluddin’s Reign
Jalaluddin made Kilughari his capital instead of Delhi, as he did not find favour among
the people in Delhi; besides, the Turkish amirs also wanted to remove him from
power. The Sultan understood well that it will take him some time to win over the
confidence of the Turks or he might probably never attain their confidence at all. So,
Self-Instructional
30 Material
he assigned higher posts in the administration to the Khiljis only. Jalaluddin Khilji Political Developments:
The Sultanate
tried to dilute the severity of Balban’s administration. Early in his reign he understood
that since the majority of the population is Hindus, it will be ideal to adopt liberal
policies towards them. In this way, he construed that he could win over the support of
the Hindus. His liberal policies of administration led to relaxation in several rules, the NOTES
result of which was an overall disorder throughout his kingdom. Frequent revolts and
other non-civic activities were common throughout his period.
Revolts and Conquests during Jalaluddin’s reign
1. Revolt of Malik Chhajju: Malik Chhajju, the governor of Allahabad revolted.
He was the nephew of Balban. Jalaluddin’s son, Arakali Khan defeated him
near Badayun and brought him before his father. Instead of punishing him, the
Sultan pardoned him. He was awarded a generous welcome. Many of his
courtiers did not like this generosity of Jalaluddin and one of them, Ahmad
Chap, advised the Sultan to adopt a strict attitude towards him but Jalaluddin
gave no attention to his advice.
2. Generosity towards thugs and dacoits: Because of the liberal policy of
Jalaluddin Khilji, the dacoits started plundering all over Delhi. The government
officials, acting with a great severity, imprisoned many dacoits and presented
them before the Sultan. The generous Sultan let them go free after admonishing
them. Besides this, those dacoits were taken in boats to Bengal. This policy of
the Sultan greatly annoyed the amirs.
3. Siddi Maula hanged: Jalaluddin came to know that some rebellious chiefs
visited a fakir, Siddi Maula, to seek his blessings. He also learnt that they
wanted to declare Siddi Maula as the Caliph. Though Siddi Maula was innocent,
yet on the basis of his suspicion, the Sultan got him trampled under the feet of
an elephant. Other conspirators were either exiled, or transferred or their property
was confiscated.
4. Attack on Ranthambhor: In AD1290 Jalaluddin attacked Ranthambhor. The
brave Rajputs defended their fort bravely. The Turkish army too acknowledged
their bravery. Seeing no prospects of victory, Jalaluddin backed out of the battle
saying that hundreds of such forts could not be worthy of the life of a true
Muslim. Therefore, he ordered his army to retreat. Everybody opposed this
escapist attitude.
5. Attack on Malwa and Bhilsa: In AD1292, Alauddin attacked Malwa and
conquered its fort but it was probably left in the hands of the local ruler only.
He got enormous booty in plunder there. It was here that Alauddin heard stories
about the vast wealth of the powerful southern Kingdom of Devgiri which
kindled his ambition to conquer the Deccan.
6. Invasion of Mongols and their settlement in the vicinity of Delhi: The
Delhi Sultanate had to face the invasion of the Mongols also during the reign of
Jalaluddin Firoz. In AD 1292, the Mongols invaded Punjab under the leadership
of Halaku’s grandson Abdullah and the huge army advanced as far as Sunam.
The Sultan defeated them in the encounter and in the end a treaty was concluded.
The grandson of Ghenghiz Khan accepted Islam along with 4000 other Mongols.
The Sultan married one of his daughters to him. Thus, the Sultan pardoned
even the Mongols who were famous for their cruelty and disaster. This event
can be described as an example of the Sultan’s excessive generosity.
Self-Instructional
Material 31
Political Developments: 7. Conquest of Devgiri and murder of Jalaluddin: In AD 1294, Alauddin
The Sultanate
sought the Sultan’s permission and advanced towards Chanderi at the head of
about 4000 soldiers. Later on, hearing about the vast wealth and prosperity of
Devgiri he attacked Devgiri. Luckily for him, the position of the ruler of Devgiri,
NOTES Ramachandra was very weak because his son Shanker had led a big army to
the South. Ramachandra being helpless, promised to give Alauddin an enormous
amount of wealth, but meanwhile, Shankar came back from the South and
refused to agree to the terms of the treaty. So, there was fierce fighting between
the two sides in which ultimately Alauddin came out victorious.
According to Farishta, Alauddin claimed about 600 mounds of gold, thousands of
pearls, two mounds of diamonds and 1000 mounds of silver. With this enormous
booty, Alauddin came back to Kara. Feeling proud of this bravery by his nephew,
Jalaluddin went to Kara to greet him but Alauddin fraudulently got him murdered and
declared himself the Sultan. Lanepoole has described this hateful act of Alauddin as
the one of the meanest acts in history.
Alauddin Khilji
Alauddin, also known as Ali or Garshasp, was the son of a brother of Jalaluddin
named Shihabuddin Khilji. It seems that Shihabuddin had died much before the
accession of Jalaluddin because there is no mention of him during the reign of
Jalaluddin. So, his eldest son Ali had been brought up under the loving care of his
uncle Jalaluddin. Alauddin had given a good account of his personality at the time of
the forcible seizure of power by the Khiljis. At the time of the accession of Jalaluddin,
his nephew Alauddin who was also his son-in-law was appointed the head of the
ceremony or Amir-i-Tuzuk. His uncle also made him the jagirdar of Kara. Thus, the
seeds of ambition were sown in Alauddin’s mind early in life.
Barani writes that the treacherous advice of the rebels of Kara impressed him
and from the very first year of his control over the area, he started working with the
purpose of amassing wealth at a distant place. In AD 1292, he attacked Malwa and
conquered the fort of Bhilsa. In AD 1294 he suddenly attacked Devgiri. The ruler of
Devgiri, Ramchandradev was not prepared for a war; so he agreed for peace but at
that very time Ramchandra’s son Shankardev came back with his army. He attacked
Alauddin’s forces but was defeated. Now the king had to conclude peace on even
harder terms. As a result, Alauddin was able to amass wealth which made him more
ambitious of becoming the Sultan and he became anxious to ascend the throne of
Delhi. He hatched a plot to assassinate his uncle, Jalaluddin.
Accession to the Throne
Jalaluddin was very happy at the great conquest of Devgiri by his nephew and son-in-
law, Alauddin. He proceeded towards Kara to greet him and claimed a share in the
loot and did not listen to the advice of one of his courtiers, Ahmad Chap. Alauddin got
the Sultan murdered and proclaimed himself as the Sultan of Delhi. This hateful act
was performed on the 26 July AD 1296. Barani writes that the severed head of the
late Sultan was still bleeding when the canopy was raised over the head of Alauddin
and he was proclaimed as the Sultan of Delhi. In order to absolve himself of the
charge of murdering the Sultan and to consolidate his own position as the Sultan, he
generously distributed gold and silver among the soldiers and won them over to his
side.
Self-Instructional
32 Material
Problems faced by him Political Developments:
The Sultanate
In spite of Alauddin’s efforts to win over the people to his side, for some time initially
he had to face the problem of discontented chiefs and revolts by his own relatives.
There was an atmosphere of happiness in the city and the court, but anxiety prevailed NOTES
among the people. Some conditions that contributed to the general anxiety among the
people were as follows:
(i) In the North-West the Mongols were creating anxiety by sending almost annual
military expeditions.
(ii) A second element of anxiety was the presence of Gokkhars in the Punjab.
Alauddin had got his loving uncle killed, so many Jalali nobles hated Alauddin
and were annoyed with him.
(iii) Jalaluddin’s son, Arakali Khan was the Governor of Punjab, Multan and Sind.
His younger brother Ruknuddin Ibrahim and many of the Jalali nobles were with him
and could create a danger for Alauddin. Moreover, he had to deal with amirs who
were habituated to conspiring against the throne. A characteristic of the Sultanate
period was the repetition of the process of conquest with the rise of a new dynasty.
This time, Gujarat, Chittor, Ranthambhor, Deccan and Bengal had to be re-conquered.
In fact, bringing the Rajputana under one’s occupation was the criteria by which
every ruler of Delhi was assessed. None of the Muslim rulers could completely
subjugate the Rajput rulers. In Central India, the vast area of Malwa, Dhar, Ujjain
and Bundelkhand was still completely independent. The whole area of modern Bihar,
Bengal and Orissa was either under the Hindu kings or under the Muslims. Briefly,
the conquest of the whole of India was the biggest problem before the Sultan. Over
and above everything was the problem of establishing the administration on an efficient
and stable basis and big landholders were faced with peril.
Despotism of Alauddin towards the Solution of Initial Problems
To solve the problems facing him, Alauddin took some measures firmly and
despotically, some of which were as follows.
(i) Alauddin behaved very severely to put an end to his opponents. The majority
of such men who had come over to his side for gold or money were either
killed or deposed or their property was confiscated.
(ii) He put Malika Jahan, the wife of Jalaluddin, in prison and blinded two of her
sons. After this he reduced the Jalali nobles to powerlessness, confiscated their
jagirs and put the majority in prison.
(iii) He treated his rebellious relatives also very severely.
(iv) About 2000 Mongols had settled down in the vicinity of Delhi during the time
of Jalaluddin, accepting Islam. Alauddin killed them mercilessly because they
had revolted against Alauddin and were asking a big share of the plunder from
Gujarat. Alauddin punished even the wives and children of these rebels severely.
(v) He raised the position of the Sultan to the highest dignity after achieving success
over his initial problems. In doing so, he followed the theory of the famous
Sultan of the Slave dynasty, i.e., Balban. That is why his reign is usually referred
to as the Khilji military rule.
(vi) He placed restrictions on the mutual meetings and gesture ties of the amirs.
Self-Instructional
Material 33
Political Developments: (vii) To suppress the rich, he gave priority to the confiscation of property.
The Sultanate
(viii) Alauddin set up a well-organized espionage system. Because of the terror of
the spies, the nobles trembled in their houses and even in the court they talked
very slowly or through signs.
NOTES
(ix) He increased the revenue by 50 per cent by making the Khalsa land cultivable
and lessened the wealth of the people by introducing many financial reforms.
He also levied grazing tax, Zakat, customs duties, etc.
(x) Alauddin prohibited consumption of alcohol in Delhi. He gave up drinking
himself and gave severe punishments to the amirs caught consuming alcoholic
beverages. This made the life of the nobles very dry.
(xi) He enforced the military reforms very rigidly and cruelly, suppressed the officials
indulging in flouting his instructions regarding the branding of horses and writing
the descriptive roll of the soldiers and corrupt officials.
(xii) He placed many restrictions on the traders, e.g., using the prescribed measures,
charging only fixed prices from the people, etc. If any trader weighed less,
such amount was cut off from his flesh.
(xiii) Not only North India, Alauddin trampled even the Deccan with his armies. He
conquered Multan, Gujarat, Bengal, Jaisalmer, Ranthambhor, Chittor, Malwa,
Sewana, Jalor, etc.
(xiv) He accorded capital and death punishment even for trivial offences. The suits
against rebels were avenged by inflicting punishments upon their wives and
children. Though Alauddin is called a despotic king because of the severe policy
adopted by him, still it was essential under the circumstances in which he adopted
them and so most of the modern historians absolve him of the charge of excessive
severity.
Northern Conquests of Alauddin Khilji
When Alauddin ascended the throne, many problems confronted him. The most
important of them was the establishment of control over the independent kingdoms.
In fact, if Delhi Sultanate was viewed in the context of contemporary India, its future
seemed bleak. The Turkish control had been established in North India for about 90
years; still, the powers of the Sultans of Delhi had not been completely organized.
Most of northern India and the whole of the South was still outside the limit of the
Delhi Sultanate. Many destructive elements were challenging the Sultanate on all
sides. The River Ravi was the limit of the Delhi Sultanate in the West. The son of
Jalaluddin Khilji, Arakali Khan was ruling independently in Multan and Uchh.
In Gujarat, the Baghela Rajputs were exercising their way. Rajput states were
still boasting of their independence. The existence of such powerful states like Chittor
and Ranthambhor was an open challenge to the existence of the Sultanate. In Central
India, the regions of Malwa, Dhar, Ujjain, and the vast area of Bundelkhand were
free from the Muslim yoke and were enjoying complete freedom. The whole of the
area of modern Bihar, Bengal and Orissa was either under the Hindu rulers or under
Muslim rulers. A very fertile part of the country extending from Meerut to Pillibhit
and the hilly region of Kumaun was under Hindu or Muslim feudatories.
The suzerainty of Delhi had not been yet established in the regions of Oudh,
Varanasi and Meerut. Like the eastern part, the area south of the Vindhyas was engaged
in constant fighting. Though Alauddin had gained victory over Devgiri in the time of
Self-Instructional
34 Material
Jalaluddin Khilji, still the Yadavas of Devgiri had again declared themselves Political Developments:
The Sultanate
independent. The Kaktiyas of Warrangal, Hoysalas of Dawarsmundra, Cholas of Chola
Kingdom and Cheras of Kerala and Pandavas of far south had independent existence.
All these prompted Alauddin to undertake the following conquests:
1. Multan: After establishing himself firmly at Delhi, Alauddin engaged himself NOTES
in putting to end the lives of all the sons of Jalaluddin. Ruknuddin Ibrahim,
after leaving Delhi had gone to his brother Arakali Khan in Multan. Alauddin
sent two of his able commanders – Ulugu Khan and Zafar Khan for the conquest
of Multan. Both the sons of Jalaluddin (Arakali and Ruknuddin Firoz) were
blinded and Malika Jahan was imprisoned. After that Alauddin punished the
other supporters of Jalaluddin and confiscated their jagirs.
Their wives were imprisoned and the property was confiscated. The sons of
Jalaluddin were imprisoned in Hansi and the sons of Arakali Khan were killed.
2. Gujarat: The control of the Gujarat campaign was given to two trusted
commanders of Alauddin – Ulugh Khan and Nasrat Khan. Nasrat Khan
proceeded from Delhi on 24 February, AD 1299. Ulugh Khan was ordered to
proceed with his army via Sind and meet Nasrat’s army at Gujarat. On reaching
Gujarat, Ulugh Khan started the plundering campaign as usual. The beautiful
and flourishing city of Anhilwara was plundered completely. The king Karan
Baghela had to suffer defeat because he was not prepared for the fight. After
amassing a whole bounty of wealth other cities of Gujarat were also plundered
and the invaders acquired an enormous booty. The temple of Somnath, repaired
by Kumarpala was destroyed. Amir Khusuru has thus described the atrocity of
the campaign that the conquerors bent the temple of Somnath towards Qaba
Shariff.
The property of this famous temple was confiscated and the statue was
destroyed. Then the Khilji army looted the beautiful and prosperous port town
of Cambay (Khambhat) to its fill. After completely plundering and destroying
Gujarat, the army left and the rest of the victorious army came back to Delhi.
Their booty included the beautiful queen of Karan Rai named Kamlavati, many
women and men prisoners, Kafur Hazardinari, a vast amount of gold, diamonds
and valuable things. The reason for the quick victory of the Khilji army in
Gujarat is attributed by Prof. Habib and Nizami to two factors:
(a) The ruler of Gujarat, Karan Rai, was very unpopular in Gujarat.
(b) His military and civil organization was completely ineffective.
On the basis of the account of the historian Nizami, it can be said that Karan
Rai fled to the South, towards Devgiri on the advice of his ministers because
he was not prepared for the fight and probably that is why Alauddin’s army
was victorious.
3. Conquest of Ranthambhore: Ranthambhore was the bastion of the Chauhan
Rajputs. Sultan Jalaluddin had amassed much strength. The conquest of
Rajasthan was incomplete without the conquest of Ranthambhor.
In AD 1299 Alauddin sent two of his generals – Ulugh Khan and Nasrat Khan
for the battle. Then Sultan Alauddin himself proceeded towards Ranthambhor.
On his way he plundered many areas and then besieged the fort of Ranthambhor.
The siege continued for a very long time. Taking advantage of the long absence
Self-Instructional
Material 35
Political Developments: of Sultan Alauddin, his nephew Umar Khan (the Governor of Badayun) and
The Sultanate
Mangu Khan (the Governor of Oudh) revolted, but the revolt was soon
suppressed. The rebels were imprisoned and sent to Ranthambhor where they
were blinded in front of Sultan Alauddin. After continuous siege of about three
NOTES months, the Rajput women committed Jauhar. Success in Ranthambhor gave
an encouragement for engaging in the other campaigns in Rajasthan. Alauddin
himself started for the conquest of the most famous fort of Rajasthan – Chittor.
4. Chittor: For the expedition of Chittor we are dependent on the accounts of
Amir Khusru, who himself was present there. At the time of Alauddin’s
accession this was the most powerful Rajput state and presented a challenge to
Alauddin. It is said that Alauddin proceeded against Chittor due to many causes
which are as follows:
(i) The fort of Chittor was the second powerful fort after that of Ranthambhor.
The conquest of Rajasthan was incomplete without subjugating it and
probably Alauddin considered its subjugation essential for the expansion
and security of his empire.
(ii) Besides the ruler of Chittor, Ratan Singh had not permitted Alauddin to
go through his territory when the latter was proceeding towards Gujarat.
This act annoyed Alauddin.
Malik Muhammad Jayasi, a poet of the 16th century has written in his
work Padmavat (which was composed around AD 1540) that Alauddin
attacked Chittor because he wanted to take captive the beautiful queen of
Ratan Singh named Padmini. Though historians of the period, Farishta
and Haji Uddvir, mention that this was the real motive behind Alauddin’s
attack of Chittor Fort, the modern historians ignore it as a flight of fancy
of the poet. Whatever be the reason, Alauddin proceeded against Chittor
on the 28 January, AD 1303. The royal army camped in the Doab region
of the rivers Gambheri and Bairach and encircled the fort.
The Sultan himself decided to issue instructions from his camp. Amir
Khusru tells us that even after continuous fighting of two months the
royal army was unsuccessful in climbing the hillock on which the fort
was situated. Probably, direct attacking on the fort proved unsuccessful.
Eventually, because of some epidemic or famine the army guarding the
fort was rendered ineffective and Rana Ratan Singh surrendered. Some
historians agree with the account given by Jaiyasi that because of his
failure, Alauddin sent a message to Ratan Singh that if he would let
Alauddin have a glimpse of his queen, Alauddin would go back. In public
interest, Ratan Singh agreed to it and he showed Alauddin a glimpse of
Padmini in the mirror. When Ratan Singh as a sign of courtesy came to
leave Alauddin till the gate of the fort, Alauddin’s soldiers, hidden there
pounced upon him and imprisoned him. To free him, Padmini along with
700 soldiers, disguised as her friends, fought with the Khilji army but
victory accrued to Alauddin only. But now historians do not consider it as
true.
Rana Ratan Singh’s family was perhaps given shelter in safety but his
soldiers were not spared. According to Amir Khusru, about 3000
Self-Instructional
36 Material
inhabitants of Chittor were done to death. Chittor was renamed Khijrabad Political Developments:
The Sultanate
and eight year old prince Khizra Khan was appointed as its governor. His
protector was Malik Shahin ‘Naib Barbak’, who was a slave of Alauddin.
Soon after, Alauddin came back to Delhi because he had got news of a
Mongol invasion, in Chittor itself. Khizra Khan, who was a minor, could NOTES
not long retain Chittor in the face of strong resistance by the Rajputs. The
Rajputs kept on pestering the royal army. As a result, the Sultan ordered
Khizra Khan to evacuate Chittor. It was handed over to Maldev, the brother
of Jalore chief Kanhaddev Chauhan. Maldev remained loyal to the Sultan
all his life. He sent tributes regularly and joined the royal army in the
battle fields with 5000 horses and 10,000 foot soldiers.
5. Malwa: Amir Khusru says that after the conquest of the powerful states like
Ranthambhor and Chittorgarh, the Rajput kings were an evidence of the
invincibility of Turkish armies and many of them surrendered before Alauddin
without any resistance. But the Rai of Malwa, Mahalakdev abandoned this
path of obedience and got prepared to defend his kingdom against Alauddin.
By this time Alauddin had organized his revenue and financial affairs and had
reorganized his army also. Amir Khusru said that the kingdom of Malwa was
so vast that an intelligent person also could not limit its frontiers. Its Prime
Minister, Kaka Pradhan was even more powerful than the king. He had about
30,000 – 40,000 cavalry men and innumerable infantrymen under him. Still an
army of the Delhi Sultanate only about 10,000 strong succeeded in defeating
him. His horse got caught in the mud. He suffered unbearable arrow shots and
died, his head being sent to the royal court. After the fall of Mandu, Alauddin’s
army occupied Ujjain, Dhara and Chanderi as well. Ain-ul-Malik was appointed
the governor of Malwa by Alauddin.
6. Sewana: After the conquest of Malwa, Alauddin dispatched his capable general
Malik Naib Kafur towards the South and himself proceeded against Sewana.
It was at that time ruled by a Paramara Rajput chief, Sitaldev. The royal army
started on 3 July, AD 1309 from Delhi. With great difficulty, it succeeded in
crossing the walls of the fort. Sitaldev tried to run away to Jalore but he was
caught by a section of the army and was killed on 10 November, AD 1305. The
administration of Sewana was entrusted to Kamaluddin Gurg and Alauddin
returned to Delhi.
7. Jalore: It is certain that Alauddin’s army conquered Jalore also though no
contemporary mention of it is available. According to Khusru, Alauddin had
ordered Kamaluddin to suppress the disobedient rulers. Probably this account
of Tarikh-I-Mubarak-Shahi that Kamaluddin conquered Jalore is correct and
its king was also killed the same year as that of Sewana, Sitaldev. Kanhardev
was victorious at first but when the army was sent the second time under
Kamaluddin, Jalore came under its occupation.
With the surrender of Jalore, all the states of Rajputana were taken under control one
by one. Jaisalmer, Ranthambhore, Chittor, Sewana and Jalore, and the adjoining
principalities of Bundi, Mandor and Tonk all had been conquered. It seems that even
Jodhpur (Marwar) was under the Sultanate, though there is not much evidence of it
being subjugated.
Self-Instructional
Material 37
The Sultanate
ACTIVITY
NOTES Find out where in India, Kilughari — the capital of the Khilji dynasty — is
today and list the existing monuments from that dynasty.
Analysis of the Northern Conquests of Alauddin’s Administrative

Autonomy
Alauddin did not try to impose his indirect rule over the Rajput states. The states were
left under the rule of former rulers only, though they had to pay tribute regularly to the
Sultan and had to accept his suzerainty. Muslim soldiers were posted in many of the
chief cities of Rajasthan like Ajmer and Nagore.
Fierce battles and carnage
From the time of conquest of Ranthambhor in AD 1300 till the fall of Jalore in A D
1311 Alauddin’s armies had been engaged in continuous fighting in Rajasthan. Very
often, a fierce battle raged in front of a fort which ended only with the general massacre
of its people and the performing of Jauhar by its women folk. The killing of about
3000 Rawats in Chittor proved futile and no effort was made to bring the other areas
of Rajasthan under royal control. Tremendous loss of manpower accompanied the
efforts to conquer the three ports in Rajasthan and no corresponding acquisition of
wealth and prosperity ensued.
Short-lived victories
The victories gained by the Sultan in Rajasthan proved to be shortlived. The proud
and patriotic Rajputs never surrendered before the governors of Alauddin. Just after
six months of occupation of Ranthambhor, Ulugh Khan had to leave from there. It
cannot be said definitely whether after his departure Ranthambhor remained under
the Delhi Sultanate or not. Khizra Khan had to evacuate Chittor even in the life time
of Alauddin. Jalore also became independent soon after its conquest.
Unity of the North, inspiration for the conquest of the South
Alauddin had given evidence of his power by the successful conquests in the sandy
desert of Jaisalmer, and the rocky areas of Chittor and Ranthombhore in Rajputana.
He had done this not only to exhibit his power, but also to establish political unity in
the whole of the northern India. After these conquests, he became the ruler of almost
the whole of northern India. Encouraged by this he began to think of the conquest of
Deccan.
Alauddin also invaded South India with the help of his able noble and military
commander Malik Kafur.
Assessment of Alauddin’s Reign
Alauddin’s 20-year reign may be divided into three phases. In the initial phase (AD1296
–1303), he overpowered the Mongols, reclaimed the Hindu kingdom of Gujarat, and
annexed Ranthambhor (AD1301), Chittor (AD1303), and other Hindu strongholds
Self-Instructional
38 Material
in Rajasthan. In the second phase (AD1303 –1307), he concentrated on securing his Political Developments:
The Sultanate
rule and establishing his reign. In the meantime, he never stopped conquering
neighboring areas. In AD1305, through Ain-ul-Mulik Multani, whom he had sent to
Central India, he subjugated Malwa and forts of Ujjain, Chanderi and Mandawar.
After it annexation, Malwa was placed under the governorship of Ain-ul-Mulik. In NOTES
the third and last phase, he turned his attention to southern Indian states.
For India, Mongols had been a perpetual threat and by AD 1290 they had
managed to infiltrate as far as Delhi. They waited for sometime—until 1303— to
conquer Delhi and Alauddin, as a result, had to retreat to the fortress of Siri.
Inexplicably, after two months, they retreated from Delhi and Alauddin got his lesson
that he needed to consolidate his defenses against future attacks. To this end, he
restructured the fortifications in western Punjab, which had fallen into a state of
disrepair. He put Ghiyas-ud-din-Tughlaq at the helm in Dipalpur, because he
considered him the best soldier in his army. He also built a massive standing army
where none of the warriors were a landowner, so that they could be free of attachments
and solely devoted to his cause. This strong army attacked the Mongol kingdom and
managed to go as far as Kabul and Ghazni. Thus, post 1306, India was no longer
attacked by the Mongols, in part due to measures taken by Alauddin and in part due
to the death of the Mongol ruler of Transoxiana.
In the final phase (1307–1313), Alauddin focused entirely on conquering
southern parts of India. This mission had become more convenient due to his previous
conquests in southern India. In AD1307 his general, Malik Kafur, won for him Devagiri,
by defeating Raja Ramchandra, because the Raja had not delivered the promised
tribute to Alauddin after his initial attack on Devagiri. Malik Kafur brought the raja to
Delhi where he was made to admit his oversight and when he did so, conferred with
the title of Rai Rayan. Within a couple of years, Malik Kafur ventured to the south
again and this time added Warangal to the kingdom. He also brought with him the
magnificent diamond, Koh-i-Nur. To help conquer Warangal, the raja of Devagiri
provided Malik Kafur with an army of Marathas. The following year, Malik Kafur
was away for a year, in which time he managed to extend the Muslim kingdom up to
the southern seas by conquering Madura and Dvarasamudra. It was during this time
that a mosque was built, either at Rameshwaram on the island of Pamban, or on the
opposite mainland. Alauddin, however, besides Devagiri, did not directly administer
any of these acquired regions and local rajas continued to rule and were made to pay
regular tributes to the king at Delhi.
Alauddin Khalji was not an educated man and a thorough warrior. After most
of his military expeditions registered success, he became more ambitious and aspired
to start new things, such as new religion, or to conquer countries all over the world.
He was so inspired by Alexander and his achievements that he issued coins that
referred to him as Alexander the Second. However, he had sensible men in his court
who advised him against implementing such ideas. Also, he listened to them and
agreed. His primary adviser was old Ala-ul-Mulk, the kotwal of Delhi, who succeeded
in dissuading the king from carrying out his ideas. The historian Barani, who was
Ala-ul-Mulk’s nephew, has described the discussion between his uncle and the emperor.
Ala-ul-Mulk told the emperor that establishing religions was the task of prophets and
be left to them only. He gave the example of the Mongols, who despite being rebels,
followed the same Islamic religion followed by the common man. He dissuaded
Self-Instructional
Material 39
Political Developments: Alauddin against his world conquest by reminding him that unlike Alexander, he did
The Sultanate
not have an able commander to take care of his kingdom in his absence. Also, he
needed to first consolidate the existing empire before he could add new conquests to
it. Alauddin could not refute these intelligent arguments and dropped his fanciful
NOTES plans.
Just after Alauddin started his rule, there were two rebellions against him. One took
place in Delhi and the other one in Awadh. There was also an unsuccessful attempt at
assassination. All these occurrences forced him to constantly be cautious against being
overthrown. The reasons for the rebellions could have been:
(i) Alauddin did not have an efficient intelligence network and as a result, most
plots against him went undetected.
(ii) The social trend was excessive consumption of alcohol at all events, such as
festivals and weddings, which led to indiscreet talk against the king and forging
of negative friendships that were based on plotting and treason.
(iii) Noblemen frequently intermarried which strengthened them financially and
made them ambitious for enhanced power and prestige.
(iv) Since a large number of people were landowners and therefore, wealthy without
having to work every day, they had a lot of free time for idle, unproductive
thoughts.
Once Alauddin started to recognize these factors, he set out to correct them.
First, he worked on establishing a strong network of spies who could report any
misdoings by his subjects. He also learned the cryptic language spies communicated
in, so that he could interpret their messages himself, rather than having to take
someone’s help. He prohibited the sale and consumption of alcohol. Next, he put a
stop to any intermarriages taking place without his permission and revised the taxation
system in a way that there would be a balance of wealth among all sections of the
society. The tax-related measure was a blow to the prosperous families, both Hindus
and Muslims.
2.3 THE TUGHLAQS

Following the death of Alauddin in AD 1316, the Delhi Sultanate was plunged into
confusion. Malik Kafur sat on the throne for a few days, only to be deposed by
Check Your Progress Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah. During this period, rebellions broke out in Deogir but
1. To where did were harshly suppressed. Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah was soon murdered and Khusrau
Jalaluddin Khilji ascended the throne. However, he too did not last long as some unsatisfied officers,
shift his capital
from Delhi?
led by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, defeated and killed him in a battle. Thus, only four
2. Give one reason
years after the death of Alauddin, the Khilji dynasty came to an end and power passed
why Jalaluddin into the hands of the Tughlaqs.
Khilji was
unpopular among
The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was Ghazi Malik who ascended the throne
people. as Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq in AD 1320 and ruled till AD 1412. Ghiyas-ud-din had
3. Give one reason previously risen to an important position in the reign of Alauddin Khilji. After a brief
why Alauddin rule, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq died in AD 1325 and his son Muhammad Tughlaq
Khilji was ascended the throne. Under the Tughlaqs the Delhi Sultanate was further consolidated.
considered a
despot. Many outlying territories were brought under the direct control of the Sultanate. After
Self-Instructional
40 Material
the Khiljis, the next dynasty to ascend the throne of Delhi was that of the Tughlaqs, or Political Developments:
The Sultanate
the Qaraunah Turks, who must have been the most assiduous builders of all time,
since at least three different kings of the dynasty built a city each in Delhi – Tughlaqabad,
Jahanpanah and Ferozabad.
NOTES
Early Reign of Ghazi Malik
Ghazi Malik stripped his court of all frippery and frivolity and made it more austere
than it had ever been except perhaps at the time of Balban. He restored all land that
had been taken away by Alauddin Khilji but only after he had made secret inquiries
into the claims and all unlawful grants had been filtered out. He tried to recover the
treasure squandered by Khusro Shah and succeeded in some measure. Barani tells us
that the king believed that people should ‘be taxed so that they are not blinded with
wealth and so become discontented and rebellious; nor, on the other hand, be so
reduced to poverty and destitution as to be unable to pursue their daily bread.’
Under Ghazi, the judicial, police and postal arrangements improved and became
very efficient. Despite the fact that he was forever busy with war campaigns, he
actually found time to think about social welfare schemes.
Ghazi’s Defeat
Yet Ghazi Malik’s biggest defeat was to come not at the hands of some great conqueror,
but at those of a mystic—the great and popular Sufi dervish Shaikh Nizam-ud-din
Auliya. Throughout his reign Ghazi Malik remained at loggerheads with the Shaikh
and although he repeatedly tried to curb the saint’s power and hold over people,
nothing came of it. In fact, many believed at that time that it only helped bring about
Ghazi’s untimely demise.
There are lots of stories about Auliya and Ghazi’s war of words. One of their
earliest skirmishes occurred when Ghazi —better known as Ghiyas-uddin Tughlaq—
was building the capital city of Tuqhlaqabad. As it happened, the Auliya was building
his baoli (step well) at the same time. The workers of the Sultan offered to help the
saint. When Ghazi came to know of this, he put a stop to it instantly and told the
workers to stick to what they were being paid for.
Miffed at this, the dervish predicted that the Sultan’s fort would be either
populated by nomads or abandoned. Curiously, this actually came to pass. Ghiyas-
ud-din was killed by his own son Muhammad Tughlaq (which incidentally had also
been predicted by Auliya, who was rather fond of Muhammad) after only five years
of occupying the fort. Muhammad abandoned Tughlaqabad, preferring the old city of
Delhi to it. For a long time thereafter, Ghazi’s city remained the hangout for nomads
and it now stands in ruins.
Administration under Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
After the chaos that ensued following the death of Alauddin, Ghiyas-ud-din emerged
as the choice amongst the nobles for the role of Sultan. Ghiyas-ud-din took charge of
the Sultanate during a time when it once again was faced with crisis, its authority in
the outlying provinces had been extinguished and the administrative system had
disintegrated. Although he was fairly old, he had a strong character and was an able
Sultan.
After becoming Sultan, Ghiyas-ud-din set about the important task of putting
the administration back on track. The post-Alauddin Sultans had drained the state’s
Self-Instructional
Material 41
Political Developments: finances and the state treasury was near empty. Ghiyas-ud-din implemented a series
The Sultanate
of measures to control expenditure; for instance, he made his court one of the most
austere of the Sultanate period. He appointed new governors for the province, and cut
taxes to only one-tenth of the gross produce.
NOTES He encouraged the development of agriculture and provided many facilities
such as canals for irrigation and forts to protect the peasants from invaders. Ghiyas-
ud-din ensured that there was an effective taxation system, one that would ensure the
survival of his government. People were taxed in such a way that they would not be
so rich that they might become ambitious nor so poor that they would be discontented
and revolt. Ghiyas-ud-din was a firm king, and continued the concept of military
strength as a source of power. He was thus able to re-assert the Sultanate’s authority.
Ghiyas-ud-din eventually died in AD1325, when a pavilion built by his son collapsed.
There are conflicting accounts on whether this was an accident or a conspiracy by his
son to usurp power, so it remains a bit of a mystery. After his death his son Muhammed
bin Tughlaq proclaimed himself the Sultan.
Reforms of Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Muhammad bin Tughlaq tried to bring about many reforms but most of his plans
failed because he was not practical in his thinking. Some of his plans or experiments
that failed are the following:
Taxation in Doab (AD 1326)
Doab is the fertile land between the rivers Ganga and Yamuna. Ghiyas-ud-din had
reduced the land revenue to one-tenth, but Muhammed tried to raise the revenue once
again.
Unfortunately, that very year the rains failed and the region came under the
grip of a famine. The farmers therefore could not pay the taxes. Many of the farmers
were caught and punished while others left their lands and ran off to the jungles to
escape the tyranny of the Sultan’s officers. When Muhammed realized this, he ordered
his officers to spare the farmers and sanctioned financial help to them. But it was too
late as the families of many farmers had already died of starvation and lands had also
become barren.
Transfer of Capital (AD 1326–1327)
In AD 1326, the Sultan decided to shift his capital to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad),
because he felt that Daulatabad was more centrally located than Delhi. Since the
Empire included many portions of the Deccan, he thought it would be easier to control
the southern territories. The plan as such was not faulty because Daulatabad was
equidistant from the other parts of the country.
But his folly lay in the manner he set about to execute his plan. Instead of
shifting only his government, he ordered the entire population of Delhi to move to
Daulatabad. Roads were built and food and shelter provided to all. But the people of
Delhi were not happy and they looked upon this as an exile. Many people died on the
way. Once the Sultan settled in Daulatabad, the Mongols began to renew their raids.
The Sultan now realized his folly and ordered the capital to be shifted back to Delhi.
Token Currency (AD 1330)
The failure of the earlier plans of Muhammad bin Tughluq caused a great loss to the
treasury. Being badly in need of money, he tried another novel experiment. This was
Self-Instructional
42 Material
the introduction of token (copper) currency. He ordered that copper coins should be Political Developments:
The Sultanate
considered equal in value to gold and silver coins. This experiment also failed because
every goldsmith started minting fake coins at home. People started paying their taxes
in these coins. Foreign traders refused to accept these fake coins and as a result, there
was a huge loss of revenue. NOTES
He then announced that all the copper coins could be exchanged with the gold
and silver coins. People came out with their copper coins and took away the gold and
silver ones. This resulted in a great loss to the government.
Reign of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq
Three days after the death of Gayasuddin Tughlaq, Prince Juna Khan (Ulugh Khan)
declared himself the Sultan of Delhi under the title Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (Figure
2.1). After a period of 40 days, one morning he decided to celebrate his coronation in
Delhi. According to medieval writer Imami, he assured the people that he would
follow the footsteps of his father. He distributed gold and silver coins in the public
and many titles among the Amirs. Muhammad Tughlaq’s reign started and ended
with many changes and revolts.
Fig. 2.1 Mohammad bin Tughlaq
Many Invasions and Revolts

Important invasions and revolts during Bin Tughlaq are described as follows:
Revolt of Bahauddin Garshasp (AD 1326–1327)
The first revolt against Muhammad Tughlaq was planned by his cousin brother
Bahauddin Garshasp, who was the Governor of Sagar. The Sultan ordered Khawaja
Jahan to move from Gujarat as the head of his army and he himself proceeded towards
Devgiri. Garshasp was defeated and sought refuge with the Hindu ruler of Kampilya.
Probably, even the ruler of Kampilya was defeated and was forced to hand over
Bahauddin Garshasp to Khawaja Jahan. Bahauddin’s skin was stuffed and he was
taken for a round of the entire empire. Probably, such a severe punishment was given
by Muhammad Tughlaq keeping in view that it would deter the others from revolting
in the future.
Invasion of Tarmashirin (AD 1326–1327)
Just after a few months of the accession of Muhammad Tughlaq, there was the invasion
of Mongol leader Tarmashirin. According to medieval writer Farishta, the invasion
Self-Instructional
Material 43
Political Developments: occurred in AD 1326–1327, whereas another medieval writer Yahiya bin-Ahmad
The Sultanate
Sirhindi describes it as having taken place in AD 1328. Probably, the Sultan defeated
the Mongols and concurred Kalanaur and Peshawar.
NOTES Revolt of Kishlu Khan (AD 1328)

While in Devgiri (which Bin Tughlaq renamed Daulatabad and made his capital), the
Sultan heard of the revolt by the Governor of Multan, Kishlu Khan. Ibn Battutah and
Yahiya bin Ahmed Sirhindi attributed two different reasons to this revolt. Moroccan
traveller and writer Ibn Battutah says that when the stuffed corpse of Bahauddin
Garshasp reached Multan, Kishlu Khan though it un-Islamic and got him buried. The
Sultan did not like this act of his and ordered him to present himself in his court. He
revolted against this. Sirhindi says that Khishlu Khan did not construct a house in the
new capital of Daulatabad for his residence there.
The Sultan dispatched Ali Khatati to exhort him not to do so. But Kishlu Khan
got him murdered. Then Kishlu Khan received summons from the Sultan to present
himself before him (i.e., Sultan), and for the fear of punishment, Kishlu Khan revolted.
As soon as the Sultan received the news of the revolt, heading a big army from Delhi,
he advanced towards Multan. Kishlu Khan could not withstand the attack by the vast
army of the Sultan. He was killed in the battle and his supporters were accorded
severe punishments. The Sultan hung the severed head of Kishlu Khan at the gate of
the palace where he himself was staying. According to Ibn Battuta, he saw the head
still hanging at the gate when he visited India.
Revolt of Gayasuddin Bahadur (AD 1330)
Muhammad Tughlaq, after becoming the Sultan, had appointed Gayasuddin Bahadur
as the ruler of East Bengal (Sonargavan) on the condition that on his coins, he would
inscribe Sultan’s name as well as would keep his son as a hostage with the Sultan.
Gayasuddin Bahadur had been a prisoner at the time of Muhammad Tughlaq’s father,
Gayasuddin. Bahadur kept his other promises but did not send his son as a hostage to
Delhi on the pretext that his son refused to accept the command of his father. The
Sultan sent his brother Bahram Khan, the ruler of Lakhnauti, against Gayasuddin
Bahadur and dispatched an army to assist him. Gayasuddin Bahadur was defeated.
The Sultan also got his skin stripped.
Revolt in Kamalpur (Sind) (AD 1332)
According to Ibn Battuta, other revolt in Muhammad Tughlaq’s reign occurred because
of the intrigues of the Qazi and Khatib of Kamalpur. The revolt was suppressed and
the rebel’s skin was extracted.
Revolt of Ratan in Sehawan (AD 1333)
It is said that Ratan, in order to get some Muslim chiefs assassinated, raised a false
alarm about thieves at night and when the Amirs came out, his soldiers killed these
Muslim chiefs. The Sultan sent the Governor of Sind Imad-ul-mulk to seize him and
he was subjected to the same treatment as the rebels before him.
Revolt in Mahabar (AD 1335)
Governor of Mahabar Hakim Sayyid Ahsan Shah had declared himself independent.
According to another medieval writer Barani, the army which was dispatched from
Self-Instructional
44 Material
Delhi itself stayed in Mahabar. The historians refer to the statement that probably Political Developments:
The Sultanate
Ahsan bribed the army to join him. The Sultan then himself proceeded towards
Mahabar. In Warrangal, the Sultan as well as his army were struck by cholera. Because
of a famine in Delhi and Malwa, and news of a revolt in Lahore, the Sultan marched
back to Delhi. Mahabar became independent and its ruler Ahsan Shah founded an NOTES
independent empire.
Revolt of Hashing
The Governor of Daulatabad, Hashing revolted on hearing a rumour that Sultan
Muhammad Tughlaq had died of cholera; however, when he came to know that Sultan
was alive, he became very fearful and sought refuge with a Hindu chief who, however,
handed him over to the Sultan. Because Hashing had revolted under a delusion, he
was pardoned; however, he was relieved of his post of the governorship of Daulatabad
and Qutlugh Khan was appointed as its new governor.
Revolt of Hulajun and Gulchandra in Lahore
When the Sultan was in Mahabar, he got the news of the revolt in Lahore. Hulajun
Mengol and Gulchandra tried to assassinate the governor of Lahore and set themselves
up as the rulers. But Governor of Sind Khwaja Jahan frustrated these attempts of
theirs and accorded them death punishment.
Establishment of the Independent Kingdoms of Vijaynagar and
Warrangal in the Deccan
It is said that in the region to the South of the Krishna River, two brothers, Harihar
and Bukka set up the independent kingdom of Vijaynagar when Muhammad Tughlaq
marched against Mahabar. They guessed that it was not possible for the Sultan to
keep Deccan under control. Probably, in the beginning, they did not call themselves
as ‘kings’; however, they gradually increased their power. Similarly, in Warrangal,
Kanhayya drove away the governor appointed by the Sultan with the help of his
supporters.
Revolt of Fakhruddin Mubarakshah in Bengal (AD 1337)
After the death of Gayasuddin Bahadur, the new governor of Sonargavan, Fakhruddin
Mubarkshah revolted. The Governor of Lakhnauti, Kadir Khan, tried to suppress it
but he was killed. The Sultan was busy in relief measures for the victims of famine in
the famine stricken areas. As a result, Bengal became independent. Sultan Muhammad
Tughlaq issued instructions to the Governor of Oudh, Ainul Mulk, to proceed to
Daulatabad as the governor of the place that had revolted but he refused to abide by
the orders. Muhammad Tughlaq suppressed this revolt of Oudh.
Revolt in Devgiri
When the Sultan was preoccupied with the rebellions in Northern India, some Muslim
Amirs of foreign origin under Ismail Mukh and Hasan Gangu revolted and tried to set
up the Bahamini kingdom (AD 1347). The Sultan tried to suppress them but at that
very time he received the news of a revolt in Gujarat under Tagi. As soon as the
Sultan went away Hasan Gangu became an independent ruler under the title of
Allauddin Bahaman Shah (3 August, AD 1342). Thus, the Bahmani Kingdom was
founded.
Self-Instructional
Material 45
Political Developments: Suppression of Revolt in Gujarat and the Death of Muhammad Bin
The Sultanate
Tughlaq
From Devgiri, the Sultan proceeded towards Gujarat. Tagi was badly defeated and he
NOTES ran towards Sind for his life. Chasing him, the Sultan reached Thatta (Sind). There he
contracted fever and died of it on the 20th of March, AD 1351. According to another
mediaeval historian Badayuni, ‘Thus, the king was freed of his people, and they of
their king.’
Controversial Schemes of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
Muhammad Tughlaq was by far the most educated, able, intelligent, experienced and
capable commander and a great conqueror among the Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate.
But in spite of his ability, he has remained one of the most controversial figures in
history. Some consider him to be an idealist and a scholar whereas the others call him
a visionary and a fool. The measures which made him a controversial figure are those
schemes which he started because of his sharp intellect. They were executed badly,
however, and were abandoned with dangerous consequences. Let us discuss his main
schemes.
1. Transfer of Devgiri or the transfer of capital
One of the most misunderstood of the schemes of the Sultan was his transfer of the
capital. Muhammad Tughlaq wanted to make Devgiri the capital instead of Delhi. He
renamed Devgiri as Daulatabad. The objects of this scheme are said to be the following:
(i) According to Barani, the Sultan made Devgiri his capital because it was situated
comparatively in the middle of his empire. It was at an equal distance from
Delhi, Gujarat, Lakhnauti, Sonargavn, Telangana, Mabar, Dwarasmudra and
Kampila. Barani wants to say that from Devgiri, the Sultan could keep a more
effective control over the whole of Deccan.
(ii) According to Ibn Battuta, the people of Adelhi (Delhi) wrote contemptuous
letters to Muhammad Sultan. The Sultan, in order to punish them, ordered
them to march to a distance of about 700 miles to Devgiri. But the historians
do not agree with this statement of Ibn Battuta because they say that at the time
of transfer of the capital, Ibn Battuta had not even reached Delhi. Secondly,
even if for the mischief of a few persons, it does not seem logical that he would
have punished the entire population of Delhi.
(iii) According to Isami, the Sultan was ever suspicious of and annoyed with the
people of Delhi and it was to completely suppress their power that he had
decided to drive them towards the South. The historians are of the opinion that
Isami constantly tried to show that in all his schemes, the Sultan was inspired
by a feeling of hostility towards his people. A dispassionate look at the history
does not prove this assertion because the Sultan did take many steps for the
welfare of the people as well.
(iv) According to Gardner Brown, the Sultan made Devgiri instead of Delhi as his
capital because of the constant invasions by the Mongols. But this argument
does not carry much weight because by the time of Muhammad Tughlaq and
his accession, the invasions of the Mongols had almost stopped and, moreover,
this policy of escapism would have further encouraged the Mongols.
(v) In the opinion of some scholars, the Sultan decided to transfer his capital to
Self-Instructional Deccan after the revolt of Bahauddin Gurshasp so that a strong administration
46 Material
could be established in the Deccan and adverse circumstances could be dealt Political Developments:
The Sultanate
with effectively.
(vi) Another view is that poets like Khusru had bundled in the heart of the Sultan a
love for the beauty of Devgiri. That is why the Sultan made it his capital.
NOTES
(vii) According to Mehdi Hassan, the Sultan made Devgiri in Deccan another major
administrative centre so that the Muslim population there could be increased.
So, it can be maintained that Muhammad Tughlaq made Devgiri his capital so that a
central effect could be established over a vast empire and the rebellion in the South
could be suppressed easily.
Nature of transfer of capital
As with the causes and objectives of the transfer of capital, historians differ also as to
the nature of the transfer of capital. Barani says that the Delhi city and its rest houses,
neighbouring areas and villages up to 5 km of Delhi were all desolated and not even
a cat or a dog in them could be seen alive. This statement of Barani seems to be
exaggerated. The desolation of entire city is really unimaginable. In fact, even after
the transfer of the capital, Delhi continued to be a densely populated city. The strongest
proof of it is that even when Devgiri was made the capital, coins continued to be
minted in Delhi and even in the subsequent period, contact was maintained between
Delhi and Daultabad. Thus, both Delhi and Devgiri continued to be major
administrative centres.
As against Barani, Yahya Sirhind in fact writes that on his way from Delhi to
Daulatabad, the Sultan constructed rest houses at the distance of every two kilometres
and the whole desolate area buzzed with activity. The Sultan, Yahya writes, gave
agricultural land to the people inhabiting these areas and planted trees on both the
sides of the road. According to him, first the royal household and treasury, Amirs,
soldiers went to Devgiri followed by the Ulemas and the scholars. But according to
Barani, the transfer of the capital was effected in the summer with the result that due
to the tiredness of a long journey, scarcity of water etc., a large number of people died
or were ordered to go back. But nowadays, the historians hold that the Sultan ordered
them to return to Delhi because the Amirs and Ulemas who had gone to Daulatabad
from Delhi had not completely forgotten the charm of Delhi and became increasingly
more discontented and kept on urging the Sultan to go back to Delhi. The Sultan
understood their sentiments and after a few years, allowed them to go back to Delhi.
Consequences
The immediate effect of the measure went against the Sultan. The people who were
forced to go away from Delhi became annoyed with the Sultan. They contributed
towards increasing the discontentment against the Sultan. The transfer would had led
to a waste of money, time and human lives because being effected in summer people
were really put to great hardship. But the long-term effects of the transfer were
advantageous. Because of there being two administrative centres in the empire, new
roads were constructed. The obstacles to the contacts between North India and South
were removed, which led to the migration of many Sufi saints, Ulemas and other
scholars to the South. This resulted in the spread of Muslim culture in the south, and
after some time the powerful Bahmini Empire rose there. It led to a cultural integration
of the country.
Self-Instructional
Material 47
Political Developments: 2. Use of token currency
The Sultanate
After the transfer of the capital, the second scheme of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was
the introduction of token currency.
NOTES Causes
(i) According to Barani, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was a spendthrift. When he
wanted to conquer many regions, he was forced to issue copper currency.
Though this statement of Barani cannot be accepted in its entirety, it would
have to be conceded that the Sultan planned to conquer Khurasan and he had
collected a vast army and had given it advance salary for one year. This statement
of Barani is devoid of any truth that the royal treasury had become absolutely
empty because when the people cheated the government by manufacturing
fake coins, the Sultan had given them gold and silver coins from the royal
treasury only in return for those fake coins.
(ii) According to Nissen, the Sultan planned to issue a token currency because of a
scarcity of silver throughout the world, including India. So, silver could neither
be procured from the foreign countries, nor from the mines of Bengal. That is
why the Sultan issued copper coins.
(iii) According to some scholars, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq issued copper coins
because the Mongol Emperors of China had issued paper currency in China in
the 13th century and the Persian Emperor Gaikhadu had made a similar
experiment in AD 1294. Muhammad Tughlaq also wanted to demonstrate his
originality by issuing such currency.
Fig. 2.2 Coins of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
Under this scheme, Muhammad Tughlaq introduced certain reforms in the already
prevalent currency and also issued some new coins (metallic and of certain value).
Between AD 1329 and 1330, Muhammad Tughlaq issued copper coins. He also
issued a gold coin weighing 201.6 grains, which Ibn Battuta called the Dinar. To
make daily transaction easier, the Sultan also issued the Dokani or the Sultan’s coin
(Figure 2.2). The Sultan declared that the value of the bronze-copper mixed coin was
equivalent to that of the silver coins and expected that people would accept them as
such.
Consequences
(i) According to Barani, this scheme of Muhammad Tughlaq also proved very
disadvantageous to the empire. Because of the prevalence of the token currency,
the house of the Hindus virtually became a minting agency. The inhabitants
minted in a very large number of those copper coins. They paid the revenue
with these very coins and also bought things like elaborate clothes, arms and
Self-Instructional
other beautiful things. If the statement of Barani is correct, it would just be
48 Material
proper to look into the cause of it. According to Edward Thomas, ‘It was due to Political Developments:
The Sultanate
the fact that the officials in the royal mint used those very instruments which
were used by the ordinary craftsmen and used a metal which could easily be
available everywhere.’
(ii) According to Prof. Habib, ‘The experiment of the Sultan in issuing token NOTES
currency failed because the people did not co-operate with him.’ They not only
minted fake coins, but also hoarded the silver coins and tried to give token
currency for buying any item with the result that the silver coins went out of
circulation.
(iii) According to Prof. Habib, ‘The token currency had an adverse effect even on
the foreign trade and the foreign merchants stopped bringing their merchandise
to India.’
(iv) This plan also adversely affected the royal treasury. The Sultan had to exchange
these fake coins with real silver and gold coins because of which the royal
treasury reached a deplorable state.
3. Expedition to Khurasan
According to Barani, ‘Sultan Muhammad amassed a huge army of about 3,70,000
horsemen so as to dispatch it for the conquest of Khurashan. In the army, there were
also some Rajput soldiers of Doab and some Mongols. The soldiers were given advance
cash salary for one year and some of them were accorded Iqtas (land grants) as well.
The officials were given huge sums to buy arms etc.’
Historians suggest that the Sultan decided on the Khurasan expedition after his
friendship with Tarmashirin, the ruler of Transoxiana. It is said that the triple entente
lead an expedition against Abu Saiyyad of Khurasan but the expedition could not be
dispatched due to a valid reason. There was a revolt against Tarmashirin and he was
deposed. Neither Ibn Battuta nor any other historian mentions the Khurasan expedition.
Consequences
The army prepared for the Khurashan expedition posed this problem before the Sultan
as to what should be done about them. If he disbanded it all at once, it could have led
to problems of law and order. So, the Sultan sent an expedition to Karacheel and a
part of the army was sent there. According to modern historians like Gardner Brown,
Habib and Nizami, the area of Kulu in Central Himalayan Region in the Kangra
district of Kumayun Garwal was called Karacheel. But this expedition of the Sultan
was also a failure. An army trained for fighting in the plains could not face the problems
of warfare in the hilly areas, including climbing, etc. The rainy season brought with it
diseases. Local people attacked the army of Sultan. The rest of the army was disbanded.
This led to spread of unemployment amongst the soldiers and the groups discontented
with the Sultan. Like the Ulemas, Tughlaq cannot be held fully responsible for the
failure of these expeditions but it will have to be considered that he had to face very
grave consequences. The government not only suffered financial loss, and also lost its
popularity among the people.
4. Increase of land revenue in the Doab
The major plans of Sultans mentioned by Barani include the increasing land revenue
of the Doab. The Sultan increased the land revenue in the Doab to earn 50 per cent of
the produce. Though increasing the revenue cannot be said to be a unique measure,
the method used by the Sultan to affect them made the whole scheme ridiculous.
Self-Instructional
Material 49
Political Developments: Causes
The Sultanate
According to Ishwari Prasad, Muhammad Tughlaq increased the revenue due to two
reasons.
NOTES (i) The Sultan needed money to implement his fantastic schemes. The land of the
Doab was fertile and the tenants could afford to pay increased revenue.
(ii) The people of the Doab were rebellious and so the Sultan wanted to punish
them.
Nature
Historians are not unanimous about the increase in the land revenue. According to
Barani, the revenue was increased about 10 to 20 per cent in the Doab whereas Elliot
while translating the book, Tarikh-I-Firoz Shahi, of Barani has shown this increase to
be 5 to 10 per cent. Dr. Ishwari Prashad is of the opinion that the taxes were increased
by more than all these proportions in Doab. The book Tarikh-I-Mubarakshai mentions
the increases as 20 fold and it included Garhi (house tax) and Charhi (Pasture tax).
Consequences
On the instructions of the Sultan, the land revenue officials collected the land revenue
very rigidly. The poor peasants got frightened and the rich landlords refused to pay
the revenue. At many places, the store houses were put on rent. Zia-ud-din rightly
mentions that the imposition ruined the peasants. Those who were rich became
rebellious; land was laid to waste and the progress of agriculture was arrested. Grain
became expensive, rain scarce and so famine became widespread. This continued for
years and thousands of people died. The taxes were collected so rigidly that people
became poor and had to beg for food. This undoubtedly contributed to the unpopularity
of the Sultan and discontentment against him increased.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq
Firoz Shah Tughlaq was a cousin of Muhammad Tughlaq. He was born in AD 1300.
His father was Sipahsalar Naib and mother was Bibi Naila (or Nayala). Firoz Shah
Tughlaq was a polite natured, liberal and religious-minded person. He behaved very
politely with his ministers, Ulemas, Amirs, etc. and honoured them greatly. He started
many programmes and opened many departments for the poor people, old persons,
slaves and orphans. Hearing the cries of weeping women and children, he became
ready for talks with the rebels of Bengal. In fact, it was difficult for him to behave
harshly with anyone. But he could resort to very harsh measures as well for the
propagation of Islam. Having no issue of his own, Muhammad Tughlaq loved Firoz
dearly and that is why, after Muhammad’s death at Thatta (Sind), the Amirs declared
Firoz Tughlaq to be the Sultan of Delhi. He ascended the throne two days after
Muhammad’s death. At the time of his accession, circumstances were not favourable
for him. Because of the strange plans of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, many regions had
become independent e.g., whole of Deccan, Sind, Gujarat and Bengal and the
administration of the rest of the country was in disorder.
Because of many terrible famines in many areas, they had been desolate and
misery and discontent was rife among the people. The Ulemas and Amirs were also
discontent because of the hostile policies of Muhammad Tughlaq. To deal with these
problems, it was imperative for Firoz Tughlaq that he should please the Ulemas and
Amirs and try to win over those areas which, after being conquered, could easily be
Self-Instructional
50 Material
maintained as a part of the empire. So, he started his administrative campaigns in the Political Developments:
The Sultanate
two spheres of the internal reforms and the battlefield.
As a conqueror
Firoz was not a very able ruler or commander. He led two expeditions against Bengal NOTES
but was unsuccessful both times. Thus, Bengal became free of the hold of the Sultanate.
Firoz led campaigns against the rulers of Jaznagar (Orissa) and Nagarkot (Kangra).
He did not try to establish his control over these areas, though he destroyed the temples
of these places and amassed enough wealth through loot and plunder. His longest
expeditions were led in regard to the suppression of a rebellion in Sind. After two and
a half years of labour, Sultan’s army proved successful but the governor or Jam of
Sind took advantage of the religious weakness of the Sultan and appealed for arbitration
to the Su of Uchh-Sayyid Hussain. The clauses of agreement went in favour of the
Jam to some extent. The administration of lower Sind was given to the son and brother
of the Jam and in return they gave 4 lakh Tankas to him and promised to give more
such gift even in future but the control of Tughlaq administration over Sind slowly
disappeared.
As a religious man
Firoz was a rigid Sunni Muslim and follower of Shariat, the book of Muslim Law. He
tried to win the support of the religious leaders by trying to proclaim himself as a true
Muslim ruler and his empire as a truly Islamic empire. He was very kind towards the
Muslims and did not want to shed their blood in vain. He offered namaz regularly five
times a day and kept Rozas in the month of Ramzan. But his attitude was of a strict
hostility towards the Hindus and Shia Muslims. He desecrated the temples and statues.
His religious fanaticism proved very harmful for the Tughlaq dynasty and the Delhi
Sultanate.
As a ruler
Firoz was a good but not a great ruler. He was good because he abolished all the
unnecessary and unjust taxes, gave encouragement to agriculture, increased agricultural
facilities, helped the unhappy, exempted the government loans from payment, tried to
bring an end to unemployment, gave financial help to Muslim girls, windows and
orphans, carried out many revisions in justice and penal code, extended patronage to
literature and art. Through his currency reforms, he made transactions easy and also
gave shelter to 1,80,000 slaves. His reign had peace and development. But he was
not a great ruler; since, he followed a policy of intolerance towards the Hindus and
the Shias. He did not try to bring about a political unity in the country by conquering
the states of Deccan. He organized the army on the basis of feudalism, which was not
good for the Sultanate.
He appointed the army and other officials on the basis of their family background
and heredity instead of merit and physical ability, which soon had a bad effect on the
administrative system. He renewed the Jagir system. This resulted in financial loss to
the state and increased oppression on the peasants. To fulfill his fancy of keeping a
large number of slaves, he placed a big burden on the royal treasury. Later on these
very slaves started interfering in politics and became a factor in the downfall of the
Tughlaq dynasty. His policies led to corruption in the country, insubordination by the
Amirs and laxness in the army. He did not solve the problem of succession and that is
why when he died in AD 1380, grave political and administrative problems arose.
Self-Instructional
Material 51
Political Developments: In essence, then, Firoz Shah Tughlaq was an able ruler but not a great leader.
The Sultanate
He tried to care for the welfare of the people as far as he could not follow such policy
amongst all classes so that they remain satisfied and grateful to the state. He tried to
make the Ulemas, Amirs, traders, soldiers, peasants, etc. happy. Because of his
NOTES constructive activities, there were no famines in the country; however, he cannot be
called a great ruler due to his policy of religious fanaticism.
Firoz Tughlaq’s Military Campaigns and Foreign Policy

Firoz Tughlaq made a very weak effort to reconquer the areas lost under Muhammad
Tughlaq. With this purpose, he carried out military in Bengal and Sind whereas no
effort was made to regain Madura, Bahmani or Vijaynagar kingdoms. Inspired by his
fanaticism and a wish to ease the Ulemas, he carried out military campaigns against
Jajinagar (Orissa) and Nagarkot. Briefly, the foreign policy or the military campaigns
of Firoz Tughlaq can be summed up as follows:
1. Two expeditions against Bengal (AD 1355–1359)
The first campaign against Haji Ilias of Bengal was undertaken by Firoz in AD 1353
because he had declared himself independent by taking advantage of the disorder
after Muhammad Tughlaq’s death. When Firoz reached Bengal, the ruler had taken
refuge in the famous and strong fort of lqdala. The siege was raised after many days
and peace was concluded. The Sultan acknowledged Ilias as the ruler of Bengal because
the latter accepted all the conditions laid down by the Sultan. The Sultan came back to
Delhi in AD 1354. Some scholars say that the Sultan himself raised the siege hearing
the cries of children and women who were inside the fort. This campaign did not
provide Firoz enough political gains and he became content only with a nominal
acceptance of his suzerainty by the ruler of Bengal. In fact, this weak policy of the
Sultan increased the audacity of the ruler of Bengal.
In AD 1357, Hazi Ilias was followed by his son Sikandar as the ruler of Bengal.
He proved to be a very rigid and cruel ruler, and hearing his criticism from Zafar
Khan (who had saved himself from Sikandar by reaching Sind through sea route),
Sikandar attacked Bengal again. Like his father, Sikandar too sought refuge in the
fort of Iqdala. Firoz could not subjugate the fort this time. According to historians, the
Sultan gave up his idea of the conquest of Bengal realizing that the campaign might
result in thousands of Muslim women assaulted and insulted by the invaders. Though
this campaign of Sultan was not a success from military point of view, it had two
significant results. These were Sultan’s rule on the city of Jaunpur and his son, Fateh
Khan, being declared as his successor and got his name inscribed along with that of
the Sultan on the coins.
Self-Instructional
52 Material
After the second campaign against Bengal, Firoz Shah, instead of returning to Political Developments:
The Sultanate
Delhi, proceeded against Jajnagar via Bihar and to please the Ulemas, inflicted a
heavy loss on the temple of Jagannath. According to some scholars, the royal army
put to death a large number of people who had sought refuge in the island. The
number described at above one lakh might have been exaggerated, but it was true NOTES
that he carried on a massacre there and also forced petty Hindu Rajas to acknowledge
his sovereignty.
2. Invasions of Nagarkot or Kangra (1361)
Muhammad Tughlaq had conquered Kangra in AD 1331, but the new Rai of the
Kingdom had stopped paying tribute to Firoz Tughlaq. Perhaps, Firoz invaded
Nagarkot primarily to teach a lesson of loyalty to the new Rai. But according to Dr.
Ishwari Prasad, he wanted to conquer the Jawalamukhi temple and that was the purpose
behind his invasion of Nagarkot. It took him about six months to subjugate the fort
after which the Rai was forced to acknowledge the Sultan’s suzerainty and promised
to pay an annual tribute to the Sultan. Probably, Firoz destroyed the Jawalamukhi
temple of the place. According to Farishta, he broke the idols of the temples, mixed
their pieces in the beef, put them in the bags and hung it along the necks of the
Brahmins. The main idol was sent to Medina as a mark of victory. This campaign led
to one good result from the cultural viewpoint. Firoz Tughlaq came back to Delhi
with about 300 old Sanskrit documents, which might have been translated into Persian
leading to a useful cultural exchange.
3. Invasion of Thatta or Sind (AD 1362)
Sultan Firoz Tughlaq decided to go for a campaign against Thatta in AD 1362 due to
many causes. Firstly, Muhammad Tughlaq had breathed his last trying to suppress a
revolt at Thatta. After his death, the Sindhi Amirs had plundered the total camp. Firoz
had been a witness to all this and he desired to take revenge from the Amirs of Sind.
Secondly, the representatives of the Sultan in Sind, Aini-Mulk Maharu complained
that the Jam of Sind was aiding the Mongols. Firoz Tughlaq decided to launch an
attack on Sind. According to historians, this was the most ill-planned campaign in the
entire history of Sultanate. The Jam of Sind inflicted heavy losses on the royal army.
The Sultan had to retreat to Gujarat because of the effective defensive measures
taken by the Sindhis and the spread of an epidemic in the royal army, which forced
about 75 per cent cavalry to seek refuge in Gujarat. Unfortunately, his army lost the
way and got caught in the Rann of Kutch from where it could emerge after many
months. Another army was dispatched from Delhi against Sind and this time the Jam
acknowledged the sovereignty of the Sultan and undertook to send an annual tribute.
Firoz and his army returned to Delhi after a long absence of about two and a half
years. The loyalty of his Wazir Khan-i-Jahan is commendable because he held out
false promises to the Amirs that the Sultan was gaining one victory after another in
Sind. According to Dr. Ishwari Prasad, ‘The expedition against Sind is a very interesting
event of the reign of Firoz Tughlaq – an example of folly and diplomatic ignorance of
the Sultan.’
4. Suppression of the rebels of Itawa and Katehar (Rohilkhand)

(AD 1370)
The Hindu Zamindars of Itawa rebelled against the fanatic policies of the Sultan but
Firoz quelled it successfully and in AD 1380, a campaign was undertaken against
Self-Instructional
Material 53
Political Developments: Katehar because he had got the Governor of Badayun, Sayyid Muhammad,
The Sultanate
assassinated. Kharku ran away to Kumayun and could not be apprehended despite a
chase. The Sultan appointed an Afghan Governor at Katehar. Briefly, the foreign
policy of Firoz Tughlaq was successful in all the areas in Northern India except Bengal,
NOTES but he made no effort to reconquer those regions in South which had become
independent during the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq. The Sind campaign was
prolonged and militarily harmful.
Firoz Tughlaq’s Administrative Reforms
Though Firoz Tughlaq could not prove to be a very capable general, his internal
policy was very successful because of his able administration and reform measures.
Peace prevailed in his reign and development took place. He brought about following
reforms or changes in the administration:
Judicial organization
Firoz Tughlaq was opposed to severe punishments. He ended punishments like cutting
off the limbs etc. for such petty crimes as theft and others. Praising his judicial system
British historian V.A. Smith writes that this measure of bringing an end to corporal
punishments was really worthy of praise. Firoz, in his autobiography Futuhat-i-
Firozshahi, has written that severe punishments prevailed before he became the Sultan.
He added that in the time of his predecessors, criminals were put to many sufferings
like cutting of limbs, extracting the eyes, putting melted glass in their throat, hammering
the bones, burning alive, hammering nails in hand’s feet and chests, cutting arteries
and veins, tearing the body in two equal halves, etc. By putting an end to these
barbarities, the Sultan won for himself the sympathy of the people to a great extent.
The Sultan tried to make the judicial system that was based on Shariat, accorded
importance to the advice of the Ulemas and Qazis, established courts with the accorded
advice of the Ulemas and Qazis, established courts at all important places of the
empire, appointed Qazis and Muftis etc. to carry on the judicial activities and put an
end to the death penalty for the Muslims in general.
He issued the instruction that if any traveller died on the way, the feudal chiefs
and Muqaddam of the area had to summon the Qazi and Mufti, examine the dead
body of the deceased and only after the Qazi certified that there was no wound on the
body of the dead should the burial take place.
Reform in revenue and taxation system
According to Barani, Firoz Tughlaq ordered that Khiraj (land tax) and Jaziya (ordinarily
a tax imposed exclusively on Hindus) should be levied in accordance with the produce
(Bar Hukme-Hasil). He brought an end to all the other taxes except Jaziya, Khiraj,
Zakat and Khums only because these four were mentioned in Shariat. It undoubtedly
would have relieved the common people. According to Islamic injunction, he distributed
four-fifth of Khums to soldiers, keeping one-fifth for the state. This raised the morale
of the army. According to Firoz’s biography, he gave the responsibility for collecting
the tax of an area to the persons making the highest bid. This auction encouraged the
Izaredari system and had an adverse effect on the financial condition of the empire.
According to Af, the income of the state was reconsidered. The task of determining
the income of the state was given to Khawaja Husamuddin Junaid. He toured the
entire area for six years and fixed the income of the state at 6,75,00,000 Tankas.
Self-Instructional
54 Material
Agricultural system Political Developments:
The Sultanate
In the sphere of agricultural system, Firoz carried out the following two major reforms:
(i) The debts of peasants, taken by them during the famine at the time of
Muhammad Tughlaq, were exempted. NOTES
(ii) An efficient irrigation system was resorted to, which led to cultivation in quite
a large part of the empire.
According to Tarikh-i-Firozshahi written by Shami-Siraj-Af, Firoz Shah Tughlaq
got two canals dug from Sutluj and Jamuna Rivers. But another historian Yahiya bin-
Ahmad Sirhindi mentions in his book Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi that Firoz Tughlaq got
four canals dug—first from Sutluj to Ghaghra, about 96 miles long; second, taking
the water of Jamuna to Hissar (Punjab) 150 miles long; third, from the area in the
vicinity of Mandavi to hills of Sirnour irrigating Jhansi City and proceeding from
there to Hissar as well; fourth canal dug from Ghaghra River and going through the
fort of Sirsuti, it went to Hirati Khada Gram. Besides, many wells were dug which
promoted cultivation. Produce increased and no famine occurred. The areas irrigated
through canals were subjected to one-tenth of water tax. Firoz tried to bring more and
more land under irrigation.
The revenue official’s salaries were enhanced so that they might not take bribes
from the peasants. Barring the introduction of Jagir system, the agricultural reforms
of Firoz are really commendable.
Encouragement to the Jagir system
According to Af, Firoz Tughlaq distributed all villages, parganas and cities for the
payment of salaries to the military officials and the financial condition of the state was
all right. The reintroduction of Jagir system by Firoz made big Amirs and chiefs very
happy. One of his instructions was that all the officials involved in the Sind campaign
should have their Jagirs transferred to their sons unconditionally and permanently.
Another instruction issued by him was that after the death of a Jagirdar, his Jagir or
Iqta should pass to his son, failing which to his son-in-law, failing which to his slave.
The revival of the Jagir system proved disadvantageous to the empire. Gradually,
these Jagir holders became more and more powerful and later, became contributory
to the fall of the Delhi Sultanate. They started taking the services of forced labour
from the peasants and exploited them.
Army organization
Firoz introduced certain new measures to establish a powerful army. Instead of keeping
the entire army under the direct control of the centre, he tried to reorganize the army
on the basis of Jagirdari or feudal basis. The soldiers came to be paid generally in
jagirs now. Only the irregulars received cash salary from the state. Another important
change Firoz introduced was to make the military offices hereditary, which really was
a very defective measure. Many soldiers sold their Jagirs to the professional auctioneers
at two-thirds or half their value.
This encouraged the farming system. The soldiers who did not fall into the
clutches of these middlemen fell prey to the royal officials who gave them only 50 per
cent of the revenue, keeping the rest 50 per cent for themselves for public expenditure.
Another defect in the system was that the soldiers who collected revenue themselves
Self-Instructional
Material 55
Political Developments: or through their sons, paid no attention to their military duties and remained busy with
The Sultanate
the collection of revenue only. Thus, during Firoz’s time, the basis of revenue collection
came to be the military power and after his death, when the military power of the
soldiers ended, it became difficult for these military Iqatdars to collect the revenue.
NOTES Making the military post hereditary was also a defective measure. The central
government lost its right to test the military merit of the soldiers.
Military service became hereditary wherein there was no place for physical
ability and merit. The state was left direct control only over a small cavalry. The
loyalty of the soldier Iqatdars was primarily to their military overlords and not to the
Sultan. In brief, the military system of Firoz led to the continuous weakness of the
state army.
Firoz undertook many activities for the welfare and happiness of the public. He
not only lightened the burden of the taxation, but also ended the severity of the penal
code and opened free hospitals for the treatment of the patients. He got about 1200
gardens planted in the vicinity of Delhi, which yielded a big annual income to the
state. He got many canals, mosques, palaces, sarais, ponds, tombs and bathrooms
constructed. He established the cities of Firozabad, Fatehabad, Hissar, Jaunpur,
Firozpur, etc. He is said to have undertaken the repair work of Qutub Minar. For
providing employment, he opened the employment bureau; for the marriage of poor
Muslim girls, he opened a marriage bureau; for providing social security to aged and
poor people, he opened the Diwan-i-Istaikak.
Slave department and its organization
Firoz Tughlaq collected slaves in big numbers. He ordered his Subedars that whenever
they invaded any area in connections with revenue collections, well bodied and good
looking children should be selected and sent to the Sultan. He preferred to have slaves
as presents from his governors. Gradually, the number of his slaves swelled to about
1,80,000. Historians are of the opinion that through these slaves, the Sultan wanted to
prepare a community loyal to him and his successors. He gave salary and offices to all
the slaves. For their maintenance, he opened a separate account and established a
separate department. About 1200 slaves were trained in various crafts and worked in
various ministerial departments, royal factories and army. Such a large number of
slaves also became a factor in the political and economic decline of the Tughlaq
Empire.
The currency system
Firoz Shah Tughlaq introduced many changes in the currency system as well. He
issued coins of a small denomination in very large numbers so that the common people
and traders should not be put to difficulty in daily transactions. He issued coins of
copper and silver mixed so that people might not copy them easily and the Sultanate
might not be faced with those financial difficulties which it had to face during the time
of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
Literature, Education and Art
Firoz Shah Tughlaq evinced special interest in literature. He opened many Madrasas.
He patronized many scholars. Zia-ud did Barani and Shams-i-Siraj Aûf were two
famous historians of his time. They enjoyed state patronage. Firoz himself was an
author of no mean order. He wrote his own biography which is known as Fatuhat-i-
Self-Instructional
56 Material
Firozshahi. He got 300 famous old Sanskrit books translated into Persian by the Political Developments:
The Sultanate
famous Persian scholar Azuddin Khalid. This translation work is famous as Daliyal-
i-Firozshahi. During his reign, faculties of religious scriptures, law and Islamic
education got encouragement. Firoz also encouraged architecture and gardening. He
constructed many buildings and planted about 1200 gardens. Famous historian Woolsey NOTES
Haig writes about his love of architecture correctly that ‘he was fond of construction
work and in that respect he equalled the Roman emperor Augustus, if not excelled
him.’
Religious policy
Firoz Tughlaq provided grants to the Ulemas to please them. After the Jazanagar
(Orissa) campaign, he distributed about 36,00,000 Tankas as a gift to the Sheikhs and
Alims. To please the Ulemas again, he changed the taxation and judicial system so as
to suit the requirement of the Shariat. During his reign, the Ulemas usually interfered
in politics. He followed an intolerant policy towards the Hindus. He imposed Jaziya
even on the Brahmins. He got all the paintings of the royal palace removed thinking
them to be in opposition to Shariat. Inspired by a fanatic policy, he attacked the temples
many a times and brought the idols down. His fanatic policy proved disadvantageous
to the Sultanate.
Downfall of the Tughlaq Empire
The major causes of the downfall of Tughlaq Empire were as follows:
 Annexation of the southern India
 Failures of Muhammad Tughlaq
 Fault of Firoz Tughlaq
 Incompetence of his successors
The Tughlaqs set up most widespread empire among all Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate.
Ghiyasuddin took advantage of the occupation of the south and captured the bigger
part of it. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq added most towards the spread of the empire both
as a prince and a Sultan. But the disintegration started during his reign. The capture
of the south, the failures of Muhammad Tughlaq, the flaws of Firoz Shah Tughlaq,
the lack of skill among his successors, the incompetence and disheartenment and the
invasion of Timur were the additional factors responsible for the decline of this vast
kingdom. Ghiyasuddin started the policy of capturing the conquered territories of the
south. But this policy was against the permanent interests of the empire; pertinent to
the lack of proper resources of transport, it was complicated for the rulers of the north
to keep the south under his rule for long. Therefore, the south became free during the
later period of Muhammad Tughlaq. The takeover of the south gave no benefits to the Check Your Progress
Tughlaqs. In contrast, it adversely affected the resources and the strength of the empire. 4. Who uprooted
Muhammad Tughlaq utterly failed in his internal and foreign policies. In addition, as Malik Kafur from
the throne?
Bengal and the south got their independence and the authority of the Delhi Sultanate
5. Who was the
became fragile over Gujarat and Sindh, no notable terrain was held by the Empire founder of the
permanently. All the ideas of Muhammad Tughlaq failed wretchedly and brought Tughlaq dynasty?
financial ruin to the Empire. In addition, his policies and unyielding measures led to 6. Why did the move
extensive revolts at quite a few places which taxed further the running of the to Daulatabad fail?
administrative business and resources of the empire were unmindfully exploited.
Self-Instructional
Material 57
Political Developments: Firoz Tughlaq succeeded in restoring the economic affluence of the empire
The Sultanate
and did a lot of useful work for welfare of the public. But his reckless generosity,
relaxation in administration and slave system, policy of intolerance towards the Hindus,
reestablishment of reputation and influence of the Ulema and the inattentiveness to
NOTES military affairs of the empire led to the rapid decline of his power. Firoz failed to
reinstate the prestige and authority of the Delhi Sultanate.
There were no educated successors after Firoz Tughlaq and no one
commendable enough to be the Sultan of Delhi. His third son Muhammad was religious
and affectionate. Firoz nominated Tughlaq Shah, son of his late eldest son, as his heir.
Prince Muhammad fought both against Tughlaq Shah and his descendant Abu Bakr.
Though he succeeded, clashes between princes gave outlook to nobles at the court
and the subedars of provinces to boost their powers and authorities at the cost of
succeeding Sultans. Therefore, the later Tughlaqs proved inept and unproductive in
the affairs of the state and Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud, the last ruler of the empire,
met with a dishonourable death. Amirs and provincial governors of last Tughlaqs
took advantage of the ineffective rulers. Those who were determined and capable
established independent kingdoms out of the remains of the Empire, and those who
were inept, remained in the court engaging themselves in bribery and luxuries.
None of them was capable and whosoever was competent was disloyal to the
Sultan and thus worked against the Delhi Sultanate. The final blow to the authority
and prestige of the Tughlaq Empire came in the form of Timur’s invasion. He destroyed
both the Delhi Sultanate and the Tughlaq dynasty. Although the dynasty had lost its
status proceeding to Timur’s invasion, after the invasion, it was methodically destroyed
forever. Thus, several factors brought about the downfall of the Tughlaq Empire. The
process of breakdown began with the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq; Firoz Tughlaq,
in his own way, added towards it and all through the period of the later Tughlaqs, it
was completed.
2.4 SAYYIDS AND LODHIS

The Tughlaq dynasty came to an end in1414 when Khizr Khan founded the Sayyid
dynasty in Delhi. Khizr Khan assisted Timur during his invasion of India. Timur
made Khizr Khan the governor of Lahore, Multan and Dipalpur as a reward. After
the death of the last Tughluq, Mahmud Shah, in 1412, Daulat Khan Lodhi accompanied
Khizr Khan in order to occupy the throne of Delhi. In 1414, Khizr Khan won the
battle and established his rule. He ruled in the name of Timur and his successor Shah
Rukh. During this time, many states and provinces of the Delhi Sultanate declared
their independence. So, the first task of Khizr Khan was to control the situation and
revolts. He tried to reintegrate those provinces but failed. He conquered Gwalior,
Gujrat and Jaunpur. In 1421, he attacked Mewat.
During the rule of Khizr Khan, the Delhi Sultanate was reduced to Sindh,
Western Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh. His son, Mubarak Shah succeeded him
in 1421. His reign was full of internal and external revolts. His successors, nephew
Muhammad Shah and Muhammad’s son Alauddin Alam Shah were marked by political
instability. The territories of the empire were reduced to a distance of ten miles from
Delhi to Palam. The era of Sayyid dynasty came to an end in 1451 when Bahlol Lodhi
occupied Delhi.
Self-Instructional
58 Material
Khizr Khan: Sayyid Dynasty Political Developments:
The Sultanate
Khizr Khan, the first ruler of the Sayyid dynasty was said to be the descendant of
Prophet Muhammad. But there is no proof of that. Probably, his ancestors hailed
from Arab and he utilized this fact to strengthen his position on the throne. After the NOTES
accession of Khizr Khan to the throne the empire of the Delhi Sultanate was limited
to parts of Doab and Mewat only. He doubled its territory and included Punjab, Multan
and Sindh in it. He wanted to extend the empire more but his limited efforts to recover
Katehar, Kannauj and Kampil failed.
Khizr Khan pursued the policy of conciliation towards the Turkish nobles and
allowed them to enjoy the ownership of their jagirs. Yet they were disloyal to him and
used their positions to rise in revolt against him. Khizr Khan mostly engaged himself
in keeping intact the territory of the Sultanate, which he had acquired in the beginning
of his reign. During his last days, he attacked Mewat and destroyed the fort. He then
plundered part of the territory of the state of Gwalior and proceeded up to Etawah
whose ruler acknowledged his suzerainty. Khizr Khan was wise, just and generous.
His personal virtues, therefore, won the affection of his subjects. But as a ruler he
could not achieve his ambition.
He failed to solve those problems of the country that had affected it after
dismemberment of the Tughlaq dynasty and had left the country in a state of virtual
anarchy after the invasion of Timur. The Sultanate of Delhi could not gain ascendancy
over other kingdoms in India during his time and, therefore, remained one of the
states among certain other significant states of the north.
Mubarak Shah, Sayyid Dynasty
Mubarak Shah ascended the throne after the death of his father Khizr Khan. He took
the title of Sultan and did not accept suzerainty of any foreign power over him. He
ascended the throne without any opposition after the death of his father Khizr Khan.
He assumed the title of Shah, and issued coins bearing his name. Mubarak undertook
disciplinary actions against Jagirdars and nobles for collecting revenue from them
and bringing them to submission. He transferred his governors from one place to
another in order to prove that their jagirs or Iqtas were not their hereditary property,
but a right to be enjoyed under the supremacy of the Sultan. This assertion of the right
of the Sultan certainly displeased the Jagirdars and governors who, taking advantage
of the weakness of later Tughlaq Sultans, had treated their provinces as their own
property. It created trouble for the Sultan who had to fight against his own nobles in
order to bring them under his control. The Sultan attacked Badayun, Etawah, Katehar,
Gwalior, etc. solely for this purpose. But more than that, Mubarak Shah had to face
and fight against his foreign enemies.
However, he succeeded in foiling their attempts. Mubarak Shah was the ablest
ruler of the Sayyid dynasty. He saved the Delhi Sultanate from the nominal suzerainty
of foreign powers. He succeeded in suppressing revolts of his nobles. He also
succeeded against the foreign foes, each of whom tried to capture Delhi. For 13
years, he fought against his internal and external enemies and succeeded in keeping
intact the territory of the Delhi Sultanate though he failed to extend it further. He was
quite successful as compared to other rulers of Sayyid dynasty.
Self-Instructional
Material 59
Political Developments: Muhammad Shah
The Sultanate
Muhammad Shah was the nephew of Mubarak Shah and ascended the throne of the
Sayyid dynasty after him. He was an incapable ruler and therefore paved the way for
NOTES the downfall of the Sayyid dynasty. During the first eight months of his reign, virtually
everyone from the wazir to the Sarwar-ul-mulk, all enjoyed the power of the state.
The wazir gave positions of importance to his loyal officers and those Hindu jagirdars
who had helped him in the murder of Mubarak Shah.
However, his deputy commander-in-chief, Kamal-ul-Mulk remained faithful
to the Sayyid dynasty, kept intentions secret and formed another group of nobles
against the wazir. The wazir sent him to suppress the revolt at Bayana. Once Kamal-
ul-Mulk took the command of the army he disclosed his plan to other nobles to displace
the wazir and then returned to the capital with his army. The wazir and his supporters
were eventually murdered. Muhammad Shah now appointed Kamal-ul-Mulk as his
wazir and freely engaged himself in sensual pleasures. Kamal-ul-Mulk was a good
administrator. The neglect of the affairs of the state encouraged both internal and
foreign enemies. Mahmud, the ruler of Malwa, attacked Muhammad Shah. The battle
between the two near Talpat brought conclusive results.
Muhammad Shah agreed to return to his own capital and was threatened by an
invasion by the ruler of Gujarat. Bahlol Lodhi, who was a general in Mahmud Shah’s
army, attacked the ruler of Gujarat and was successful in capturing a lot of booty.
Muhammad Shah honoured Bahlol Lodhi, called him his son and gave him the title of
Khan-i-khana and extended his possession over larger part of Punjab. It inflamed the
ambition of Bahlol Lodhi who attacked Delhi in 1443 AD in order to capture it. He
failed at that time but then waited for a better opportunity.
Muhammad Shah failed to safeguard his kingdom from internal disruption and
foreign attacks during later years of his reign. Thus, Muhammad Shah failed as a
ruler and the decline of his dynasty began during his reign. He died in 1445 AD and
even his successor Alam Shah could not save the declining dynasty from the clutches
of Bahlol Lodhi. Finally, with Alam Shah’s voluntary abdication of the throne of Delhi
in favour of Bahlol Khan Lodhi on April 19, 1451 the rule of the Lodhis began on
Delhi.
Some important points that should be remembered about the Sayyid dynasty are as
follows:
 In 1414, Timur’s nominee Khizr Khan captured Delhi and was proclaimed the
new Sultan and the first of the Sayyid Dynasty. He ruled over Delhi and
surroundings districts till 1421.
 Khizr Khan was succeeded by Mubarak Shah in 1421. He conducted successful
expeditions against Mewatis, Katehars and the Gangetic Doab area. He was
killed by the nobles in his own court in 1434.
 After Mubarak Shah’s death, the nobles put Muhammad Shah on the throne in
1434. But, he could not survive the in-fighting among the nobles in the court.
He was authorized to rule a meager area of around 30 miles and rest of the
Sultanate was ruled by the nobles till his demise.
 When Muhammad Shah passed away in 1445 the last Sayyid king Alam Shah
himself descended in favour of Bahlol Lodhi and retired in 1451.
Thus began the rule of the Lodhi dynasty.
Self-Instructional
60 Material
The Lodhi Dynasty Political Developments:
The Sultanate
In India, the Lodhi dynasty ruled from 1451 to 1526. It was the first and last Afghan
dynasty to rule in South Asia. The founder of the Lodhi dynasty, Bahlol Lodhi, was
originally the governor of Punjab. Later on, he ascended on the throne of Delhi Sultanate NOTES
and took the title of Sultan Abul Muzzaffar Bahlol Shah Ghazi.
There were numerous attempts to destabilize his newly established rule. He
even gave Jagirs to the Afghan nobles in order to win their cooperation and brought
Mewar, Sambal and Gwalior under his rule. With all these conquests, he managed to
secure the foundation of Lodhi dynasty. Bahlol nominated his son Nizam Khan as his
successor who later on took the title of Sikandar Shah.
He proved himself to be a capable ruler of the Lodhi dynasty by bringing many
noble Afghans under his control. He encouraged trade and education across his
provinces and established a strong administration. He was also the founder of the city
of Agra. After Sikander Shah, the war of succession broke out between his two sons
Ibrahim Lodhi and Jalal Khan. This war resulted in the downfall of the rule of Lodhis.
Ibrahim Lodhi succeeded his father and was the last Sultan of the Lodhi dynasty. He
took the throne in 1517. His relations with the Afghan nobles became worse as they
never supported him. As a result, he became very strict and disrespectful towards
them. He also constructed Shish Gumbad, which is situated in Lodhi gardens of
Delhi.
Ibrahim Lodhi retook Gwalior and threatened Rana Sanga as he wanted to
expand his Sultanate into the desert regions as well. Rana Sanga united the rajput
chiefs. This alliance with the frustrated nobles of the Delhi Sultanate invited the Mughal
ruler Zahiruddin Babur to overthrow the Lodhi dynasty. The Mughal ruler Babur
attacked India in 1526 and Ibrahim Lodhi was defeated in the first battle of Panipat
near Delhi. This battle resulted in end of Lodhi Dynasty. This battle was marked as
the beginning of the Mughal Empire and it also brought an end to the 320 years, rule
of the Sultans in Delhi. Let us now learn more about Bahlol Lodhi, the founder of the
Lodhi dynasty.
Bahlol Lodhi
It was due to Bahlol Lodhi’s military talents that the Lodhi dynasty could find a place
in the history of the Delhi Sultanate. He belonged to the Shahu Khel clan of the
Lodhis, which was an important branch of the Afghans. Bahlol was brought up by his
uncle Islam Khan who had taken up service under the Sayyid ruler, Khizr Khan. After
the death of Islam Khan, Bahlol became the governor of Sarhind. He went on increasing
his power and influence and was awarded the title of Khan-i-Jahan and also given
the possession of Punjab. Sultan Alam Shah was the last ruler of the Sayyid dynasty
and after him Bahlol Lodhi ascended the throne on 19 April 1451 AD.
After he ascended on the throne, his main tasks were the following:
 To restore the lost prestige of the Sultan
 To establish the supremacy of the Afghans
 To suppress the rebellious nobles and Jagirdars
 To safeguard his kingdom from jealous neighbours
 To consolidate his gains
Self-Instructional
Material 61
Political Developments: Bahlol Lodhi undertook many military expeditions. Some of the states against which
The Sultanate
he launched the expeditions were as follows:
 Mewar
NOTES  Sambhal
 Rapri
 Bhogaon
 Gwalior
He forced the chiefs of these states to offer submission and pay annual tributes to
him. A remarkable success of Bahlol Lodhi was his conquest of the city of Jaunpur.
Mahmud Shah tried to attack Delhi in the very first year of the reign of Bahlol Lodhi
but he was ultimately defeated. He annexed the kingdom of Jaunpur from Bahlol
Lodhi and appointed, Barbak Shah, as its ruler. The conquest of Jaunpur proved his
military competency and added to his resources and raised his prestige among the
rulers. It enabled him to compel the chiefs of Kalpi, Dholpur and Alipur to acknowledge
his suzerainty.
Bahlol Lodhi proved himself to be a capable ruler. When he had ascended the
throne, the territory of the Sultanate extended only up to Palam. But, by the time he
reached the ripe age of 80 years, his empire extended from the frontiers of Bihar and
included important cities like Baran, Sambhal, Rapri, etc.
A part of Rajasthan was also under him and the rulers of Gwalior, Dholpur and
Bari paid tribute to him. Prior to his accession to the throne his weak predecessors
had succeeded only in destroying the power and prestige of the Delhi Sultanate. Bahlol
Lodhi on the other hand proved to be a capable commander. He was a courageous
soldier and a successful general. He was a realist but cunning as well.
He believed in the saying that the end justified the means and therefore did not
hesitate to recourse to treachery or fraud when necessary to achieve his objective.
Bahlol Lodhi was diplomatic. He possessed common sense and was well aware of
his limitations and circumstances. He was a hard working, courageous, honest, kind-
hearted and a religious minded person. It is said that never a beggar or a poor was
turned away from his gate empty-handed. He was friendly with everybody and always
respected scholars and religious persons. He was intelligent and witty. Bahlol Lodhi
practiced the principles of Islam in his personal life but pursued a tolerant policy
towards his Hindu subjects as well.
Bahlol Lodhi achieved much for his dynasty and prepared the way further for his son
and successor, Sikandar Lodhi. Some important points that should be remembered
about the Lodhi dynasty are as follows:
 Bahlol Lodhi, the first ruler of the Lodhi dynasty, was one of the Afghans who
established himself in Punjab after the invasion of Timur.
 He founded the Lodhi dynasty in 1451.
 Bahlol Lodhi was a strong and brave ruler. He tried to restore the glory of
Delhi by conquering territories around Delhi and after continuous war for 26
years; he succeeded in extending his authority over Jaunpur, Rewail, Itawah,
Mewar, Sambhal, Gwalior etc.
 He was a kind and generous ruler who was always prepared to help his subjects.
Though he was himself illiterate, he extended his patronage to art and learning.
Self-Instructional He died in 1488.
62 Material
 Sikandar Lodhi was the son of Bahlol Lodhi who conquered Bihar and Western Political Developments:
The Sultanate
Bengal. He shifted his capital from Delhi to Agra.
 Sikandar was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the
Jwalamukhi Temple at Nagarkot and ordered the temples of Mathura to be
destroyed. NOTES
 He took keen interest in the development of agriculture. He introduced the
Gaz-i-Sikandari of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields.
 He was a staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic. He lacked religious tolerance.
In the name of religion, he perpetuated untold cruelties on the Hindus.
 Ibrahim Lodhi was the last king of the Lodhi dynasty and the last Sultan of
Delhi. He was the son of Sikandar Lodhi.
 Ibrahim Lodhi asserted the absolute power of the Sultan.
 No Sultan of India except Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi was killed on the battlefield.
End of the Lodhi Dynasty
The legacy of the Sultanate, the medieval economy and new connections with Europe,
helped to create an imperial state in North India. The Mughal empire was the end
product of a millennium of Muslim conquests, colonization and state building in the
Indian subcontinent. The dynasty and the empire which the first two dynasties founded
became indisputably Indian. In the beginning, the principal adversaries of the Mughals
were Afghans who had supplanted Turks and Persians to become the most powerful
group in North India. In addition, the Hindu rulers in every region of the subcontinent
were already a spent force. They recognized the legitimacy of the Islamic political
power and adapted a new order due to the exigencies of the circumstances.
With a tiny but loyal army of 12,000 men, Babur came to the historic city of
Panipat, about fifty miles from Delhi in early April 1526. On the opposite side stood
Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi with an immense host numbering about 1,00,000 men. But the
Afghan Sultan, a young inexperienced man, careless in his movements, was no match
for Babur, a born general who had the strength of loyalty in a compact group, a well-
trained cavalry and powerful artillery. The battle of Panipat, which took place on 21
April 1526, was over within a day.
Babur was not only a soldier-statesman but a poet and a man of letters as well.
His memoirs, originally written in Turkish, were translated into Persian during Akbar’s
reign. The English versions appeared in 1826. He had a zest for life and missed for
his native country as India had few pleasures to recommend according to him.
The First Battle of Panipat
The first battle of Panipat had an everlasting impact. It altered the history of India.
Some important highlights of this battle are as follows:
 End of the rule of the Lodhi dynasty: The battle of Panipat is regarded as
one of the decisive battles of Indian history. It broke the back of Lodhi power,
and brought under Babur’s control the entire area up to Delhi and Agra.
 Foundation of the Mughal Empire: Babur’s victory at Panipat led the
foundation of the Mughal Empire in India. Soon after the victory, Babur occupied
Delhi and Agra, seated himself on the throne of the Lodhis and laid the foundation
of Mughal rule in India. This empire continued for more than two centuries.
Self-Instructional
Material 63
Political Developments:  End of Babur’s bad days: The treasures stored by Ibrahim Lodhi in Agra
The Sultanate
relieved Babur from his financial difficulties.
 Re-establishment of the prestige of Crown: After the battle of Panipat, Babur
laid the foundation of a new dynasty and called himself the Monarch. Unlike
NOTES the Sultans of Delhi, he never called himself the deputy of the Caliph but called
himself the Emperor. Thus, he revived the sovereignty of the monarch as it
used to be in ancient times in India and re-established the prestige of the Crown.
 Use of artillery in India: The battle of Panipat led to the initiation of artillery
in India. Until now, India was not familiar with the gun powder. For the first
time, it was used in a battle on the Indian plains and, since then, the artillery has
been used in many important battles.
 Tulugama became popular in India: One of the important causes of Babur’s
victory in first battle of Panipat was the adoption of a scientific war strategy
called Tulugama. Gradually, Indian rulers also adopted this system.
 A shift in the political interest: After this battle, the centre of Babur’s political
activities and ambitions was shifted from Kabul and the Central Asia to Agra
and India. No doubt the difficulties of Babur after his victory at Panipat were
manifold as people of India displayed remarkable hostility towards the Mughal
armies.
2.5 SUMMARY
 The first Indian ruler of the Khilji Dynasty was Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji, who
ruled from AD 1290–1294. He invaded India and built his capital in Delhi,
though he never really ruled from there. He constructed another capital at
Kilughari, and ruled from there for about six years.
 Alauddin, also known as Ali or Garshasp, was the son of a brother of Jalaluddin
named Shihabuddin Khilji. At the time of the accession of Jalaluddin, his nephew
Alauddin who was also his son-in-law was appointed the head of the ceremony
or Amir-i-Tuzuk. His uncle also made him the jagirdar of Kara. Thus, the
seeds of ambition were sown in Alauddin’s mind early in life.
 Following the death of Alauddin in AD 1316, the Delhi Sultanate was plunged
into confusion. Malik Kafur sat on the throne for a few days, only to be deposed
by Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah. During this period, rebellions broke out in Deogir
Check Your Progress but were harshly suppressed. Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah was soon murdered
and Khusrau ascended the throne. However, he too did not last long.
7. Who was the
founder of the  The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was Ghazi Malik who ascended the throne
Sayyid dynasty? as Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq in AD 1320 who ruled till AD 1412. Ghiyas-uddin
8. Who succeeded rose to an important position in the reign of Alauddin Khilji. After a brief rule
Khizr Khan?
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq died in AD 1325 and his son Muhammad Tughlaq
9. What was unique
about the Lodhi
ascended the throne.
dynasty?  The Tughlaq dynasty came to an end in1414 when Khizr Khan founded the
10. How did the Lodhi Sayyid dynasty in Delhi. Khizr Khan assisted Timur during his invasion of
dynasty come to an
India. Timur made Khizr Khan the governor of Lahore, Multan and Dipalpur
end?
as a reward. After the death of the last Tughluq, Mahmud Shah, in 412, Daulat
Self-Instructional
64 Material
Khan Lodhi accompanied Khizr Khan in order to occupy the throne of Delhi. Political Developments:
The Sultanate
In 1414, Khizr Khan won the battle and established his rule.
 In India, the Lodhi dynasty ruled from 1451 to 1526. It was the first and last
Afghan dynasty to rule in South Asia. The founder of the Lodhi dynasty, Bahlol
Lodhi, was originally the governor of Punjab. Later on, he ascended on the NOTES
throne of Delhi Sultanate and took the title of Sultan Abul Muzzaffar Bahlol
Shah Ghazi.
2.6 KEY TERMS

 Usurper: A person who seizes power in a forceful or controversial manner
 Amirs: Generals and high officers
 Fakir: A Muslim/ Sufi ascetic or monk
 Booty: Plunder, loot, treasures taken from enemies during war
 Jagir: Small pieces of land/territory granted to army chiefs by the king or ruler
in historic India
 Despot: A tyrant/oppressor with unlimited power
 Doab: The area of fertile land between two rivers
 Shariat or Sharia: The system of religious laws that Muslims follow
 Suzerainty: A relation between states in which a subservient nation has its
own government
 Iqta: An Islamic practice of tax farming that became common in Muslim Asia

1. He constructed his capital at Kilughari, and ruled from there for about six
years.
2. One reason was: many considered him to be an Afghan and not a Turk. Both
the people and the Turkish amirs of Delhi considered royalty to be the monopoly
of the Turks only.
3. One reason was: he accorded capital and death punishment even for trivial
offences.
4. He was deposed by Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah.
5. The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was Ghazi Malik who ascended the throne
as Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq.
6. Instead of shifting only his government, he ordered the entire population of
Delhi to move to Daulatabad. Roads were built and food and shelter provided
to all. But the people of Delhi were not happy and they looked upon this as an
exile. Many people died on the way. Once the Sultan settled in Daulatabad, the
Mongols began to renew their raids. The Sultan now realized his folly and
ordered the capital to be shifted back to Delhi.
7. Khizr Khan founded the Sayyid dynasty in Delhi.
Self-Instructional
Material 65
Political Developments: 8. Khizr Khan was succeeded by Mubarak Shah in 1421.
The Sultanate
9. It was the first and last Afghan dynasty to rule in South Asia.
10. The Mughal ruler Babur attacked India in 1526 and Ibrahim Lodhi was defeated
NOTES in the first battle of Panipat near Delhi. This battle resulted in end of Lodhi
Dynasty.
1. Analyse the initial period of reign of Jalaluddin Khilji.
2. Trace the events that led to the accession of Alauddin to the throne.
3. Describe briefly the three phases of the reign of Alauddin Khilji.
4. What were the results of the new coinage (token currency) started by
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq?
5. What were the causes of the decline of the Tughlaq Empire?
6. Discuss the causes and consequences of the scheme of the transfer of capital to
Devgiri.
7. Write a short note on Khizr Khan and his policies.
8. How did the Tughlaq dynasty come to an end?
9. Who established the Sayyid dynasty and how?
1. Discuss the various conquests and revolts during Jalaluddin.
2. Explain the events that led to the establishment of the Khilji Dynasty.
3. Analyse the various conquests embarked upon by Alauddin Khilji.
4. Make a list of the conquests of Firoz Shah Tughlaq. Discuss his foreign policy.
5. Evaluate the administrative reforms brought about by Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
6. Discuss the political activities of Mubarak Shah, the second ruler of the Sayyid
dynasty.
7. Who was Muhammad Shah? Was he a successful ruler? Why or why not?
2.9 FURTHER READING

Basu, Shyama Prasad; Rise and Fall of Khilji Imperialism, U.N. Dhur and Sons,
Kolkata, 1963.
Farooqui, Salma Ahmed; A Comprehensive History of Medieval India, Pearson
Education India, New Delhi, 2001.
Jackson, Peter; The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History, Cambridge
University Press, London, 2003.

 The reign of the Khiljis
 The features of the Tughlaq dynasty
Self-Instructional
66 Material
Foundation of the
UNIT 3 FOUNDATION OF THE Mughal Empire-I
MUGHAL EMPIRE- I
NOTES
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Objectives
3.2 Ascension and Fall of Babur
3.3 Ascension and Fall of Humayun
3.4 The Suris
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Terms
3.9 Further Reading
3.0 INTRODUCTION
In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur, swept across the Khyber Pass and
established the Mughal empire, which lasted for over 200 years. The Mughal Dynasty
ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by AD 1600. It went into a slow decline after
AD 1707 and was finally defeated during the Indian rebellion of 1857. This period
marked a vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority was ruled over
by the Mughal emperors, some of whom showed religious tolerance, while the others
liberally patronized Hindu culture, and some destroyed the historical temples and
imposed taxes on the non-Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal empire, which
at its peak occupied an area slightly larger than the ancient Mauryan empire, several
smaller empires rose to fill the power vacuum which themselves were contributing
factors to the decline.
The early Mughal rulers, Babur and Humayun had not tried to change the
prevailing style of administration and government. It was only Akbar who established
an efficient and strong administration. His administration was better than his
predecessors. He not only adopted some of the rules of Sher Shah Suri’s administration
but also reformed the prevalent system and also introduced some new rules and
practices. His successors adopted his basic administration and policies and ruled
successfully. In the early time of their rule, Mughal rulers ruled according the Islamic
Law like the Delhi Sultans. They ruled according to the wishes of the Muslims and
guidelines of the Ulemas. But Akbar abolished this practice. In case of differences
between the Ulemas and the Emperor, Akbar’s decision was considered to be effective.
Thus, the Muslim religious lobby was barred from interfering in the administration
and the Mughal Emperor became the supreme power in India.
In this unit, you will learn about the condition of India during Babur’s invasion,
the victory and reign of Babur as the first Mughal ruler, the reign of Humayun and his
own shortcomings and the reign of Sher Shah, one of the greatest emperors apart
from Akbar and his unique and powerful administrative system.
Self-Instructional
Material 67
Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I 3.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES
NOTES  Describe the ascension and fall of Babur
 Discuss the ascension and fall of Humayun
 Explain the ascension and rule of the Suris
3.2 ASCENSION AND FALL OF BABUR

After the invasion of Muhammad Ghori and the calamitous episode of Timur’s invasion,
India had not been invaded by any force or army beyond her frontiers. The reason for
this respite was that the great Khwarizmi, an empire from the Central Asia to the
valleys of Kabul and Kandahar was in utter confusion. The seat of dynastic power in
Central Asia was shifted to Samarquand.
The legacy of the Sultanate, the medieval economy, and new connections with
Europe, helped to create an imperial state in North India. The Mughal Empire was
the end product of a millennium of Muslim conquest, colonization and state building
in the Indian subcontinent. The dynasty and the empire which the first two Timurid
emperors founded became indisputably Indian. In the beginning, the principal
adversaries of the Mughals were Afghans who had supplanted Turks and Persians to
become the most powerful group in North India. In addition, the Hindu rulers in
every region of the subcontinent (save the extreme south) were already a spent force.
They recognized the legitimacy of the Islamic political power and adapted to a new
order due to the exigencies of the circumstances.
Babur claimed descent from Timur on his father’s side and from Changez on
his mother’s. He was fifth in descent from the great Timur and Babur was born on 14
February 1483. He inherited his father’s precarious throne at the tender age of eleven,
but the petty kingdom of Farghana which Babur inherited could hardly satisfy his
ambitions. His insatiable dream was Samarqand, the proud capital of his great ancestors
which he thrice won and lost. During this period, the Timurid princes had to contend
with the two new powers, the Safavis in Persia and the Uzbegs in Central Asia. By
force of circumstances, Babur turned his attention beyond Hindukush and made himself
the master of Kabul in AD 1504. But he had not abandoned the hope of conquering
Samarqand and the defeat of Shaibani Uzbeg in AD 1510 by Shah Ismail provided
him the much-needed opportunity. With the Persian aid he mastered Samarqand but
only to lose it subsequently. Babur’s indomitable spirit turned towards India as a
compensation for the lost dominions in the north. ‘India was for him, as for the British
East India merchants a century later, second best as a field of activity.’
Babur swept down to the plains of India in AD 1517 and AD 1519 and came to
the Punjab in AD 1523 at the invitation of Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of the
province and Alam Khan, an uncle of Sultan Ibrahim. But Uzbeg’s pressure compelled
Babur to retire and the final invasion of India was undertaken in November 1525.
With a tiny but a loyal army of 12,000 men, Babur came to the historic city of Panipat,
about fifty miles from Delhi in early April 1526. On the opposite side stood Sultan
Ibrahim Lodhi with an immense host numbering about 1,00,000 men. As Babur wrote:
‘By the grace and mercy of almighty God, the difficult affair was made easy to me
Self-Instructional
and that mighty army, in the space of half a day, was laid in the dust.’
68 Material
Delhi and Agra were promptly occupied, but Babur’s troops demurred to Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
proceed further owing to the intense heat. But like Alexander, Babur roused their
passion by a dramatic appeal and prepared them to face the Rajput threat, headed by
Rana Sanga of Mewar. On 16 March 1527, in the battle of Khanua, a village 37 miles
west of Agra, Babur routed the formidable army of Rana, composed of the contingents NOTES
of 120 chiefs including 80,000 horses and 500 war elephants. The Rana escaped
from the battlefi eld and survived until AD 1529.
How Babur established the Mughal Empire
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur was the son of Umar Sheikh Mirza, a descendent of
the famous invader Taimur Lane. His mother Qutulug Nigar Khanam belonged to the
family of Changez Khan, the well known Mongol invader. According to famous
historian Lanepoole. ‘Babur had in him the blood of two great warriors of Central
Asia (Changez Khan and Taimur).’
When Babur was born in AD 1483, his father was the ruler of a small principality
of Fargana in Turkistan. In AD 1494 Babur inherited the petty Kingdom of Fargana
from his father. He was then only 11 years and four months old. At such a tender age
he had to shoulder the responsibility of ruling the state. As famous historian Dr Ishwari
Prasad points out, Babur who was yet very young was surrounded by enemies from
all sides. His near relatives and Uzbek chief Shahbani Khan wanted to snatch away
the principality of Fargana. Oblivious to the Uzbek danger, the Timuridin princes
were busy fighting with one another. Babur, too, made a bid to conquer Samarkand
from his uncle. He won the city twice but on both the occasions, lost it in no time. The
second time the Uzbek Chief Shaibani Khan was called in to help out Babur. Shaibani
defeated Babur and conquered Samarkand. Soon, he overran the rest of the Timurid
kingdoms in the area. Babur wrote in his autobiography, Tuzk-i-baburi, that I had lost
Samarkand for recovering Fargana but now I feel that I have lost even the first one
without having possessed the second.’ Having lost both Fargana and Samarkand,
Babur was forced to move towards Kabul, which he conquered in AD 1504. For the
next fourteen years, Babur kept biding his time for the reconquest of his homeland
(Fargana and Samarkand) from the Uzbeks. When he was completely unsuccessful
against the Uzbeks, he diverted his attention from the West (Central Asia) to the East
(India).
Causes that Inspired Babur to Invade India
Ambition of Babur
Like other contemporary brave rulers, Babur was very ambitious. He stated ‘I had
never ceased to think of the conquest of Hindustan. But he had never found a suitable
opportunity for undertaking it. Hindered as I was sometimes by the apprehensions of
my Begs, and sometimes by the disagreement between my brothers and myself.’ He
was involved incessantly in the struggle for the conquest of Samarkand (which Babur
loved dearly). When he was finally unsuccessful there, he tried to fulfill his ambition
by conquering India.
Miserable Political Conditions of India
The political situation in North-West India was suitable for Babur’s entry into India.
Sikandar Lodhi had died in AD 1517, and Ibrahim Lodhi had succeeded him. His
efforts to create a large centralized empire had alarmed the Afghan chiefs as well as
the Rajputs. Amongst the most powerful of the Afghan chiefs was Daulat Khan Lodhi,
Self-Instructional
Material 69
Foundation of the the governor of Punjab, who was almost an independent ruler. Daulat Khan attempted
Mughal Empire-I
to conciliate Ibrahim Lodhi by sending his son to his court in order to pay homage. At
the same time, he was trying to capture neighbouring states. He wanted to strengthen
his position by annexing the frontier tracts of Bihar, etc., which Babur had captured in
NOTES AD 1518–1519 but all hopes of Daulat Khan Lodhi were shattered. Babur put a
demand through his ambassador that Daulat Khan Lodhi and Ibrahim Lodhi should
surrender all those places to Babur which were at one time under the Turks. Daulat
Khan Lodhi very cleverly made the ambassador of Babur stay at Lahore so that he
couldn’t meet Ibrahim Lodhi.
When Babur returned from Bhira, Daulat Khan Lodhi took away Bhira from
the representative of Babur. Next year, Babur again attacked Bhira and captured it
alongwith Sialkot. This victory opened a gateway to India for Babur. One thing was
made clear by these preliminary invasions of Babur that India lacked the feeling of
political unity. Babur knew that India is divided into several petty principalities and
the rulers of these states could never unite together. It was within his knowledge that
they often used to quarrel amongst themselves. Babur considered this anarchical
situation as the appropriate opportunity to invade India.
Immense Riches of India and Legal Right to Occupy
Like countless earlier invaders from the Central Asia, Babur was drawn to India by
the lure of its fabulous wealth. India was famous as the land of gold and riches.
Babur’s ancestor Taimur had not only carried away a vast treasure and many skilful
artisans who helped him to consolidate his Asian empire and beautify his capital but
had also annexed some areas in the Punjab. These areas remained in the possession
of Taimur’s successors for many years. When Babur conquered Kabul, he felt that he
had a legitimate right to these areas.
Geographical Reasons
Moreover, India was very near to Kabul where Babur was ruling. It was natural for
an ambitious ruler to invade India.
Meager income from Kabul
Another reason for Babur’s invasion of India was the meager income of Kabul. The
historian Abul Fazal remarks, ‘He (Babur) ruled over Badakhshan, Kandhar and
Kabul which did not yield sufficient income for the requirement of the army, in fact,
in some of the border territories the expense on controlling the armies and administration
was greater than the income.’ In this way, the meager income of Kabul also promoted
Babur to invade India. Babur knew very well that after capturing the fertile province
of Punjab, he would have no financial problems and he could strengthen his position
very easily.
Fear of the Uzbeks
Babur was also apprehensive of an Uzbek attack on Kabul and considered India to be
a good place of refuge, and a suitable base for operations against the Uzbeks.
Invitations extended by Daulat Khan Lodhi, Alam Khan and Rana
Sanga
Some of the historians hold the opinion that Babur had been invited to attack the
Delhi Sultanate by Daulat Khan Lodhi and Rana Sanga. According to them, in AD
Self-Instructional
70 Material
1524, Babur had received an embassy from Daulat Khan Lodhi, led by his son Dilawar Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
Khan. They invited Babur to invade India and suggested that he should displace Ibrahim
Lodhi since he was a tyrant and enjoyed no support from his courtiers and nobles.
According to some of the historians, it is probable that a messenger from Rana Sangram
Singh (the ruler of Mewar and popularly known as Rana Sanga) arrived at the same NOTES
time, inviting Babur to invade India.
These embassies convinced Babur that the time was ripe for his conquest of
the whole of the Punjab, if not of India itself. In brief, we can say that many factors
inspired Babur to invade India. His ambitions, immense wealth of India, weak political
conditions and invitations extended by the enemies of Ibrahim Lodhi were some of
them.
Political Conditions of India on the Eve of Babur’s Invasion
On the basis of Tuzuk-i-Baburi and other historical sources, the political conditions of
India on the eve of Babur’s invasion can be described as follows:
(i) There were innumerable small and independent kingdoms which often fought
with each other.
(ii) There was no powerful central authority to unite all the small states against a
foreign invasion. In the words of Dr Ishwari Prasad, ‘In the beginning of the
16th century, India was a confederacy of small independent states which could
easily fall prey to any strong and determined invader.’
(iii) Babur writes in his memoirs that when he invaded India there were seven
important states – five Muslim and two Hindu. Besides these states mentioned
by Babur there were several other states which were also playing a considerable
role in the politics of India. In Northern India, the main states were Delhi,
Punjab, Bengal, Jaunpur, Gujarat, Mewar, Malwa, Orissa, Sindh, Kashmir
and Khandesh.
(iv) The political conditions of Southern India were also deteriorating. The Bahamani
kingdom had broken up into five small principalities. These were Bijapur,
Golkunda, Beedar, Barar and Ahmednagar. Although all these states were ruled
by the Shia rulers, still they used to fight against each other. The Hindu kingdom
of Vijaynagar in South was under Krishnadev Rai. He was very powerful but
he did not have good relations with the Bahamani kingdom and was only
interested in the politics of the Deccan.
(v) The people of India were lacking the feeling of modern nationalism. They were
more loyal to their local rulers than the symbolic central power of Delhi. In
order to form an idea of the political condition of the Northern India on the eve
of Babur’s invasion, a brief survey of these states would be very helpful.
(a) Delhi: In Northern India, the small remnant of the Delhi Sultanate was
ruled over by an incapable ruler Ibrahim Lodhi against whom rebellions
were a frequent occurrence.
(b) Bengal: During the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq, Bengal became an
independent kingdom. Nusrat Shah ruled over the territory during the
invasion of Babur, and extended the borders of the kingdom up to Hajipur
and Mongher and annexed Tirhut.
(c) Punjab: In the Punjab, Daulat Khan Lodhi had revolted against the
authority of Ibrahim and had become an independent ruler of Punjab. He
Self-Instructional
Material 71
Foundation of the could not tolerate the insult of his son at the hands of the Sultan. He
Mughal Empire-I
turned against the Sultan and joined hands with Alam Khan, an uncle of
Ibrahim, and invited Babur to invade India. Besides that, the rulers of
Sind and Multan were also hostile to the Sultan of Delhi.
NOTES (d) The Eastern districts: The eastern districts of Oudh, Jaunpur and Bihar
rose in arms and chose Darya Khan Lohani as their chief.
(e) Jaunpur: It was absolutely independent of the central control.
(f) Bihar: It was facing open rebellion.
(g) Gujarat: The kingdom of Gujarat was ruled by the Muslim Sultans
independent of Delhi.
(h) Malwa: The ruler of Malwa was Mahmud II of the Khilji dynasty. The
ruler of Chanderi, Medini Rai wanted to establish his control over Malwa
with the help of Rana Sanga of Mewar. Malwa was beset with internal
quarrels and rebellions.
(i) Mewar: Mewar was the most powerful Rajput kingdom under the able
and wise leadership of the brave Rana Sanga who had united all the Rajputs
under a single flag in a federation. Rana Sanga was a past master in the
art of fighting and had defeated the rulers of Delhi, Malwa and Gujrat.
(j) Khandesh: Khandesh, once the province of the Delhi Kingdom had
become independent at the close of the 14th century. Adil Khan Faruqi,
who ruled over it from AD 1457-1503 did a lot to increase the material
prosperity of the Kingdom. Under him, Burhanpur, the capital of the
Kingdom, became one of the most attractive cities of India. On the eve of
Babur’s invasion, Miran Mohammad was the ruler.
(k) Vijaynagar: Vijaynagar was founded in AD 1336 by Harishar and his
brother Bukka. Krishna Dev was a very powerful ruler of this dynasty.
The rulers of Vijaynagar were in a constant war with the neighbouring
kingdom of Bahamani.
(l) Bahmani State: It was founded in AD 1347 by Hassan, an Afghan noble.
It produced a number of warriors and ambitious kings. Unfortunately, it
was always on warring terms with her neighbour, Vijaynagar. Afterwards,
this state was split up in five small states – Barar, Ahmednagar, Badar,
Bijapur and Golkunda.
It is clear from the above account that the North and the South India was divided into
small principalities where different Hindu and Muslim rulers were ruling. Under
these circumstances, it was not a difficult task for anyone to conquer India.
Social Conditions during Babur’s Time
At that time, Indian society was divided mainly into two groups – Hindus and Muslims.
After living together for centuries they were quite friendly with each other.
Therefore, both considered Babur as an enemy of India. Several ills had crept into the
Hindu and the Muslim religions.
Causes of Failure of Ibrahim Lodhi
Babur was victorious at the battle of Panipat because of a number of factors. The
main factors are as follows:
Self-Instructional
72 Material
(i) Scientific combination of cavalry and artillery: Firstly, the victory of Babur Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
was due to the scientific combination of cavalry and artillery. The effective use
of mobile cavalry and the skill with which Ustad Ali and Mustafa, two great
Turkish gunners, fought in the field of Panipat were also important factors
which contributed towards Babur’s victory. Rush Brooke Williams writes, ‘If NOTES
it could be possible to emphasize any one of the factors as being the most
important cause of his (Babur’s) victory, one would surely have to assign the
first place to his artillery.’
(ii) Disunity: The Indian rulers did not visualize eventuality beyond the borders of
their kingdoms and could not stand united to face a threat on India from the
outside. Babur defeated them one by one, captured their kingdoms.
(iii) Babur’s personality: One of the biggest causes of Babur’s victory was also
his impressive personality. He did not lose heart even at the most critical times.
He had the capacity to infuse spirit in dead bodies with his lively speech. He
was a born general and was fully conversant with all the tactics of war.
(iv) Ill-treatment of Ibrahim Lodhi towards his Amirs: Sultan Ibrahim’s
treatment towards his Amirs was most discourteous and insulting. The proud
Afghan nobles, who used to share the carpet with Ibrahim’s father and grand-
father, were made to lose land in his Durbar in a humble posture and with their
arms folded. Hence, the Amirs went against him.
(v) Disciplined army: Babur’s army was more disciplined than the Indian army.
His soldiers knew how to stand in the battle array and when to charge. On the
other hand, the Indian soldiers moved more or less like a crowd and a little
charge from the enemy side was enough to cause confusion among them. Their
vast numbers were more a source of weakness than a source of strength. They
were ill organized, ill-trained and ill-disciplined.
(vi) Inefficiency of Ibrahim as a General: Fortunately for Babur, the rival, he
had to contend with an inefficient military general who lacked the qualities of
generalship. Neither could he properly organize his forces nor could he plan
the battle well. Babur himself remarks that, ‘Ibrahim was an inexperienced,
young man, careless in his movements who marched without order, halted or
retired without plan and engaged in the battle without foresight.’ It was not
difficult for a brilliant general like Babur to defeat such an inefficient rival.
(vii) Use of elephants by the Lodhis: Ibrahim Lodhi made a big use of elephants
in his army. As compared to this, the horses of the Mughal cavalry were more
active. Very often elephants wounded in battle used to round back trampling
their own army men under their feet.
(viii) Babur’s formations or Tulugama: Babur took strategic positions as soon as
he reached Panipat. He strengthened his position by resting one wing of his
army in the city of Panipat which had a large number of horses, and protected
the others by means of a ditch filled with branches of trees. On the front, he
lashed together a large number of carts, to act as a defending wall. Between
those two carts, breastworks were erected on which soldiers could rest their
guns and fire. Historians praise Babur for his formation which was offensive
as well as defensive. In brief, we can say that one of the causes of Babur’s
victory at Panipat was the Tulugama strategy of war.
Self-Instructional
Material 73
Foundation of the The First Battle of Panipat
Mughal Empire-I
In November, AD 1525, Babur attacked India with 12000 soldiers. When he reached
Peshawar, he got the news that Daulat Khan Lodhi had changed sides. He had collected
NOTES a huge army and ousted the Amirs of Babur from Sialkot and reached up to Lahore.
Therefore, first of all Babut paid his heed towards Daulat Khan Lodhi. At Babur’s
approach, the army of Daulat Khan melted away. Daulat Khan submitted and was
pardoned. Thus, within three weeks of crossing the Indus, Babur became the master
of the Punjab.
On 20 April, AD 1526, Babur reached the famous historical field of Panipat
along with his army with a view to conquer India. Ibrahim Lodhi met Babur at Panipat
with a force estimated at 100000 men and 10000 elephants. Since the Indian armies
generally contained large hordes of servants, the fighting men on Ibrahim Lodhi’s
side must have been far less than this figure. Babur had crossed the Indus with a force
of 12,0000, but he had been swelled by his army in India and the large number of the
Hindustani nobles and soldiers who joined him in the Punjab. Even then Babur’s
army was numerically inferior. On the morning of 21 April 1526, they fought a pitched
battle. Babur, with the tactical use of Tulugama, encircled Ibrahim Lodhi’s army, and
his artillery rained a hail of fire and shots on it. The Lodhi army was totally destroyed.
Babur himself wrote, ‘By the grace and mercy of Almighty (God), the mighty army
of Delhi was laid in the dust in the course of half a day.’ After half a day of battle,
Babur came out victorious. Ibrahim Lodhi lost his life along with his 15000 soldiers
in the Battle of Panipat.
Effects of the First Battle of Panipat
(i) End of the rule of Lodhi dynasty: The battle of Panipat is regarded as one of
the decisive battles of Indian history. It broke the back of Lodhi power, and
brought under Babur’s control the entire area up to Delhi and Agra. As Babur’s
predecessor Taimur had brought to an end the rule of the Tughlaq’s, similarly
Babur’s success led to an end of the Lodhi rule.
(ii) Foundation of the Mughal empires: Babur’s victory at Panipat led to the
foundation of the Mughal Empire in India. Soon after the victory, Babur occupied
Delhi and Agra, seated himself on the throne of the Lodhis and laid the foundation
of the Mughal rule in India. Of course, the empire founded by Babur was soon
lost by his son, Humayun and it was Akbar who actually re-created the Mughal
Empire. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that the actual foundation of the
empire was laid with the victory in the battle of Panipat. This empire continued
for more than two centuries.
(iii) End of Babur’s bad days: The reassures stored up by Ibrahim Lodhi in Agra
relieved Babur from his financial difficulties. The rich territory up to Jaunpur
also lay open to Babur. Rush Brooke Williams writes, ‘After being successful
in this battle, the bad days of Babur came to an end. Now he need not bother
about his personal safety or his throne.’
(iv) Re-establishment of the prestige of Crown: After the battle of Panipat, Babur
laid the foundation of a new dynasty and called himself the monarch. Unlike
the Sultans of Delhi Sultanate period, he never used to call himself the deputy
of the Caliph but used to call himself Emperor. Thus, he revived the sovereignty
of the monarch as it used to be in ancient times in India and thus established the
prestige of the Crown.
Self-Instructional
74 Material
(v) Use of artillery in India: The battle of Panipat led to the initiation of artillery Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
in India. Up till now, India were not familiar with the gun powder. For the first
time, it was used in a battle on the Indian plains and, since then, the artillery has
been used in many important battles.
(vi) Birth of new struggles: However, Babur had to wage three hard fought battles, NOTES
one against Rana Sanga of Mewar, another against Medini Rao at Chanderi
and the third against the eastern Afghans, before he could consolidate his hold
on this area (Delhi, Agra etc.) Viewed from his angle, the battle of Panipat was
not as decisive in political field as has been made out. According to R. B.
Williams, ‘The victory at Panipat was excellent, which was actually a part of
the beginning.’ Some views have been expressed by renowned historian Dr
Satish Chandra, when he talks about the battle in the following words. ‘Its real
importance lies in the fact that it opened a new face in the struggle for domination
in North India.’
(vii) Tulugama became popular in India: One of the important causes of Babur’s
victory in first battle of Panipat was the adoption of a scientific war strategy
called Tulugama (an Ottoman or Rumi device) by him. Gradually, India rulers
also adopted this very system. Almost all the Indian rulers adopted this very
system and started adopting the policy of keeping a reserve army. The Indian
rulers were greatly impressed by the swiftness and movability of horses and
gradually the place of elephants was taken by horses in the army.
(viii) A shift in the political interest: After this battle, the centre of Babur’s political
activities and ambitions was shifted from Kabul and the Central Asia to Agra
and India. No doubt the difficulties of Babur after his victory at Panipat were
manifold. Many of his Begs were not prepared for a long campaign in India.
With the onset of the hot weather, their misgivings had increased. They were
far away from home in a strange and hostile land.
Babur recounts that the people of India displayed remarkable hostility by abandoning
their villages at the approach of the Mughal armies. Obviously, the memoirs of Taimur’s
sacking and plundering of the towns and villages were still fresh in their minds. Babur
knew that the resources in India alone would enable him to found a strong empire and
satisfy his Begs. He, thus, took a firm stand, proclaiming his intention to stay on in
India, and granting leave to a number of his Begs, who wanted to go back to Kabul.
This immediately cleared the air. But it also invited the hostility of Rana Sanga who
began his preparations for a showdown with Babur.
Battle of Khanwa
The Battle of Khanwa was fought between Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar (popularly
known as Rana Sanga) and the founder of Mughal dynasty, Babur, in AD 1527 at a
place Khanwa, about 40 kilometers away from Agra.
Causes
(i) Ambitions of Rana Sanga: Rana Sanga was an ambitious ruler. He had been
in conflict with Ibrahim Lodhi for the domination of eastern Rajasthan and
Malwa. After defeating Mahmood Khilji of Malwa, the influence of Rana had
gradually extended up to Piliya Khar, a small river in the neighbourhood of
Agra. The establishment of an empire in the Indo-Gangetic Valley by Babur
was a threat to Rana Sanga. Sanga set preparations to expel out Babur at any
rate and to confine him to the Punjab. Self-Instructional
Material 75
Foundation of the (ii) Rana being accused of treachery by Babur: Babur accused Rana Sanga of
Mughal Empire-I
breach of agreement. He said that Sanga had invited him to India and had
promised to join him against Ibrahim Lodhi, but made no move while he (Babur)
conquered Delhi and Agra. We do not know the exact terms and conditions of
NOTES the agreement between Babur and Rana Sanga but it is certain that after the
first battle of Panipat, Babur had captured only Delhi and Agra. He had not
become the emperor of India. He was also brave and ambitious like Rana
Sanga. It was not possible for him to become the emperor of India without
breaking the power of Rajputs.
(iii) Charges of Rana Sanga against Babur: Rana Sanga, on the other hand, had
claim on Kalpi, Dhaulpur and Agra and he blamed Babur for not fulfilling his
promise. We cannot say definitely whether the charges of Rana Sanga against
Babur were correct or not but it is definite that he might have hoped that like
Taimur, Babur would withdraw after sacking Delhi and weakening the Lodhis.
Babur’s decision to stay on in India completely changed the situation. This
made war between Babur and Rana Sanga inevitable.
(iv) Inciting of Rana Sanga by the Afghans: Many Afghans including Mahmud
Lodhi, a younger brother of Ibrahim Lodhi, rallied for Rana Sanga in the hope
of regaining the throne of Delhi in case Sanga won. Hassan Khan Mewati, the
ruler of Mewar, also joined hands with Sanga.
Events
The armies of Babur and Sanga met at Khanwa on March 10, AD 1527. Babur
arranged his army almost in the same fashion as he had done in Panipat. This time
again, he had to face an army which was numerous and according to Lanepoole,
‘whatever the exact number might have been, a more gallant army could not have
been brought into the field.’A bloody war followed which lasted for about 12 hours.
Dr R. P. Tripathi writes, ‘The ruthless slaughter closed the bloody episode.’ ‘Sanga’s
forces were thus hemmed in and were defeated after a great slaughter. Rana Sanga
escaped and wanted to renew the conflict with Babur. But he was poisoned by his
own nobles who considered such a course dangerous and suicidal.
Consequences
(i) This battle was more decisive than that of the first battle of Panipat. After that
Babur definitely became the ruler of India. The battle of Khanwa secured
Babur’s position in the Delhi-Agra region. Babur strengthened his position
further by conquering a chain of forts in Gwalior, Dholpur, in the east of Agra.
He also annexed large parts of Alwar from Hasan Khan Mewati. He then led a
campaign against Medina Rai of Chanderi in Malwa. Chanderi was captured
after the Rajput defenders had died fighting to the last man and their women
performed Jauhar. In brief, we can say that the battle of Khanwa consolidated
the foundation of Mughal Empire by bringing the Rajput power to an end. The
centre of activity of Babur had shifted from Kabul to Hindustan and, thus, the
work of defeating the rest of the unimportant local chiefs and the Afghans
became easier.
(ii) With Sanga’s death, the dream of a united Rajasthan extending up to Agra
received a serious setback. The strength of the Rajput was broken and the
kingdoms of Hindustan passed from the hands of Rajputs to the Mughals. The
Self-Instructional
76 Material
foundation of the Mughal empire in India was not laid more deeper than ever. Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
For the Rajputs, the result of this battle brought a sad day because there was
hardly any Rajput that had not lost the flower of his princely blood. The famous
historian S.R. Sharma writes, ‘Defeat of the Rajputs at Khanwa ended the
superiority of the Rajputs which they had established successfully in the last NOTES
ten years and which was an eyesore for the Muslims ended forever’. According
to Dr Lunia, ‘After the defeat and death of Rana Sanga, Mewar lost its prestige.
Mewar began losing its power and in place of it, Marwar under Maldev got the
leadership of Rajputs.’
Causes of the Defeat of Rajputs or the Victory of Babur
(i) Treachery of Siladi of Rasin: He was the Rajput ally of Rana Sanga and he
had promised to fight for the common Rajput cause. In the thick of the light he
deserted Rana Sanga and went over to Babur for the latter is said to have
influenced him. This treacherous behaviour on the part of Siladi of Raisin broke
the heart of the Rajputs and adversely affected their lot in the battle.
(ii) Use of cannons by Babur: Babur used cannons in the battle of Khanwa. On
the other hand, Rajputs were fully unaware of this device. Horses of Rajputs
could not face the cannons and so the army of Rana Sanga was shattered.
(iii) Babur as a commander: Babur was a very capable commander. His techniques
of warfare brought him success once more. In the face of stringent contingencies,
he exhibited patience and courage which made him an outstanding leader of
his time. He promised that after this victory he would allow leave to everyone
who wanted to go home.
(iv) Declaration of the holy war (Jihad): Babur had declared a holy war against
the Rana and reminded his men that he was fighting for the glorification of his
religion. The response was instantaneous and enthusiastic. Besides giving
divorce to his wife, everyone swore of the holy Quran that he would fight to the
end and stand by Babur. The spirit of his troops was thus completely restored,
and he won the battle against the Rajputs.
(v) Disunity of Rajputs: The Rajputs were not united. There were great dissensions
between them, and due to the victory of Babur in this battle, whatever unity
was left in them also ended.
(vi) Role of Ustad Ali: Ustad Ali, the captain of Babur’s artillery must also share
the credit of this victory.
(vii) Responsibility of Rana Sanga: Some historians are of the opinion that though
Rana was a brave soldier, he was not a statesman of high order. According to
Dr Sharma, ‘In his relation with Babur he showed vacillation and want of
decisions and firmness. He failed to proceed and capture Agra which he ought
to have done immediately after Babur had moved south of the Punjab to fight
against Ibrahim Lodhi. Had he done so, he would not have acquired the immense
treasures and resources that lay stored in the town but also the support of the
entire race of the Indian Afghans. Moreover, luck did not favour Rana Sanga.
He was wounded during the course of the battle and failed to provide leadership
to his soldiers at a critical moment. It also demoralized his soldiers. However,
these can be counted only as the subsidiary causes of the defeat of the Rajputs’.
Self-Instructional
Material 77
Foundation of the (viii) Disciplined Army: Babur’s army was small, disciplined and experienced but
Mughal Empire-I
the Rajput army was a large crowd of undisciplined, inexperienced mercenaries.
3.3 ASCENSION AND FALL OF HUMAYUN

NOTES
Humayun was born at Kabul on 6 March, AD 1508. He was the eldest son of Babur.
His mother was Mahim Begum and Kamran, Askari and Hindal were his brothers.
Proper arrangements were made for his education. He had a good knowledge of
Arabic, Persian and Turkish. He had keen interest in philosophy, astrology and
mathematics. To give him administrative training, Babur appointed him the Governor
of Badakshan. On the eve of AD 1526, he went against Hamid Khan and defeated
him near Hissar Firoza. In AD 1526, he got the districts of Hissar Firoza and Sambhal.
After the defeat of Ibrahim Lodhi, Babur sent Humayun to capture Agra when he did
not get Kohinoor as a prize from his father. At Sambhal, he fell ill in AD 1529. Babur
died and Humayun was saved. After the death of Babur, Humayun came to throne on
December 30, AD 1530.
Early Difficulties of Humayun
(i) Conspiracy by Khalifa and other people: Babur died on 26 December, AD
1530. On the same day his prime Minister, Nizamuddin Ali Muhammad tried
to flout the succession of Humayun to the throne and raised Mehdi Khawaja to
the throne. This plot, however, ended on the very third day perhaps because of
the differences between Khawaja and Khalifa. But Humayun neither gave hard
punishments to the rebels nor removed them from the high offi ces. Babur had
counselled Humayun to deal kindly with his subordinates. Humayun was a
man of kind heart and soft nature. Actually his kind nature dragged him into
difficulties.
(ii) Disorderly administration: Humayun ascended a throne which was then
unstable and unsecured. Babur had bequeathed an empty treasury and an ill-
organized kingdom to him. Babur could rule over India only for 4–5 years and
this time too he spent mostly in wars. He died before he could affect the
consolidation of his empire. Humayun inherited an empire which was beset
with many difficulties. Babur paid no attention towards the administration.
The empire was although vast it lacked cohesion and internal unity and was
comprised of small or big fiets of the Amirs of the Kingdom. Babur did not
have any policy with regard to the land system or the judicial system. Neither
did he do any work regarding the welfare of the common people. The jagirdars
Check Your Progress created by Babur, were creating main problems for Humayun. Definitely, for
this problem of Humayun, only Babur was responsible.
1. On whose
invitation did (iii) Economic problems: No doubt Babur left almost an empty treasury for
Babur come to Humayun. But Humayun enhanced his own economic problems due to his
Punjab?
own foolishness. Whatever little money he got, he spent in military activities or
2. Give one reason for
failure of Ibrahim distributed amongst his Amirs, soldiers, and relatives in order to please them.
Lodhi. Because of the lack of money, Humayun could not carry on military preparations
3. Who were the to face his enemies.
parties that fought
the battle of
(iv) His brothers: There was the Timurid legacy of the partition of the empire
Khanwa? among all the brothers. Babur had counselled Humayun to deal kindly with his
brothers, but had not favoured the partitioning of the infant Mughal empire,
Self-Instructional
78 Material
which would have been disastrous. When Humayun ascended the throne at Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
Agra, his empire included Kabul and Kandhar, while there was loose control
over Badkshan beyond the Hindukush mountains. Kabul and Kandhar were
under the charge of Humayun’s younger brother, Kamran. It was but natural
that they should remain in his charge. However, Kamran was not satisfied with NOTES
these poverty stricken areas. He marched on Lahore and Multan, and occupied
them. Humayun, who was busy elsewhere and did not want to start a Civil
War, had little option but to agree. Kamran accepted the suzerainty of Humayun
and promised to help him whenever necessary. Kamran’s action created the
apprehension that the other brothers (Hindal and Askri) of Humayun might
also follow the same path whenever an opportunity arose. In fact Kamran was
over-ambitious and he did not remain loyal to Humayun in his hour of need.
Humayun’s other two brothers, Lanepoole says, were weak and foolish. They
were easily accessible to the clever and corrupt designs of the Amirs against
Humayun. They had always added to his problems.
The acutest difficulties of Humayun were, however, those presented by the
Afghans. Of course, Babur had defeated the Afghans in the battles of Panipat
and Ghagra, yet their power was not crushed. The result was that on the
accession of Humayun, they became as bold in their activities as ever. They
were nursing the hope of expelling the Mughals from India. On the east his
position was menaced by the Afghan chiefs of Bengal and Bihar. Mahmud
Lodhi was trying to get back the throne of Delhi for the Afghan. Alam Khan
who had once invited Babur to conquer India was now cherishing hopes of
making himself the ruler. He was taking refuge with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat,
who promised him help with men and money. On the South Bahadur Shah of
Gujarat assumed a hostile attitude and pressing his triumph over the Rajputs of
Mewar was rapidly approaching it within striking distance of Agra. More
dangerous than all the other Afghans chiefs was Sher Shah Suri.
(vi) Unreliable army: The army which Humayun inherited from his father could
not be relied upon. This army was not infused with national feeling and
enthusiasm. His army consisted of Mughals, Uzbegs, Afghans, Indian Muslims,
Turks, the Hindus and the Persians. The commanders of armies were jealous
of one another. Their internal disunity and rivalry made the striking power of
the Mughal army non-dependable. In fact a majority of these soldiers were
selfish and were ready to cheat the emperor, if it suited their purpose.
(vii) Personal weaknesses of Humayun: One of the difficulties of Humayun was
his own nature and character. He had certain weaknesses. Though he was a
brave solider, but a weak administrator. He was addicted to wine and opium.
He was very pleasure loving. By nature he was so kind that even at the right
moment he could not punish his enemies and opponents severely. Lanepoole
writes, ‘He lacked character and resolution. He was incapable of sustained
efforts after a moment of triumph and would busy him in his harem and dream
away the precious hours in the opium eater’s paradise while his enemies were
thundering at his gate.’
Humayun’s Own Responsibility for his Failure
No doubt there were many difficulties before Humayun, but according to many
historians Humayun was his own worst enemy. He increased his own problems due
to his own weaknesses and blunders. According to the famous historian Lanepoole, Self-Instructional
Material 79
Foundation of the ‘Humayun’s greatest enemy was he himself.’ As he was addicted to opium, he used
Mughal Empire-I
to spend much of his time in thinking but even then he failed to take right decisions.
He thought a great deal but acted much less. He spent all his time in thinking only and
his enemies strengthened their position in the meantime. If ever he took any prompt
NOTES decision he had not the capacity to get that implemented. He lacked strong
determination. He was not able, persevering and scholarly like his father, Babur. He
demonstrated his lack of wisdom by dividing his empire.
Instead of trying to increase the income and treasury, Humayun spent lavishly
to celebrate his victory over Mahmood Shah. He followed a wrong policy towards
Sher Shah and Bahadur Shah. Before the battle of Chousa, he believed the word of
Sher Shah Suri who pretended to accept Humayun’s vassalage. Similarly, he followed
a wrong policy towards Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. He should have helped Karvavati,
the ruler of Chittor. This was rather a blunder on the part of Humayun. Likewise,
when Bahadur Shah escaped to Mandu and Diu for shelter, Humayun should have
completely crushed this dangerous enemy. But he did not do so. Bahadur Shah was,
therefore, able to regain his lost empire.
In brief, we can say that Humayun inherited many problems from his father,
Babur. Up to some extent, Babur was responsible for the early problems of Humayun.
For example, for empty treasury and disorderly administration, Babur was responsible.
Humayun increased the problems through his faults and wrong policies.
Humayun’s Victories and Struggles
Expedition of Kalinjar (AD 1531)

Humayun besieged the fort of Kalinjar in AD 1531. The Raja of Kalinjar was in
favour of the Afghans. For full four months, the fort was under seige, but later on
Humayun had come to peace terms with the Raja. He could not defeat him due to his
own weaknesses.
Battle of Dourah (AD 1532)
The Afghans of Bihar, emboldened under their leader Mahmud Lodhi, marched into
the province of Jaunpur as far as Barabanki. Humayun defeated them in the battle of
Dourah or (Dadrah) in AD 1532.
Siege of Chunar
After defeating Mahmud Lodhi, Humayun besieged the fortress of Chunar. It was
held at that time by Sher Khan (Sher Shah Suri). After about a siege of five months,
Sher Khan made a purely perfunctory submission and Humayun raised the siege of
Chunar. This was another big mistake of Humayun. He should have completely crushed
the power of Sher Khan at that very time. If Humayun had done this, perhaps the
history of India would have been different and Humayun would not have faced the
tremendous difficulties which he experienced later. Humayun failed to understand
the shrewdness of Sher Khan and considered it as his big success and wasted a lot of
time in merrymaking at Agra. This very merrymaking later on became the cause of
Humayun’s ruin and Sher Khan’s success.
War against Bahadur Shah of Gujarat
The attitude of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was hostile towards Humayun from the very
Self-Instructional beginning. He had sheltered Humayun’s enemies, especially some of the Lodhi Princes,
80 Material
and encouraged a pretender to the throne, namely, Mehdi Khwaja, a brother-in-law of Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
Humayun. On his refusal to surrender, Humayun attacked Bahadur Shah, dislodged
him from his entrenched camp and chased him as far as Cambay. Bahadur Shah again
invaded Chittor.
Simultaneously, he supplied arms and men to Tatar Khan, a cousin of Ibrahim NOTES
Lodhi, to invade Agra with a force of 40,000 while diversions were to be made to the
north and the east. Humayun easily defeated the challenge posed by Tatar Khan. The
Afghan forces melted away at the approach of the Mughals. Tatar Khan’s small force
was defeated, and he himself was killed. Determined to end the threat from Bahadur
Shah’s side once and for all, Humayun now invaded Malwa. He marched forward
slowly and cautiously and occupied a position midway between Chittor and Mandu.
He thus cut off Bahadur Shah from Malwa. Mandu was a vast fortress with a
battlemented wall 23 miles in length. But the Mughal forced their way over an
unguarded part of the wall and consequently entered the citadel of Mandu (called
Sunga). Two high officers of Gujarat army Sardar Khan and Alam Khan were captured.
Bahadur Shah, however, escaped and took his stand at Champaner. From Mandu,
Humayun proceeded to Champaner and besieged it. Again, Bahadur Shah offered
resistance and found out that it was difficult to stand against the mighty Mughal
force. So, he set fire to the town and fled north to Cambay and then escaped to Diu.
Humayun pursued him up to Cambay and then returned to Champaner. Thus, the rich
provinces of Malwa and Gujarat, as well as the Agra treasure boarded by the Gujarat
rulers at Mandu and Champaner, fell into the hands of Humayun. Both Gujarat and
Malwa were lost as quickly as they had been gained. After the victory, Humayun
placed Gujarat under the command of his younger brother Askari, and then retired to
Mandu which was centrally located and enjoyed a fine climate. The major problem
was the deep attachment of the people to the Gujarat rule. Askari was inexperienced,
and the Mughal nobles were mutually divided. A series of popular uprisings, the
military actions by Bahadur Shah’s nobles and the rapid revival of Bahadur Shah’s
power unnerved Askari. A few months after his appointment as the Viceroy of Gujarat,
Askari rebelled and leaving the new conquests to their fate hastened towards Agra to
seize the vacant capital. At this news, Humayun set out for Agra by way of Chittor
and over took the rebel by forced marches. No sooner did the Mughals turn their
backs upon Malwa and Gujarat, then Bahadur Shah issued from his retreat and rapidly
recovered his lost territories and it appeared as if he would soon regain his former
ascendancy in Western India. But while returning from a visit to the Portuguese
governor of Goa, he was drowned in the sea on February 13, AD 1537.
The Gujarat campaign was not a complete failure. While it did not add to the
Mughal territories it destroyed forever the threat posed to the Mughals by Bahadur
Shah. Humayun was not in a position to concentrate all his resources in the struggle
against Sher Khan and the Afghans.
War with Sher Khan (AD 1537–1539)
After the loss of Gujarat in AD 1536, Humayun stayed in Agra for a year. Although
he got the information that Sher Khan was strengthening his position in Bengal and
Bihar, he did nothing to move against him. Sher Khan had already made himself the
master of the whole of Bihar. He had also defeated the King of Bengal in AD 1534
and AD 1536. It was only in AD 1537 that Humayun felt that they should do something
against Sher Khan. But instead of advancing straight on to Gaud from where he could
defeat Sher Khan by combining his strength with the ruler of Bengal, he besieged the
Self-Instructional
Material 81
Foundation of the fortress of Chunar on the way. Six months were wasted in this siege and Sher Shah
Mughal Empire-I
utilized this time in conquering the fort of Gaud. He plundered Gaud, the capital of
Bengal, and dispatched all its wealth and his relatives to the fortress of Rohtas in
Bihar and, gradually, Sher Khan himself also returned to Bihar. Having been
NOTES unsuccessful in Bihar, Humayun turned towards Bengal but he reached Gaud at a
time when Sher Khan had safely returned to Bihar after plundering Bengal. In the
absence of Sher Khan, Humayun easily occupied Bengal and to celebrate it, he wasted
a good deal of time.
According to Dr A. L. Shrivastava, ‘Humayun wasted eight months in Bengal
and failed to maintain his communication with Delhi, Agra or even Banaras’. But Dr
R.P. Tripathi says, ‘He established order in Bengal and consolidated his army.’
Whatever might be the reason behind Humayun’s staying, but he lost valuable time.
During these months, Sher Khan captured Kara, Banaraj, Sambhal etc. and laid the
siege of Chunargarh and Jaunpur. He virtually blocked the way of Humayun’s return
to Agra. After a few months the news of the activities of Sher Khan and also that of
his brother Hindal, who declared himself as Emperor at Agra were received by
Humayun. He left Jahangir Quili Beg with five hundred soldiers in Bengal and
proceeded towards Agra in March, AD 1539.
The Battle of Chausa (AD 1539)
For quite some time, Sher Khan did not attempt to stop the Mughals but when they
reached Chausa, near Buxar, he blocked their way to Agra and engaged himself in
preparations. Both the armies faced each other. Thus, postponing a thin support when
Humayun had no hope of help from any side also proved very disastrous for him. If he
had attacked the enemy immediately, he would have fared well as the Afghan soldiers
were much tired because of a long journey. Before Humayun could organize his men
and launch a systematic attack, the Afghans made a sudden attack and routed the
Mughal force (26 June, AD 1539). A party of the Afghans even surrounded Humayun
and inflicted a wound on his arm. This caused great confusion. Humayun then thought
that his safety lay in flight. So he proceeded to the bank of the river and plunged his
horse into the stream and was about to be drowned, when he was saved by a water
carrier named Nizam, whom he afterwards allowed to sit on the throne for two days.
The contemporary historians tell us that about 8000 Mughals died and, consequently,
he assumed the title and insignia of royalty. In December, AD 1539, he proceeded to
Gaud where a formal coronation ceremony was performed.
The Battle of Bilgram or Kanauj (17 May, AD 1540)
At Agra, all the brothers met and held prolonged discussions about the measures to
be adopted against their enemy, who flushed with his recent victory, had ascended the
throne and assumed the title of Sher Shah. Kamran had a battle-hardened force of
10,000 Mughals under his command at Agra. But he was not prepared to loan them
to Humayun as he had lost confidence in Humayun’s leadership. On the other hand,
Humayun was not prepared to entrust the command of the armies to Kamran lest the
latter use it to assume powerful himself. The suspicions between the brothers grew
till Kamran decided to return to Lahore with his army. Thus, Humayun had to face
singlehandedly the advancing army of the Afghans in Bilgram near Kanauj. Humayun
recruited a big army of 90,000 but unfortunately they were all new recruits and
Self-Instructional
inexperienced in warfare. Taking advantage of the heavy rains and the consequent
82 Material
shifting of the encampment of the Mughal soldiers, Sher Shah ordered his men on Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
May 17, AD 1540 to attack the disorganized Mughals.
Humayun had another disadvantage because due to the mud and mire he was
not able to make use of his heavy artillery. The Mughals fought valiantly but were
NOTES
defeated. Humayun again fled away. The battle of Bilgram was the decisive battle
between Humayun and Sher Shah. Humayun could reach Agra but had to flee as
Sher Shah was pursuing him. Sher Shah captured Delhi and Agra and thus the Afghans
snatched the throne of Delhi from the hands of the Mughals.
Humayun tried to go to Kashmir but Kamran blocked his way. Ultimately, he
decided to go to Sind. He was invited by Maldev of Marwar and he accepted the
invitation. On the way, he came to know that Maldev had changed his mind and really
wanted to arrest him with a view to please Sher Shah. Under the circumstances, he
had to return his steps to Sind.
He took shelter with the Raja of Amarkot. In AD 1542, Akbar was born there.
It was here that Bairam Khan, one of his faithful chiefs and the future guardian of
Akbar met him and advised him to proceed to Persia. Humayun accepted his advice
and with great difficulty he reached Persia. He was accorded a cordial reception by
the Persian King Shah Tahmasp, who promised to help him recover his throne on the
condition that he should embrace the Shia creed, would read Khutba in the name of
Shah and would give over Kandhar to the Shah, when successful. The helpless
Humayun had no alternative but to yield to his conditions. Shah Tahmasp of Persia
placed an army (1400 strong soldiers) at this disposal with the help of which he
conquered Khandhar from his own brother, Askari in AD 1554 and took Kabul from
Kamran. He imprisoned his brother Kamran and sent him to Mecca after blinding
him.
Hindal was killed in the battle and Askari also went away to Mecca. In AD
1555 the state of affairs in India was most deplorable. Muhammad Adil Shah, the last
King of the Sur dynasty, was quite unfit to rule over his large kingdom. There was
anarchy and confusion in the country and people were tired of it. Humayun, who was
invited by some of his friends in India, accepted their invitation. He came, defeated
Sikandar Sur at Sirhind in AD 1555. Humayun then occupied Delhi in July AD 1555.
Afterwards Agra, Sambhal and the nearby territory was also occupied by the Mughals.
Thus, Humayun again ascended the throne of India after the exile of fifteen years. But
Humayun did not live long to enjoy the fruits of his victory. One day when he was
coming down the stairs of his library in Delhi fort, he fell down and died.
Causes of Defeat or Failure of Humayun
Humayun’s inability to understand the nature of the Afghan power

It is clear that the major cause of Humayun’s failure against Sher Khan was his inability
to understand the nature of the Afghan power. Due to the existence of a large numbers
of the Afghan tribes scattered over North India, the Afghans could always reunite
under a capable leader and pose a challenge. Without winning over the local rulers
and zamindars to their side, the Mughals were bound to remain numerically inferior.
Lack of organizational ability in Humayun
Organizational ability is very essential for a successful ruler. He ought to have
appreciated the dangers ahead and taken stiff action against Sher Khan from the very
Self-Instructional
Material 83
Foundation of the outset. He ought to have nipped the evil in the bud. His delay in taking action against
Mughal Empire-I
Sher Khan resulted in his own failure. The same can be said about Humayun’s treatment
of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. Humayun should have attacked and finished Bahadur
Shah when the latter was busy against Chittor. He foolishly gave Bahadur Shah more
NOTES time to plan. It was a blunder on the part of Humayun. Likewise, when Bahadur Shah
escaped to Mandu and Diu for shelter Humayun should have completely crushed this
dangerous enemy but he did not do so. Another mistake, which Humayun made, was
to entrust the administration of Malwa and Gujarat to wrong and untrustworthy people.
He knew how to conquer but unlike Babur and Akbar, he did not know how to
consolidate his conquest. After the conquest of Bengal, he divided it into jagirs and
gave these to his Begs, and himself became completely unconcerned about the welfare
of the people. The military occupation of Gujarat, Malwa and Bengal created
resentment against the Mughals.
Division of the Empire
Humayun divided his empire amongst his brothers according to the wish of Babur.
Sambhal was given to Askari, Alwar and Mewar were given to Hindal. The cession
of Kabul and Punjab to the hostile Kamran cut Humayun off from the main recruiting
ground of his army and sapped the very foundation of his power which was based on
military force.
Humayun incapable of sustained efforts
Humayun’s biggest enemy was no other than he himself. He was an addict of opium
and liquor. He lacked strong determination. He could not reach a strong decision. He
usually lost much time in pondering over important matters. He gave costly gifts to
his nobles and spent most of his time in wine and women. He was not a clever politician.
He was not a general administrator of the caliber of Sher Shah. He failed to amass his
resources. In fact, he lacked the qualities of an able administrator.
Squandering away money
Babur had bequeathed to Humayun an almost empty treasury and Humayun, instead
of augmenting the royal treasury, spent a huge amount unnecessarily to celebrate his
victory over Mahmud Lodhi. It is said that various robes of honour were distributed
to 12000 people and valuable robes were presented to 2000 people.
Sher Shah, a better army commander
Sher Shah was a better commander in comparison with Humayun. Humayun could
not keep full control over his soldiers and the Amirs. Many of his officers deserted
him and joined the enemy’s side. Sher Khan was an able commander. He was a
master of tactics. Sher Khan was such a clever politician that when he felt that he was
not fully prepared militarily and was not in a position to face Humayun, he used to
bow down and used to attack Humayun when the appropriate moment came.
Failure of Humayun to understand the mutual relations between his
two great enemies
Humayun failed to see that there was an understanding between Bahadur Shah of
Gujarat and Sher Khan of South Bihar to the effect that while the emperor was busy
against one, the other created strife so as to divert Humayun’s attention. That was
Self-Instructional
84 Material
probably why he wasted much time in frivolous feasts and pleasure – parties at Agra Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
and Delhi.
Treachery of Humayun’s officials
Many of Humayun’s officials also proved treacherous to him. Hindu Beg, whom NOTES
Humayun had sent to Bihar to report about the actual position of Sher Shah and his
plans, took bribe from Sher Shah and sent a false report to Humayun. Likewise, Sher
Ali was bought over by the enemy and he also disclosed to Sher Shah many of
Humayun’s secrets along with the hostile attitude of Humayun’s brothers to him. The
treachery on the part of Humayun’s officials was to Sher Shah’s advantage and
Humayun had to suffer a big loss.
Non-cooperation of his brothers
Humayun was asked by his father to be considerate and sympathetic towards his
brothers. He did so but his brothers proved faithless and, thus, ultimately proved to
be a potent cause of his failure. Mirza Kamran did offer to fight against Sher Khan,
but only on his own terms. In fact he had an eye on the throne of Delhi. Hindal and
Askari also became a headache for Humayun. Just before the battle of Chausa, Hindal
revolted at Agra and his revolt encouraged Sher Khan to declare war against Humayun.
However, this view is not accepted by Dr Tripathi. He points out that the behaviour of
Kamran during the first ten years of Humayun’s rule was not at all hostile. As a
matter of fact, he had been absolutely loyal to him. It was only after the battle of
Kanauf that Kamran lost all faith in his brother and decided to leave him so that he
may save some of the Mughal Empire from passing into the hands of Sher Shah.
Defective army of Humayun
The army which was left by Babur for his son was defective in its organization. It was
neither national nor a composite one. It was a mixture of successful adventurers. It
was composed of heterogeneous elements. This army was not so dependable. They
were successful so long as they did not meet with fierce opposition. They had no love
or loyalty for Humayun, and, once the enemy got the upper hand, instead of fighting,
they took to flight. In both the battles of Chausa and Kanauj, the defeats of Humayun
were mostly due to the desertion of the soldiers. In brief, we can say that there were
many causes of Humayun’s failure or the success of Sher Shah. The main causes
were the inability of Humayun to understand the growing power of Afghans under
the leadership of Sher Khan and Sher Shah’s superior generalship.
3.4 THE SURIS

Sher Shah Suri is one of those great men in history who achieved greatness from a
very ordinary position. The dynasty founded by him is known as the Sur dynasty. He Self-Instructional
Material 85
Foundation of the was born in AD 1472. He was one of the eight sons of Mian Hassan Khan Sur, an
Mughal Empire-I
employee of the governor of Punjab, Jamal Khan. In the reign of Sikandar Lodi,
Jamal Khan was appointed the governor of Jaunpur. Hassan and his son Farid
accompanied their master. Jamal Khan gave the Jagirs of Khawaspur, Sahasram and
NOTES Tanda to Hassan. Farid’s childhood was spent in Sahasram. Later, he came over to
Jaunpur being fed up with the misbehaviour of his stepmother and his father. He was
twenty-two years old at that time. He impressed Jamal Khan with his scholarly nature
and ability, and Jamal Khan pressurized Hassan to appoint Farid as the manager of
the Jagirs of Sahasram and Khawaspur.
Farid earned enough administrative experience by managing these Jagirs. But
soon he had to leave the place because of the machinations of his stepbrother and one
powerful Afghan chief, Muhammad Khan who wanted that the Jagirs should be divided
between the two. Farid, then, entered into the military service of the Governor of
South Bihar—Bahar Khan Lohani. It is said that one day he slew a tiger with the help
of a sword and impressed by his bravery, Bahar Khan gave him the title of Sher Khan
and from then onwards, Farid became famous as Sher Khan. It is said that he entered
Babur’s service in AD 1527. The historians hold that his motive in entering this service
was to acquire knowledge of the system of Mughal warfare and its effects. Babur
became suspicious of his activities and asked his prime minister to keep a strict watch
on Sher Khan and described him as a very clever person. Sher Khan is said to have
quietly slipped away from there and again entered the services of Bahar Khan Lohani.
He was appointed the tutor and guardian of Jalal Khan, the minor son of the ruler.
After sometime, Bahar Khan Lohani died and his widow appointed Sher Khan
as the regent of the minor prince. In fact, Sher Khan became the de facto ruler of
Bihar. He invited the younger brother of Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi, Mahmud Lodhi and
made a plan of a military campaign against Babur. But Babur defeated him in the
battle of Ghagra (AD 1529). Sher Khan and Jalal Khan surrendered before the Mughals
and got back their Jagirs on the condition of paying an annual tribute to Babur.
Gradually, Sher Khan began to add to the number of his supporters.
Meanwhile the ruler of Chunar, Taj Khan died in AD 1530. Sher Khan married
his widow Lad Malika. This brought him the fort of Chunar and enormous wealth
along with it.
Sher Shah was a daring soldier, a successful conqueror and an able administrator.
He was a lover of knowledge, patron of scholars and a very good ruler. He was the
forerunner of Akbar in many fields, though he was not equal to Akbar in greatness.
Famous historian Dr. Qanungo is right when he says, ‘It is doubtful whether he would
have done such deeds as Akbar if he had lived for 50 years more because Sher Shah
had the drawbacks from which Aurangzeb suffered.’
Character, Personality and Achievements of Sher Shah
Check Your Progress As a man

5. State one early
difficulty faced by Sher Shah Suri was farsighted, a lover of knowledge, dutiful, disciplined, industrious
Humayun. and a progressive thinker. He had great love for his mother, as compared to his father
6. What role did because he disliked the partial behaviour of his father towards his step-mother. He
Hindu Beg play in was well educated. Along with studying Arabic and Persian language, he was also
Humayun’s
fond of studying history and literature. He had a great love for architecture. He had a
downfall?
feeling of love for the peasants, poor and destitute. He was busy for as many as
Self-Instructional
86 Material
sixteen hours every day in state business. Though he became emperor at the ripe old Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
age of 68, his enthusiasm, ambitions and hard work did not cease. He used to say that
great men should always remain active. Abbas Sherwani and Rizqualla Mushtaki
both have written that he used to get up in the very early hours of morning and was
busy throughout the day with the work of the state. NOTES
As a commander, soldier and conqueror
Sher Shah was an able commander, a great soldier and conqueror. He is said to have
lived like a common soldier in the battlefield. He was an experienced soldier. He had
boundless bravery and patience. He attacked a weak army like a tiger; but faced with
a powerful enemy he achieved victory through deceitful tactics of a fox. He was a
great conqueror who annexed Bihar, Bengal, Punjab, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajputana and
Sind, etc. His empire was very vast. The frontiers of his empire extended from Punjab
to Malwa and from Bengal to Sind.
As a ruler and administrator
Founder of Law and Order: Sher Shah had many achievements as an administrator.
He re-established law and order throughout his empire. He dealt very strictly with
those Zamindars, thieves and dacoits who broke the social order or refused to pay the
land revenue. As an administrator, Sher Shah Suri had a great impact on his Zamindars,
officials and chiefs. Abbas Sherwani writes, ‘The Zamindars were so frightened of
him that nobody liked to raise the boundary of revolt against him nor any of them
dared to harass the travellers passing through his territory.’ Though he did not bring
about any change in the administrative units of the Sultanate period, he made such
changes that nobody could be autocratic and harass people. He was a first ruler of
later Medieval India who thought it his duty to give a life of peace and comfort to his
subjects, forgetting the difference between the Hindus and Muslims. He established
democratic autocratism. In his central administration, he did not make any one minister
more important than the others and thus minimized the possibilities of mutual jealousy
and plotting against the emperor.
He organized his empire at the level of provinces, sarkars, paraganas and
villages. He issued certain instructions for provincial rulers so that they did not minimize
the importance of central administration. He divided very big provinces into smaller
units and appointed separate officials there. He did not make the administration of all
the provinces uniform because he thought that the administration of every province
should be according to its special local needs. He appointed two separate officials of
equal level in the provinces, sarkars and paraganas, so that one was responsible for
the maintenance of law and order and the other for the financial resources. He left the
work of local defense and peace to the local officials and thus not only lessened the
work of central administration but tried to involve a greater number of people in the
administration. He gave an evidence of his administrative ability by delegating the
responsibility of arresting thieves, dacoits and murderers to the village headmen and
government officials. During his time, the arrangements of the life and property of the
subject was more satisfactory than ever before.
Able land administrator: He gave special attention to land revenue system, army
and judicial system. He fixed the land revenue on the basis of proper measurement of
land, its productivity, actual produce and local prices, and prepared detailed lists of
the amount of the revenue to be paid. He gave an option to the cultivators to pay the
Self-Instructional
Material 87
Foundation of the revenue in cash or in kind. He started the practice of Kabuliat and Patta and gave
Mughal Empire-I
priority to the Rayatwari system as compared to the Zamindari and Jagirdari practices
prevalent at that time.
A great army administrator and organizer: As a ruler, he devoted attention to the
NOTES
army administration and organization. He created a vast standing and efficient army,
brought an end to the system of supplying a fixed number of soldiers to the centre by
tribal leaders and began direct recruitment of soldiers. He started the practices of
‘Huliya’ and ‘Dag’. He constructed cantonments among various parts of the empire,
and placed a strong contingent army in each of these cantonments. His army consisted
of 15000 infantry, 25000 cavalry armed with bows and arrows, 5000 elephants, and
an arsenal.
A just ruler: Sher Shah Suri made justice a priority. He paid special attention towards
the judicial system. He used to say that ‘dispensing justice was the highest religious
duty which should be discharged equally by Kafirs and Muslim Kings’. Sher Shah
gave justice to everyone. He had assumed the title of Sultan-i-Adil or a just ruler.
Sher Shah Suri had established law courts at various places which were called Dar-
ul-Adalat. He never pardoned any criminal whether he was a big chief, his own caste
person or a near relative.
For the establishment of law and order, Qazis were appointed at various places
but like earlier times village level Panchayats and Zamindars also heard civil and
criminal cases. In his time, criminal law was very strict and educative for others. He
was very successful as a just ruler and appreciating his judicial system Nizamuddin
has written that so much was the fear of Sher Shah and his justice that in his time even
dacoits and thieves guarded the properties of the travellers.
Supporter of a tolerant religious policy: Despite being a strict Sunni Muslim, Sher
Shah was not a fanatic. Though he did not end Jaziya, he gave high offices to the
Hindus in large numbers. He considered religion to be a personal affair and never let
politics and religion to get mixed up.
Dr. Qanungo writes, ‘Sher Shah’s attitude towards the Hindus was not one of
the hateful tolerance but that of respect.’ He was the first Muslim emperor having a
national outlook that established a secular state and looked to the welfare of all his
subjects in an impartial manner. In his time religious tolerance like that of Akbar
could not be established. Dr. Qanungo writes correctly that during Sher Shah’s time,
he had to struggle against religious and political orthodoxy as also against well-
established traditions of communal Sultanate of the last 300 years. Therefore, he did
not have the congenial atmosphere which was inherited by his successors.
Public welfare activities: As a ruler, Sher Shah performed many acts of welfare for
his subjects. He kept grain stores reserved for helping the people at the time of famines,
and established charitable state ‘langar’ for feeding the persons destitute. He planted
many trees to provide shade along roads, as well as constructed roads and schools.
He issued pure and high quality coins and standard weights and measures. He adopted
a liberal attitude. At the time of fixing land revenues he ordered military officials that
they should not harm the standing crops while travelling. He opened government
hospitals. Police and postal arrangements were made for the convenience of the public.
Cultural achievements (as patron of knowledge and art): Sher Shah had many
achievements in the cultural field, because he was a great patron of knowledge,
literature and art. He made good arrangements for the education of his subjects.
Self-Instructional
88 Material
Financial grants were given to many Hindu schools. For his Muslim subjects he opened Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
many Makhtabs of Arabic and Persian and also established Madrassas for higher
education. To encourage the pursuit of knowledge, he made arrangements for
scholarships and arranged for the maintenance of the poor students by the state. Sher
Shah showed interest in the field of architecture as well. NOTES
He constructed many mosques, forts, sarais, etc. Some scholars hold the opinion
that he constructed the Purana Qila desecrating the Dinapanah city of Humayun. In it
he constructed the Qila-i-Kuhana mosque which is counted amongst his famous
buildings in north India. Persian influence is discernible in the small minarets around
the entrance gate and its artisanship. The other parts of the building are constructed
on an Indian pattern. The mosque in Bihar constructed in the midst of a lake in Sahasram
is a clear example of the Indo-Muslim architecture so far as its grandeur, beauty and
proportionate structure are concerned. The outer structure is of Muslim style but the
inside of the structure is decorated by the Toranas and pillars of the Hindu style. Its
dome, shining in blue sky, appears beautiful. There is a stunning harmony of blue, red
and yellow colours. In every corner there is the pillared pavilion on the top of the
second storey.
The construction of a lotus on the top has added to its decoration. Sher Shah
constructed a new city on the banks of river Jamuna as well. Sher Shah patronized the
scholars as well. Some of the best works of Hindu literature like Padmawat of Malik
Muhmmad Jayasi were written during his time. Sher Shah was not a religious fanatic.
His social and economic policies are an evidence of this fact. In brief, Sher Shah Suri
was the first great national ruler. After him, his dynasty did not last even for ten years,
but his sword and diplomacy had founded such an empire that its policies (especially
currency system, land revenue system, judicial and military departments) continued
for a very long time, extended and progressed. The masters of the empire changed
(first the Mughals and then the British) but the institutions of Sher Shah continued.
Erskine says rightly, ‘No Government, not even the British, had showed as much
wisdom as was evidenced by this Afghan.’
Sher Shah’s Struggle against Humayun and his Other Conquests
Struggle against Mughals for the fort of Chunar

In AD 1531, when Humayun encircled the fort of Chunar then Sher Khan pretended
defeat at the hands of Humayun. In the meantime, he strengthened his army.
The sole matter of Bihar (AD 1534)
The Lohani chiefs of Bihar became jealous of Sher Khan and his increasing power.
They won Jalal Khan over to their side and also entered into an alliance with Mahmud
of Bengal. They made a treaty with Mahmud Shah of Bengal in AD 1533, who himself
was eager to check the rise of Sher Khan because it adversely affected his own prestige
and power. However, Sher Khan defeated the combined armies of the Sultan of Bengal
and the Lohanis at Surajgarh in eastern Bihar on the bank of the river Kieul. Mahmud
Shah fled to Bengal and with him fled Jalal Khan and his associates. Thus, the whole
of Bihar came under Sher Khan and he became the sole master. The victory of Surajgarh
was an important event in Sher Shah’s life. Taking advantage of the absence of
Humayun in Agra, (February 1535–February 1537) Sher Khan had further
strengthened his position. The Afghans from far and near had congregated under him.
Although he still talked of loyalty towards the Mughals, he had made a clever plan to
Self-Instructional
Material 89
Foundation of the drive the Mughals out of India. He had a close contact with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
Mughal Empire-I
Bahadur Shah had helped him with men and money as well. Having acquired these
sources he assembled a capable and vast army so that fighting could be indulged in
against the Mughals at an opportune time.
NOTES
Invasion of Bengal
Encouraged by his victory at Surajgarh, Sher Khan launched an attack against Mahmud
Shah of Bengal in AD 1535. Mahmud Shah saved his life by giving a vast sum of
money to Sher Khan but after few years Sher Khan again besieged Gaud, the Capital
of Bengal in AD 1537 and by conquering it forced Mahmud Shah to seek refuge with
Humayun. When Humayun started from Agra for the support of Mahmud Shah, Sher
Khan’s son Jalal Khan kept him engaged for about six months at the fort of Chunar on
his way to Bengal and during this period, Sher Khan came back to Bihar after amassing
enough wealth from Bengal. Humayun’s brother Hindal declared himself as the
emperor at Agra and another brother Kamran came to Delhi from Lahore as the head
of 1000 soldiers. When Humayun received this news he started towards Agra from
Gaur.
Battle of Chausa
Facing many difficulties, Humayun was somehow advancing towards Agra when
Sher Khan suddenly attacked him at Chausa in AD 1539. About 8000 Mughal soldiers
were killed in this battle. Sher Khan’s spirits were raised high as a result of this
victory. He assumed the title of Sher Shah Sultan-i-Adil. Now Sher Khan had become
the undisputed master of Bihar and Bengal.
Battle of Kanauj or Bilram (AD 1540)
The following year Humayun made an effort to regain his fortune but despite his best
efforts he could not secure the cooperation of his brother. On 17 May 1540, Mughals
and Afghans again confronted each other near Kanauj. Humayun’s army was defeated
badly. Humayun managed to escape somehow. By this conquest, Sher Shah became
the master of Delhi, Agra, Sambhal, Gwalior, etc. This ended the Mughal dynasty for
the time being, and for the next fifteen years, power passed onto the hands of the
Surs.
Sher Shah’s Conquests after Becoming the Emperor
Conquests of Punjab (AD 1540–1542)

Immediately after his accession on the throne at Delhi, Sher Shah snatched Punjab
from Humayun’s brother, Kamran. Alongside he also suppressed the turbulent
Khokhars of the northern region of the rivers Indus and Jhelum. About 16 kilometers
north of the river Jhelum, he constructed the fort of Rohtasgarh at the cost of about
8 crore for the security of the north-western Frontier of India.
Conquest of Malwa (AD 1542)
The ruler of Malwa was known as Mallu Khan ‘Qadirshah’. At the time of war with
Humayun, he had not helped Sher Shah. So, Sher Shah attacked Malwa. Qadirshah
did not fight but ran away to Gujarat instead. Sher Shah made Malwa an integral part
of his empire. When Qadirshah asked his pardon, Sher Shah excused him, treated
him kindly and appointed him the governor of Lakhnauti.
Self-Instructional
90 Material
Conquest of Raisin Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
Raisin was a Rajput principality in Central India ruled by the Rajput ruler Puranmal
Chauhan. He had occupied Chanderi from the Mughal Chiefs. When Sher Shah came
to know of it he attacked Raisin. According to Dr. Quanungo, ‘the motive behind the NOTES
attack over Raisin was political not religious; Sher Shah wanted to make the Rajput
principality of Raisin an integral part of the Delhi empire.’ The fort of Raisin was
besieged. After a prolonged siege negotiations for peace started.
Puranmal was prepared to surrender on the condition that no harm would come
on the members of his family and his associates. Sher Shah promised to see to their
security and Puranmal surrendered. But Puranmal and his followers were attacked
without any prior information. One of his daughters and three of his nephews were
caught alive and the others were murdered. In the words of Dr. Ishwari Prasad, ‘Sher
Shah behaved with very inhuman cruelty towards his enemy who had reposed trust in
him at the time of his bad condition.’
Conquest of Multan and Sindh
Sher Shah’s general, at the behest of Sher Shah attacked Multan and Sindh in AD
1543. Both of these provinces were conquered and annexed to the empire of Sher
Shah.
Conquest of Marwar (AD 1543–1545)
In AD 1543, Sher Shah attacked Maldev of Marwar. In AD 1544, the Rajputs and the
Afghan armies fought each other at Semal, between Ajmer and Jodhpur. Sher Shah
advanced very carefully in Rajasthan. He did not think it wise to indulge in a straight
fight against Maldev and resorted to diplomacy. He caused some such letters to be
dropped near Maldev which led Maldev to suspect that some of his chiefs had deserted
him. Maldev was deeply grieved and decided to retreat. But his army launched a
more fierce attack against Sher Shah’s army.
They fought very bravely but ultimately Sher Shah was victorious. The battle
was so fierce and the victory so difficult that Sher Shah proclaimed that he had almost
lost the empire of India for a handful of grains. In AD 1544, Sher Shah brought
Marwar under his occupation but soon after his death, Maldev reoccupied the lost
regions in July 1555.
Conquest of Chittor and Ajmer
The ruler of Mewar, Rana Udaisingh was a minor at the time of Sher Shah. When the
Rajputs came to know of Sher Shah’s invasion they thought it better to accept his
sovereignty rather than fight with him. Now the whole of Rajasthan except Jaisalmer
was under Sher Shah. But Sher Shah left the Rajput kingdom with the Rajput chiefs
themselves. After establishing his control over some important forts (Ajmer, Jodhpur,
Abu and Chittor) he posted the Afghan army in large numbers there. Along with this
he kept a strict control over the routes of communications.
Conquest of Kalinjar and the death of Sher Shah
After these conquests, Sher Shah planned an invasion of Kalinjar because its ruler
Kirat Singh had given shelter to the ruler of Riva, Virbhan against the wishes of the
Afghan ruler and then had refused to return him to the Afghans against Sher Shah’s
Self-Instructional
Material 91
Foundation of the wishes. Because of all these causes, Sher Shah besieged the fort in AD 1544. But he
Mughal Empire-I
could not achieve much success. On 22 May 1545, Sher Shah launched a fierce
attack. Sher Shah was inspecting the arsenal when he was grievously injured by a
bomb blast. He ordered to continue the invasion and by evening the fort was under his
NOTES control, but Sher Shah was not fated to enjoy this conquest as he died of the injuries
on the same day.
Islam Shah, Successor of Sher Shah Suri
Islam Shah, the younger son of Sher Shah Suri succeeded to the throne after the death
of his father. Though Sher Shah’s eldest son, Adil Khan was nominated by him as his
successor but the nobles preferred Jalal Khan, Sher Shah’s younger son who was
regarded more capable and industrious by them. Jalal Khan was called by them to
come to Kalinjar, and after his arrival, he was declared Sultan on 27 May 1545. He
assumed the title of Islam Shah.
Conflict with Adil Khan
Islam Shah could not feel secure as long as his elder brother was alive. He asked him
to come to Agra. He was assured of his life and the grant of Jagir of Sayan. Eminent
nobles like Isa Khan and Khavass Khan stood surety for his life. Adil Khan went to
Agra, paid homage to the Sultan and returned to Bayana. Islam Shah tried to murder
him but failed. Feeling insecure Adil Khan sought the support of Khavass Khan.
They combined their forces and proceeded towards Agra but the rebels were defeated.
Adil Khan fled towards Panna and was heard of no more. Khavass Khan also fled
towards Sarhind.
The revolt of the nobles
Islam Shah tried to kill all those nobles who were supposed to be sympathetic towards
Adil Khan. Thirteen old nobles were sent to Gwalior where they were blown by
gunpowder. Said Niyazi fled away from the court and found shelter with his brother
Haibat Khan Niyazi, governor of Lahore. Haibat Khat Niyazi revolted against the
Sultan. Khavass Khan also came and joined him. Islam Shah went himself to suppress
this revolt. He met the rebel near Ambala (AD 1547). Khavass left Haibat Khan on
the eve of the battle because he wanted to fight in the name of Adil Khan while Haibat
Khan was fired with the ambition of himself being crowned. The Niyazis were defeated
and Islam Shah pursued them up to the bank of the Jhelum River. He left an army to
suppress the fugitives and himself returned to Agra.
The results of revolts
Islam Shah succeeded in suppressing all revolts. He thus broke the power of the old
nobility which could be a threat to the power of the Sultan. He appointed his own
loyal nobles to all important posts and was able to command their respect. In this
respect, Islam Shah proved more successful than his father. The provincial governors
showed respect not only to him, but even to his shoes and obeyed his commands
blindly. But this policy towards the nobles did not prove to be the lasting interest of
the state. Two attempts were made to murder him, though both failed. But the nobles
could not remain loyal to the royal family. It was only the fear of Islam Shah which
kept them in check during his life. Thus, Islam Shah’s greatest failure was that instead
of consolidating the power of the Afghans he divided it and, thus, heralded the downfall
of the second Afghan empire.
Self-Instructional
92 Material
Administration under Islam Shah Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
Islam Shah was a worthy son of his father. He not only maintained the administrative
setup of his father, but also strengthened it further. Sher Shah had constructed Sarais
at the end of every fourth mile. Islam Shah constructed Sarais on every second mile
NOTES
and arranged for free distribution of food in each of them.
Islam Shah could not abolish the Jagirdari system but he took away the land
from old Jagirdars and redistributed it among his loyal support. This measure created
a class of people loyal to him and indirectly weakened the hereditary Jagirdari system.
He assigned the respectability of maintaining law and order in villages to his officials.
Islam Shah brought out changes in the army administration as well. He divided his
cavalry into units of 50, 200, 250 and his infantry into 5,000, 10,000 and 20,000
soldiers.
In the north-west, he constructed a chain of forts, viz., Shergarh, Islamgarh,
Rashidgarh, and Ferozgarh. Together, these were called the forts of Mankot. Islam
Shah kept his nobles under strict discipline. Each of them respected or rather feared
him very much. The nobles were terrorized by Islam Shah and remained under his
strict control during his lifetime.
3.5 SUMMARY
 The legacy of the Sultanate, the medieval economy, and new connections with
Europe, helped to create an imperial state in North India. The Mughal Empire
was the end product of a millennium of Muslim conquest, colonization and
state building in the Indian subcontinent.
 Babur swept down to the plains of India in AD 1517 and AD 1519 and came to
the Punjab in AD 1523 at the invitation of Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of
the province and Alam Khan, an uncle of Sultan Ibrahim. But Uzbeg’s pressure
compelled Babur to retire and the final invasion of India was undertaken in
November 1525 and completed in 1526 at Panipat.
 Like countless earlier invaders from the Central Asia, Babur was drawn to
India by the lure of its fabulous wealth. India was famous as the land of gold
and riches. Babur’s ancestor Taimur had not only carried away a vast treasure
and many skilful artisans who helped him to consolidate his Asian empire and Check Your Progress
beautify his capital but had also annexed some areas in the Punjab. 6. How was Sher
Shah Suri as a
 Humayun was born at Kabul on 6 March, AD 1508. He was the eldest son of commander?
Babur. His mother was Mahim Begum and Kamran, Askari and Hindal were 7. Who fought the
his brothers. Proper arrangements were made for his education. He had a good battle of Chausa?
knowledge of Arabic, Persian and Turkish. He had keen interest in philosophy,
Self-Instructional
Material 93
Foundation of the astrology and mathematics. To give him administrative training, Babur appointed
Mughal Empire-I
him the Governor of Badakshan.
 No doubt there were many difficulties before Humayun, but according to many
historians Humayun was his own worst enemy. He increased his own problems
NOTES due to his own weaknesses and blunders. He was not able persevering and
scholarly like his father, Babur. He demonstrated his lack of wisdom by dividing
his empire.
 It is clear that the major cause of Humayun’s failure against Sher Khan was his
inability to understand the nature of the Afghan power. Due to the existence of
a large numbers of the Afghan tribes scattered over North India, the Afghans
could always reunite under a capable leader and pose a challenge.
 Sher Shah Suri was a daring soldier, a successful conqueror and an able
administrator. He was a lover of knowledge, patron of scholars and a very
good ruler. He was the forerunner of Akbar in many fields, though he was not
equal to Akbar in greatness.
 Sher Shah had many achievements as an administrator. He re-established law
and order throughout his empire. He dealt very strictly with those Zamindars,
thieves and dacoits who broke the social order or refused to pay the land revenue.
As an administrator, Sher Shah Suri had a great impact on his Zamindars,
officials and chiefs.
 Despite being a strict Sunni Muslim, Sher Shah was not a fanatic. Though he
did not end Jaziya, he gave high offices to the Hindus in large numbers. He
considered religion to be a personal affair and never let politics and religion to
get mixed up.
 Islam Shah, the younger son of Sher Shah Suri succeeded to the throne after
the death of his father. Though Sher Shah’s eldest son, Adil Khan was nominated
by him as his successor but the nobles preferred Jalal Khan, Sher Shah’s younger
son who was regarded more capable and industrious by them. Jalal Khan was
called by them to come to Kalinjar, and after his arrival, he was declared Sultan
on 27 May 1545. He assumed the title of Islam Shah.
3.6 KEY TERMS

 Sarai: A caravan station where traders and travellers and their horses, camels,
etc. would rest
 Nazarana: A gift offered especially to a prince to pay respect
 Pargana: A former administrative unit of the Indian subcontinent, used
primarily, but not exclusively, by the Muslim kingdoms

1. Babur came to the Punjab in AD 1523 at the invitation of Daulat Khan Lodi,
the governor of the province and Alam Khan, an uncle of Sultan Ibrahim.
2. The Indian rulers were not united and did not visualize eventuality beyond the
borders of their kingdoms. They could not stand united to face a threat on India
from the outside.
Self-Instructional
94 Material
3. The Battle of Khanwa was fought between Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-I
(popularly known as Rana Sanga) and the founder of Mughal dynasty, Babur,
in AD 1527 at Khanwa, about 40 kilometers away from Agra.
4. One early difficulty was that Humayun ascended a throne which was then
unstable and unsecured. Babur had bequeathed an empty treasury and an ill- NOTES
organized kingdom to him.
5. Hindu Beg, whom Humayun had sent to Bihar to report about the actual position
of Sher Shah and his plans, took bribe from Sher Shah and sent a false report to
Humayun.
6. Sher Shah was an able commander, a great soldier and conqueror. He is said to
have lived like a common soldier on the battlefield.
7. Humayun and Sherkhan taught the battle of Chausa. Humayun was advancing
towards Agra when Sher Khan suddenly attacked him at Chausa in AD 1539.
About 8000 Mughal soldiers were killed in this battle. Sher Khan’s spirits
were raised high as a result of this victory. He assumed the title of Sher Shah
Sultan-i-Adil.
1. Discuss any four causes of failure of Ibrahim Lodhi.
2. Discuss the causes of the Battle of Khanwa.
3. Write briefly about Sher Shah Suri as a commander, soldier and conqueror.
4. Discuss Humayun’s main flaw in detail and its impact on his rule.
5. Who succeeded Sher Shah Suri? Briefly describe his administration.
1. Describe the causes that inspired Babur to invade India.
2. Describe the causes of defeat of Humayun.
3. Explain the characteristics of Sher Shah Suri’s administration.
3.9 FURTHER READING

Habib, Irfan; Atlas of the Mughal Empire, Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
1982.
Smith, V.A.; Akbar: The Great Mogul 1542–1605, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi, 1917.

 The ascension and fall of Babur
 The ascension and fall of Humayun
 The ascension and rule of the Suris
Self-Instructional
Material 95
Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
UNIT 4 FOUNDATION OF THE

MUGHAL EMPIRE-II NOTES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Unit Objectives
4.2 Akbar to Aurangzeb
4.3 Decline of the Mughals
4.4 Summary
4.5 Key Terms
4.8 Further Reading
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you learnt about some of the Mughal rulers, including Babur, Humayun
and Sher Shah Suri. You learnt about their conquests, administration, and ascension
and finally their falls from the throne.
Mughal history is characterized by extreme greed for power and naturally, the
throne. Brothers fought brothers, rulers were ousted by their own courtiers and many
times, a young child had to be designated king after the death of his father. This is
exactly what happened with Akbar as well.
This unit begins with the greatest emperor of India, Humayun’s son, Akbar. It
discusses in detail the Second Battle of Panipat, Akbar’s imperialist policy and his
religious policy, among other factors. It will also cover in brief the reigns of Jahangir,
Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, with whose fall the Mughal empire also came to an end.
4.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

 Trace the ascension and falls of the major Mughal rulers, including Akbar,
Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb
 Explain the decline of the Mughal rule in India
4.2 AKBAR TO AURANGZEB
Akbar
On 19 February 1556, Akbar was declared the Emperor at Kalanaur when he had
just turned 13. At that time, he was virtually a ruler without a kingdom. Vincent
Smith wrote aptly that before Akbar could claim to be an emperor in reality rather
than just in name, he had to prove himself more capable than his other rivals for the
throne, and at least had to recapture the lost kingdom of his father.
Self-Instructional
Material 97
Foundation of the Initial difficulties
Mughal Empire-II
At the time of his accession, Akbar was confronted with the following difficulties:
 A small kingdom: In fact, Akbar was in possession of only a small part of the
NOTES Punjab. Though in theory Kabul, Kandhar and Badakshan were also the parts
of the Mughal Empire, he had no hope of any help from there because Kabul
was under his stepbrother, Mirza Hakim. He immediately declared himself
independent. The Governor was in Bairam Khan’s jagir but was in danger of
the Iranian invasion. The Governor of Badakshan, Mirza Suleman had become
independent and he wanted to establish his control over Akbar as well as the
ruler of Kabul, Mirza Hakim.
 Akbar a minor: Akbar was very young and he had to follow the instructions
and work under the guidance of Bairam Khan till he attained maturity.
 Sikandar Suri: Though the ruler of Punjab had been defeated, his power had
not as yet been crushed completely and he could become a danger for Akbar at
any time. Adil Shah was in control of the region from Bihar to Chunar and his
able minister Hemu was making preparations for war against the Mughals.
 Ibrahim Suri: Ibrahim Suri was occupying the Doab and Sambhal and he
considered himself to be a claimant for the throne of Delhi.
 Other Afghan chiefs: Malwa, Gujarat, etc., were still in the hands of Afghan
chiefs. They could at any time become a problem for Akbar.
 Rajputs: The Rajput chiefs of Marwar, Mewar, Jaisalmer, Ranthambhore,
and Ajmer were continuously organizing their strength.
 Abdul Muwali: The famous Mughal Amir, Abdul Muwali had revolted and
he did not attend the coronation ceremony of Akbar. Though Bairam Khan had
captured and imprisoned him in the fort of Lahore, he posed a threat for the
Mughals at any time.
 Tardi Beg: He tried to fix the land revenue in accordance with Tardi Beg, the
governor of Delhi who had also turned a rebel and Hemu, the minister of Adil.
 The kingdoms of Kashmir, Sind, Multan and Himalayan region: All these
kingdoms were independent and Akbar planned to bring them under the Mughal
Empire.
 Poor financial condition: The Mughal treasury was empty. A terrible famine
was raging in Delhi and Agra. To arrange financial resources was a problem
confronting Akbar. In the Deccan there were, besides the Vijayanagar Empire,
five Shia states viz. Khandesh, Bidar, Berar, Ahmednagar and Golkunda. The
country could be united politically only after bringing them under the Mughal
fold.
 Anarchy and confusion: Everywhere in the country there was indiscipline,
disorder and anarchy. One of the problems before Akbar was to end them and
give to the people a capable administration, peace and order.
Solving the Problems
Akbar gradually overcame all these difficulties in this conquest, where on the one
hand, he was aided by his own good fortune and on the other hand, credit should go to
the loyalty and ability of Bairam Khan. He called a conference of the Mughals in
Sirhind and gave the death penalty to the governor of Delhi, Tardi Beg who had not
Self-Instructional
98 Material
been able to defend Delhi against Hemu. Bairam Khan defeated Hemu in the Second Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
Battle of Panipat and seated Akbar on the throne.
But four years of power turned Bairam Khan into a vain person. In AD 1560,
Akbar very deftly defeated him after he indulged in rebellion but pardoned him keeping
in view his past services. At a place called Patan, Bairam Khan was murdered by NOTES
some rebel Afghans. Because of the treacherous activities of Akbar’s foster mother
and Adham Khan, Akbar was forced to give death punishment to Adham Khan in AD
1561 and his mother Maham Anga died of the shock and grief. In AD 1565, the
rebellious Uzbek chiefs Sardar Khan, Abdulla Khan and Zaman Khan were also
punished. In fact, Zaman Khan died fighting and his brother Bahadur was accorded
death punishment. Abdulla Khan died (after some time Akbar got all the supporters
of his step brother, Hakim Mirza of Kabul, murdered and forced him to flee from
Kabul). With the help of Bairam Khan, Akbar conquered (besides Agra and Delhi),
the regions of Jaunpur, Ranthambhore and Malwa. After the acceptance of the
sovereignty of the Mughals by Bihari Mal, the ruler of Ajmer and marrying his daughter,
Akbar extended the sphere of his power till Ajmer. After that, he had to wage wars
against Garkatanga (Gondwana), Gujarat, Bengal, Chittor, Kalinjar, etc.
After Bengal, Kabul and Kandhar were brought under occupation. Khandesh
accepted his suzerainty. After a prolonged struggle, Ahmednagar was conquered in
AD 1600 and after the revolt of the new governor of Khandesh, Miran Bahadur Shah
of Asirgarh was conquered militarily on 6 January, 1601. Briefly then, it can be said
that Akbar had to struggle to overcome the various problems which confronted him.
Character and Personality of Akbar
Akbar was the greatest among the Mughal emperors who ascended the throne at a
very early age, after the death of his father Humayun. During his reign, the Mughal
Empire was at its peak. Akbar, who took charge of an empire that was besieged with Check Your Progress
many problems, both internal as well as external at a young age, made the Mughal 1. Fill in the blanks
Empire not only the strongest state in India, but also one of the best administered state with appropriate
of his times. He also implemented innovative policies which proved liberal, farsighted words.
and successful which added a new chapter in Indian medieval history and established (a) At the time of
Akbar’s
the Mughal Empire firmly in India. Therefore, he has been justly described as ‘the accession to the
Great’ among the Mughal emperors of India. throne,
was the ruler of
Akbar’s Imperialist Policy Chunar.
(b) At the time of
Akbar had inherited a very small kingdom at the time of his accession. He was king Akbar’s
only in name, being just 13 years of age. He was surrounded by enemies on all sides. ascension to the
Loyal Bairam Khan was his guardian. Akbar began his policy of conquest with the throne, the
Mughal reign
help of Bairam Khan. was confined to
Kabul,
Conquest of Northern India Kandahar, and
parts of
 Conquest of Delhi and Agra: Akbar conquered Delhi and Agra by defeating and .
Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat with the help of Bairam Khan. (c) won
 Conquest of Gwalior, Ajmer and Jaunpur: After the conquest of Delhi, he the Second
Battle of
conquered Gwalior in AD 1558 again with Bairam Khan’s help. By AD 1560, Panipat and
he established his control over Ajmer and Jaunpur as well. seated Akbar on
the throne.
 Conquest of Malwa: In AD 1560, after establishing his freedom from the
control of Bairam Khan, Akbar, with the help of Adham Khan attacked Baz
Self-Instructional
Material 99
Foundation of the Bahadur of Malwa. The latter was defeated in a battle near Sarangpur. Adham
Mughal Empire-II
Khan brought all his wealth as well as the ladies of his harem under his control.
Baz Bahadur’s wife, Queen Rupmati defended her chastity by swallowing
poison. Adham Khan did not send the entire loot to Akbar. On this, Akbar
NOTES became annoyed with Pir Mohammad who was the Governor of Malwa and
whose weakness led Baz Bahadur to again conquer Malwa. Akbar again sent
Abdulla Khan who established the Mughal control over Malwa.
 Conquest of Chunar: In AD 1561, Asaf Khan was sent to effect the conquest
of Chunar and he occupied it without any difficulty.
 Conquest of Gondwana (1564): The independent kingdom of Gondwana
was an eyesore to Akbar. Its ruler, Vir Narayan was a minor. His brave mother
Durgawati was his guardian. Akbar sent Asaf Khan to conquer Gondwana,
Durgawati fought against the Mughals near Narhi. She was badly wounded.
To defend her honour she committed suicide by stabbing herself. Other Rajput
ladies also performed Jauhar. Vir Narayan also died in the battle and thus,
Gondwana came under the Mughal control.
 Conquest of Gujarat: Akbar launched an attack against Muzzafar Khan of
Gujarat at the head of a large army in AD 1572. He was defeated and imprisoned
and Gujarat came under the Mughals.
 Conquest of Bengal and Bihar: The governor of Bihar, Suleman had
conquered Bengal in AD 1574 and he was ruling over Bengal and Bihar. The
Afghans killed him and made his son Daud Khan the ruler of that place. Akbar
sent Munim Khan against Daud Khan. In AD 1575, Daud Khan was badly
defeated and accepted the sovereignty of Akbar. After some time, when he
raised his head again, Akbar, himself proceeded towards Bengal. A fierce battle
was fought between the two armies. Daud was defeated and killed. Thus, Bengal
and Bihar came under the Mughal control.
 Conquest of Kabul: In AD 1585, Kabul was under Akbar’s stepbrother, Mirza
Hakim. In AD 1580, he attached Punjab. Akbar defeated him. Mirza Hakim
accepted his sovereignty. Akbar returned Kabul to him. In AD 1585, after his
death, Kabul was annexed to the Mughal Empire.
 Conquest of Kashmir (1588): The ruler of Kashmir was Yusuf Shah. In AD
1588, Raja Bhagwan Das and Qasim Khan were sent to conquer Kashmir.
They succeeded in their mission.
 Conquest of Sind (1590): In AD 1590, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana defeated
the ruler of Sind, Mirza Jani Beg and occupied Thatta, the capital of Sind.
 Conquest of Orissa (1593): In AD 1593, Raja Man Singh defeated the ruler
of Orissa and made it a part of the Mughal Empire.
 Conquest of Baluchistan and Makaran (1595): In AD 1595, the Mughal
Chief Quetta defeated the Panni Afghans and annexed the regions of Baluchistan
and Makaran to the Mughal Empire.
 Conquest of Kandhar (1595): The Persian Governor of Kandhar, Muzaffar
Hussain Khan, did not have very cordial relations with the Shah of Iran. On 5
April, AD 1595, he surrendered the fort of Kandhar to the Mughals.
Self-Instructional
100 Material
 North-Western frontier regions: Many tribes were independent in the North- Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
Western hilly region and they affected plunder in the Indian territory. Akbar
suppressed these tribes. The Mughals were victorious with continuous efforts
of a few years and almost all the tribals were defeated. Gazni was snatched
from them. Being impressed by these campaigns, the Uzbek leader Abdulla NOTES
Khan abandoned the policy of warfare against the Mughals.
Conquests of the Deccan
 Ahmadnagar: Akbar devoted his attention towards the Deccan after completing
his victory campaigns in Northern India. First of all, he dispatched Prince Murad
and Abdur Rahim Khan-I-Khana in AD 1595 for the conquest of Ahmadnagar.
At that time, Chand Bibi was ruling there as guardian of her minor nephew.
She fought against the Mughals very bravely but was defeated because of the
treachery and non-cooperation of her own amirs and by the terms of a treaty,
she had to cede the region of Barar to the Mughals. Chand Bibi conquered
Barar once again with the help of other Southern powers. Akbar dispatched his
armies again but this time they were unsuccessful. Akbar then proceeded against
Ahmadnagar in AD 1600, conquered it and imprisoned the minor ruler, Bahadur
Nizam Shah. Chand Bibi had been assassinated by her own rebel chiefs before
this event.
 Asirgarh: The ruler of Khandesh, Ali Khan, had already accepted Akbar’s
sovereignty, but his son Miran Bahadur Shah declared himself as independent.
After a prolonged struggle, Asirgarh came under the Mughals in AD 1601 and
Miran Bahadur was sent to Gwalior as a prisoner.
Struggle between Akbar and Mewar
During Akbar’s time, Udai Singh ruled over Mewar. He was considered the most
powerful ruler of Rajasthan. His influence extended to areas like Bundi, Sirohi, Juda,
Ogana, Pankha and Merte. On the other hand, Akbar’s influence extended to Ajmer,
Nagore and Mewat. He had also conquered Gwalior in Central India and forced its
ruler Ram Shah to seek refuge with Raja Udai Singh of Mewar. In AD 1559, the
struggle started between the Mughals and Mewar. It is attributed to various factors:
 According to Abul Fazal, Akbar wanted to conquer various forts under Mewar.
 According to Nizamuddin and Badayuni, the real cause of the attack was the
giving of shelter to Baz Bahadur of Malwa by Rana in AD 1502.
 Smith attributes it to the desire of Akbar to conquer the whole of India which in
turn was inspired by a political propriety and an economic necessity.
 According to Gopinath Sharma, Akbar decided to conquer Chittor first as against
any other state because he thought that if he defeated the Rana of Mewar or
made him his friend, the other rulers of Rajasthan would accept his suzerainty
automatically and he would not have to wage war against all of them and Akbar
was right in his thinking. This policy of his was based on a study of Rajput
psychology and it turned out to be successful. Within two to three years of the
fall of Chittor, Ranthambhore (AD 1569), Jodhpur (AD 1570), Bikaner (AD
1570), and Jaisalmer (AD 1570) accepted the suzerainty of Delhi and entered
into matrimonial relations with Akbar.
Self-Instructional
Material 101
Foundation of the A.L. Srivastava in his book Akbar the Great has said that Mewar was on the way to
Mughal Empire-II
Gujarat and therefore without bringing Mewar under the Mughal control, it was useless
to try and conquer Gujarat. Conquest of Mewar was also essential if Akbar was to
claim the title of the sovereign ruler of India.
NOTES
Thus, all the factors led to Akbar’s decision to conquer Mewar.
Akbar and Udai Singh
Udai Singh’s son Shakti Singh (who had sought Mughal’s refuge sometime ago,
being annoyed with his father) gave him the information that Akbar was planning to
conquer Mewar. To fulfil his campaign of conquest, Akbar attacked Mewar in AD
1567, and established his control over its capital, Chittor. Rana Udai Singh did not
accept Akbar’s sovereignty and he entrenched himself in Udaipur. For the next seven
to eight years Akbar was busy in other serious problems of the Empire and he could
not devote attention towards Udai Singh, who died in AD 1572, being succeeded by
Rana Pratap.
Akbar and Rana Pratap
Akbar sent many emissaries to Rana Pratap to ask him to accept the Mughal sovereignty
and present himself at the Mughal court. Once, Rana Man Singh also went to Rana
Pratap as Akbar’s emissary. Rana Pratap welcomed him. But he refused to compromise
with his freedom. After this, two other emissaries were sent in October and December
1573 under the leadership of Raja Bhagwan Das and Todarmal respectively. Rana
Pratap treated both of them with courtesy, but hesitated to accept Akbar’s sovereignty.
Unlike other Rajputs, he did not agree to come himself to the Mughal Court but sent
his son Amar Singh instead.
But Akbar was not satisfied with it and he decided to launch an attack on the
Rana and entrusted its command on the best Mughal General, Raja Man Singh of
Ajmer. In the famous Battle of Haldighati (18 June, 1576) the Rana was defeated and
he retreated to Gogunda. But he continued his resistance to the Mughals by guerilla
warfare. He got the co-operation of Bhils.
When between AD 1579 – AD 1585, Akbar could not devote his attention
towards the Rana because of numerous revolts taking place against himself, the Rana
took advantage of the situation and re-conquered many forts around Kumbhalgarh
and Chittor, though he could not re-conquer Chittor itself. He established his new
capital at Chavand near modern Dungarpur. In AD 1597, he sustained an internal
injury in a hunting accident which led to his death. At that time the Rana was just 51.
With the death of Rana Pratap ended an era in the history of the Rajputana. The story
of his struggle is that of Rajput bravery and sacrifice for his principles.
Akbar and Amar Singh
Amar Singh ascended the throne in AD 1597 after his father’s death. He also continued
the policy of struggle followed by his father and did not accept Mughal sovereignty.
By the time of Jahangir, he entered into a treaty after a prolonged struggle as a result
of which the Mughal Emperor gave him the alternative of sending his son Karana
Singh to the Mughal Court instead of presenting himself personally. Chittor fort was
returned to him but he could not get it repaired.
Self-Instructional
102 Material
Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
NOTES
Fig. 4.1 Extent of Akbar’s Empire
Akbar’s policy towards the non-Muslims was one of tolerance. He soon abandoned
the rigid, cruel and hostile policy followed by the Delhi Sultans and the early Mughal
Emperors towards the Hindus. He was the first national ruler who aspired to lay the
foundations of his empire on the goodwill of both the Hindu and the Muslim
communities. His religious policy heralded a new era of peace, prosperity and unity
in the country. He founded the so called order or religion Din-i-Ilahi to give a common
platform to the Hindus and the Muslims.
Factors that led to Akbar’s Adoption of Liberal Policy
Many factors inspired Akbar to follow a liberal policy towards the non-Muslims.
Chief amongst them were as follows:
 Personal life and personality: Akbar was liberal and tolerant by nature. The
circumstances of his birth, his upbringing and the teaching of his preceptor
Sheikh Abdul Latif played an important role in making him tolerant. The
discussions in the Ibadat Khana had convinced him that in spite of having
different names, Ram or Rahim, God was one. He wanted to be a true national
monarch.
 Political necessity: Akbar wanted to extend and consolidate his empire. He
knew that the Hindus were the majority in India. He also realized that without
the cooperation and sympathy of the Hindus, the defence extensions, peace
stability and order in Mughal Empire was impossible.
 Liberal policy: He was impressed by the qualities of the Hindus, particularly
the Rajputs. There was scarcity of the Mughal soldiers for ruling over the
whole of India. Further, to end the feeling among the people that the Mughals
were foreign rulers, Akbar thought it essential to follow a liberal policy. Self-Instructional
Material 301
Foundation of the  Influence of many factors and personalities: Before Akbar, many rulers in
Mughal Empire-II
various parts of the country in the 15th century had turned non-communal and
got the religious literature translated into Persian, had extended patronage to
regional languages, had followed a tolerant religious policy and had accorded
NOTES high posts to the Hindus in their army and thus had created an atmosphere of
mutual understanding between the two communities. This historical background
inspired Akbar to adopt a liberal and tolerant religious policy. The Bhakti
movement and the followers of Sikh saints also inspired Akbar to adopt a liberal
and tolerant policy. Akbar’s mother and his tutor, Bairam Khan belonged to the
Shia sect. His Rajput wives also helped in making him tolerant. Thus, the
atmosphere of the Royal harem and liberal personalities made him liberal
minded.
Characteristics of Akbar’s Religious Policy
In AD 1562, Akbar worked in this direction after his accession:
(i) He issued a farman prohibiting the war prisoners to be forcibly converted to
Islam.
(ii) In AD 1563, he brought to an end the pilgrimage tax of bathing in places of
pilgrimage like Prayag and Banaras.
(iii) In AD 1564, he abolished Jaziya. According to Islamic injunctions, non-Muslims
of the Islamic states had to pay this tax. Though it was not a very oppressive
tax financially, yet it was not liked.
(iv) Though he had opened the avenues for the appointment of non-Muslims in the
royal service in AD 1562, yet he appointed Todarmal only on a high post in the
revenue department in AD 1563. In AD 1574, he was made the Diwan (Wazir
or Finance Minister). Soon after, Rama Das was appointed as the Naib Diwan
of the State. The ruler of Amer Bharmal was given a high office, his son Bhagwan
Das got a mansab of 5000 and his son Man Singh got a mansab of 7000.
Another person worth mentioning is a Brahmin called Mahesh Das, who was
given the title of Raja Birbal. He placed Birbal amongst the nine jewels of his
court. Birbal always stayed with Akbar.
(v) Akbar entered into matrimonial relations with daughters of many Hindu Rajas
and high families, e.g., he married Mani Bai, the younger daughter of Bharmal.
The rulers of Jaisalmer and Bikaner also established matrimonial relations with
Akbar.
(vi) He treated his common Hindu subjects and Muslims equally. Hindus were
given full freedom for construction of new temples or repair of old temples.
They could celebrate their festivals freely.
(vii) He had given his Hindu wives full freedom to worship as they liked in his
harem.
(viii) He honoured the scholars of every religion equally. In AD 1575, he established
an Ibadatkhana in his new capital of Fatehpur Sikri. Here he invited religious
preachers and scholars of every religion. The discussion could continue till
only AD 1582.
(ix) To give a uniform religion to the Hindus and Muslims, he propagated a new
religion called Tauhi Illahi. Though this religion could not become very popular
Self-Instructional
104 Material
and came to an end with the death of Akbar, still the effort of Akbar is worthy Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
of praise.
(x) He also tried to remove the evils prevailing in the Hindu religion. He opposed
the customs of Sati and supported widow re-marriage.
NOTES
(xi) Along with the Hindus, he behaved equally and liberally with the Shias, Sufis,
Jains, Christians and others.
Development of Akbar’s Religious Views
Undoubtedly, in the beginning of his reign, Akbar was a traditional and a staunch
Muslim. Between AD 1562 and 1582, his religious ideas underwent a continuous
transformation. Various stages of his religious views can be studied as follows:
1. Orthodox Muslim: Initially Akbar was an orthodox Muslim. He respected
greatly the Chief Qazi of the State, Abdul Nabi Khan. He is said to have even
carried his shoes on one occasion. He is said to have remembered the name of
Allah the whole night and remained immersed in the thoughts of Allah. He
remained busy with a mystic view and thanked Allah for his successes. Very
often, he sat on a smooth stone of an old building in front of his palace and
remained immersed in religious and mystic views.
2. His initial activities connected with liberal religious policy: From AD 1562,
he started adopting a policy of religious tolerance. At that time, he was a young
man of 20 years. By a farman he prohibited making the women and children of
the defeated party slaves and also stopped forcing the prisoners to embrace
Islam. In AD 1563, the pilgrimage tax on the Hindus was ended and in AD
1564, the Jaziya was ended. In AD 1562, he opened the doors of state
appointments for the Hindus and the same year he married Mani Bai, the
daughter of Bharmal of Ajmer. He still continued to read Namaz regularly and
visited the tomb of saints like Salim Chisti.
3. Establishment of the Ibadatkhana: With the liberal development in his
religious view, Akbar, on one hand, collected the scholars of various schools of
liberal views and on the other hand in AD 1575, he got an Ibadatkhana
constructed in his new capital, Fatehpur Sikri. In this house of worship he
invited the religious preachers, mystics and famous scholars of his time and
carried on discussions with them in spiritual subjects. He had to bear many
attacks from staunch Mullahs and the Ulemas after the construction of
Ibadatkhana. He often used to attend the discussions going on here. Often, he
told the Mullahs that his sole aim in it was to realize the truth brought to light
by the real scholars. Initially, this Ibadatkhana was open only for the Muslims
and then when the Mullahs started quarrelling amongst themselves, he opened
the doors of Ibadatkhana for scholars and thinkers of non-Muslim religions
also. Now the followers of all religions, Hinduism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism,
Christianity and even atheists started participating in the discussions of the
Ibadatkhana. Gradually, the discussions in the Ibadatkhana widened so much
so that the subjects like Quran being the ultimate divine work and Muhammad
being the ultimate prophets were included in the discussions on which all the
Muslims were of one opinion. This led to many orthodox Mullahs spreading
the rumour that Akbar wants to forsake the Islamic religion. Actually, the
Ibadatkhana brought more ill fame to Akbar than credit. The Qazis issued
Self-Instructional
Material 501
Foundation of the many Fatwas against Akbar but he suppressed their revolt and accorded severe
Mughal Empire-II
punishments to rebel Qazis.
4. Reading of Fatwa personally and giving land grant: On 16 June, 1579,
Akbar removed the Imam of the Jama Masjid of Fatehpur Sikri and read the
NOTES Fatwa himself. It was composed by the famous Persian poet Faizi. He said
non-vegetarian food was unnatural. He started giving land grants to the Hindu,
Jain and Persian institutions. It was not a new thing for the rulers in countries
from outside India to read the Fatwa themselves. But the orthodox Muslims of
India considered it the beginning of a new custom and so activated rumours of
Akbar being non-Islamic.
5. Issuing of Mazhar: Akbar did not bow before the orthodox Mullahs. To deal
with them as well as to consolidate his position, he proclaimed the Mazhar in
August–September, AD 1579. This proclamation which was signed by the
principal Ulemas was interpreted wrongly by some historians as the Doctrine
of Infallibility. In reality, the proclamation said that in case of any dispute among
the scholars with regard to any interpretations of the Quran, Akbar would have
the right of choosing any interpretation he liked, which he thought to be in the
interest of a majority of his subjects, and the country at large. It was also enjoyed
therein keeping in mind the welfare of the country. If Akbar issued any new
proclamation in accordance with the Quran, it would have to be accepted.
Thus, Akbar did not assume the position of the maker of religious injunctions
but claimed for himself the right to the ultimate interpretation of the Quran.
6. Abandonment of the pilgrimage to tombs: After AD 1579, Akbar did not
visit any Mazar or tomb. He left it as being very much akin to a narrow outlook,
belief in polytheism and idol worship.
7. Stopping of the discussion of the Ibadatkhana and starting of personal
interviews: Seeing the bitterness of the religious discussion in the Ibadatkhana
and the efforts by the followers of one religion to degrade those of the other,
Akbar brought an end to the discussions in the Ibadatkhana in AD 1582. But
he continued his search for the truth. His critics and the staunch Muslim historian
Badayuni attacked him saying that certain people do not do anything except
searching for the truth day and night. Akbar had personal interviews with the
leaders of various religious saints and preachers. He invited Purushottam and
Devi to know about the principles and teachings of the Hindu religion. To
understand the Jain religion, he invited chief Jain saint Hari Vijay Suri from
Kathiavad and made him stay at his court for two years. With all honour, Meharji
Rana was invited to explain the principles of Zoroastrianism. Portuguese
scholars were invited from Goa to explain the principles of Christianity. Akabiba
and Manseriat spent three years in Akbar’s court for this purpose. He met Sufi
saints also from time to time. These meetings led him to believe that in spite of
the difference in the name of different religions and their duties, certain good
points existed in all. He realized that if common good points of all the religions
are emphasized, goodwill can be created among the people of different sects in
the country.
8. Founding the so-called new religion: After discussion with the religious
leaders of various sects, Akbar believed that in spite of the diversity in name,
God is one. Historian Badayuni said, ‘The Emperor believed firmly that good
people existed in all religions. If some true knowledge could be gained by this
Self-Instructional
106 Material
then why should the truth remain confined to just one religion.’ Akbar was Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
unhappy with the bitter religious discussions because it obstructed the creation
of an atmosphere congenial to the progress and goodwill in the nation. To him,
the solution to this problem appeared to be the founding of a new religion
comprising the good points of every religion but free of the defects of all. NOTES
Badayuni stressed the fact that Akbar gradually drifted away from Islam and
founded a new religion comprising the good points of various religions like
Hinduism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism. But modern scholars say that Akbar
did not start any new religion. They think that his orthodoxy had led Badayuni
to exaggerate the facts. They say that there is no proof of the fact that Akbar
either founded a new religion or ever thought of starting one. Abdul Fazal and
Badayuni used the word Tauhid-i-lahi to describe the so called new religion.
Whatever is the truth, Akbar wanted to bring about a harmony between the
people of various sects through the medium of this religion, but he did not take
very great interest in the propagation nor did he pressurize anyone to follow it.
Din-i-Ilahi
Contacts with the leaders of various religions, reading of their learned works, meeting
with the Sufi saints and yogis gradually convinced Akbar that while there were
differences of sect and creed, all religions had a number of good points which were
obscured in the heat of controversy. He felt that if the good points of various religions
were emphasized, an atmosphere of harmony and amenity would prevail which would
be for the good of country.
Further, he felt that behind all the multiplicity of names and forms, there was
but one God. As Badauni observed, as a result of all the influences which were brought
to bear on His Majesty, ‘there grew gradually as the outline of stone, the conviction in
his heart that there were some sensible men in all religions. If some true knowledge
was thus everywhere to be found, why should truth be confined to one religion.’
Hence, he brought a solution of the problem, i.e., of having a religion that has the
excellent points of the existing creeds and the defects of none. So, he consulted the
foremost leaders of the various religious communities and unfolded to them his scheme
of having a religion which should be the combination of the merits of all the faiths and
the defects of none. He said, ‘We ought, therefore to bring them all into one but in
such fashion that there should be both one, and all, with the great advantage of not
losing what is good in any one religion, while gaining whatever is better in another. In
that way honour would be rendered to God, peace would be given to the people and
security to the empire.’ So, having put together the general principles of all religions,
he established a synthesis of various creeds and called them Din-i-Ilahi.
Main Principles of Din-i-Ilahi
Mohsin Fani, the author of Debistani-i-Mazahib, described some of the leading
principles of Din-i-Ilahi:
(i) Liberality and beneficence
(ii) Abstinence from the worldly desires
(iii) Forgiveness to the evil doer
(iv) Soft voice and gentle words for everybody
(v) Good treatment to all those who come in contact
(vi) Dedication of the soul in the love of God Self-Instructional
Material 701
Foundation of the The whole philosophy of Akbar was ‘the pure weapon (shastra) and the pure sight
Mughal Empire-II
never err.’ He found that the narrow minded religiously zealous was a menace to the
society. Accordingly, he made an attempt to bring about a synthesis of all the important
religions and styled it Din-i-Ilahi or Tauhid-i-Ilahi (Divine Monotheism). It was a
NOTES socio-religious order—a brotherhood designed to cement diverse communities in the
land. The followers of this religion believed in the following principles:
(i) God is one and Akbar is his Caliph or representative. In this way its basis was
the Unity of God, the cornerstone of Islam.
(ii) The followers of this religion used to greet each other by one saying ‘Allah-u-
Akbar’ and the other replying ‘Jall-a-Jolalohu’ when they met.
(iii) As far as possible, the followers of his religion abstained from meat eating.
(iv) The followers used to worship Sun God and considered the fire sacred.
(v) The followers of this religion were opposed to child marriage and marriage of
old women.
(vi) The neophyte in the religion used to bow before the Emperor on Sunday and
the Emperor used to instruct him and the neophyte used to repeat the instruction
again and again.
(vii) Every member used to host a party on his birthday and used to give charity.
(viii) Apart from their own instructions the followers were not to honour any other
ritual, place of worship or sacred book.
(ix) Every follower vowed to keep his character high and do good to others.
(x) The followers of this religion used to respect all religions equally.
Propagation of Din-i-Ilahi
Although there were a number of adherents of the so-called Divine Faith, it did not
live for long after Akbar. Blochman has collected from Abul Fazal and Badayuni the
names of 18 prominent members, Raja Birbal being the only Hindu in the list. The
herd of the unnamed and the unrecorded followers probably never numbered. In order
to complete the subject, it may be noted that in September, 1595, Sadr Jahan, the
Mufti of the empire, with his two sons, took the Shasi joined the Faith, and was
rewarded with a command of 1,000.’At the same time sundry other persons conformed
and received commands’ ranging from 100 - 500. Father Pinheiro, writing from Lahore
on 3 September, AD 1595, mentions that in that city the royal sect had many adherents,
but all for the sake of the money paid to them. No later contemporary account of the
Din-i-Ilahi has been found.
Din-i-Ilahi perished with Akbar’s death though Jahangir continued to make
disciples after Akbar’s fashion. Both Smith and Woolsey Haig have condemned Akbar
for promulgating what they have termed a religion of his own. The Divine Faith’ says
Dr Smith, was a monument of Akbar’s folly and not of his wisdom. Elsewhere, he
calls it ‘a silly invention’.
Following Badayuni, a bigoted and over-strict Muslim, with whom the omission
of a single ceremony of Islam amounted to apostasy, and adopting the same line of
argument as he, they have inevitably come to the same conclusion.
As a profound student of India, as well as Islamic history, Akbar made a direct
appeal to the innermost sentiments of his subjects by giving his Sangha a religious
Self-Instructional
character. Neither the aim of the order nor the object of its author can be duly
108 Material
appreciated unless it is regarded as an instrument with which the mastermind Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
endeavored to consolidate the Mughal empire by eradicating from the minds of the
ruled their sense of subordination to the Muslim rulers. The chief motive underlying
the promulgation of the Divine Faith was the unification of India. Lanepoole justly
observes, ‘But broad minded sympathy which inspired such a vision of catholicity NOTES
left a lasting impression upon a land of warring creeds and tribes and for a brief while
created a nation where before there had been only factions.’
According to a renowned historian S.M. Zaffar, ‘The Divine Faith had far-
reaching consequences. It completely changed the character of the Muslim rule in
India. The Mughal Emperor was no longer regarded as a foreigner, trampling upon
the lives and liberties of the sons of the soil and depriving them of their birthrights.
The members of the different Faith had bound themselves by an oath to stand by the
emperor in weal and wore to sacrifice the religion, honour, wealth, life, liberty and all
for him’. Prof. R.S. Sharma also supports the same view. According to him, Akbar’s
aim in propagating this Doctrine was political not religious but Dr Satish Chandra
does not accept the view, he gives certain logic. First, the number of people embracing
this religion was very small and even amongst them many were Akbar’s personal
friends.
Second, when Akbar propagated this religion (AD 1582) then he had already
consolidated his empire. He started Tauhid-i-Ilahi only with the purpose to bring
about harmony and peace amongst the various sects. He was the most liberal exponent
of the principles of universal toleration.
To his open mind there was truth in all faiths, so he did not permit anybody to
be persecuted on the score of his religion. Solh-i-Kull (peace with all) was the principle Check Your Progress
he acted upon. The Hindus, the Christians, the Jains, and the followers of other religions 2. Fill in the blanks
enjoyed full liberty, both of conscience and public worship. Even when he promulgated with appropriate
the new religion of Din-i-Ilahi he never sought converts either by force or coercion. words.
By starting Din-i-Ilahi, he promoted the feeling of cultural unity and humanism to an (a) In 1562, Akbar
extent. issued a
prohibiting the
war prisoners to
ACTIVITY be forcibly
converted to
Islam.
Which international leader over the last century best typifies Akbar’s traits, (b) According to
in your opinion? Write a 500-word essay on the leader. Islamic
injunctions, non-
Muslims of the
Islamic states had
Jahangir to pay a tax
called _.
Salim became the Mughal emperor after his father, Akbar, passed away. Akbar had (c) Akbar placed
conferred the title of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir on him and after he became Birbal amongst
king, he was known as Jahangir. Jahangir was born on 20 September 1569 and was the of
originally named Muhammed Sultan Salim. The coronation of Salim took place on 3 his court.
November 1605. Similar to Akbar, Jahangir was a kind and just king and was an able (d) The chief motive
underlying the
administrator besides being diplomatic in his speech. He was also a typical Muslim promulgation of
ruler, who was not very tolerant of Hindu customs and traditions. Jahangir was also a the Divine Faith
great patron of arts and received much support in his rule from his accomplished and was .
beautiful wife, Nur Jahan. The king and queen together passed many beneficial laws
that helped in the upliftment of their subjects. Self-Instructional
Material 109
Foundation of the As a person, Jahangir was a respectful son, loving father, helpful relative and
Mughal Empire-II
loyal friend. He was also a good husband to Nur Jahan and his other wives. While
there are records of Jahangir revolting against his father on some occasions, mostly
they stemmed from his desire to be independent rather than overtaking Akbar’s throne.
NOTES For all his merits, Jahangir also made mistakes because of his easy trust on many
shrewd, self-serving relatives and ‘friends’, who incited him regularly against his
father. By himself, he was not a ruthlessly ambitious person. It was this same weak,
trusting streak in him that led him to hand over a large part of the running of the
empire to the queen Nur Jahan.
Expansion of the Empire by Jahangir
One of the important points on his kingly agenda was to expand the boundaries of his
empire, just like Akbar before him. Akbar had already successfully captured almost
the entire north India and only some princely states and Mewar were left to conquer.
Jahangir made his aim to subjugate Mewar and sent his brother, Prince Parvez to
complete this task soon after he ascended the throne in AD 1605. After a series of
battles and negotiations, the Rana of Mewar accepted the suzerainty of Jahangir and
signed a peace treaty to this effect in AD 1615.
Jahangir’s next aim was to conquer the southern part of India and he managed to
subdue Khandesh and some part of Ahmednagar. However, the rest of Ahmednagar,
Bijapur and Golconda remained out of his reach despite many attempts. As a result, while
the Mughals could not expand much into southern India, the power of Mughal rulers
reached the ears of southern kings and created pressure of constant threat on them. However,
none of the rulers in the south were ready to yield to the Mughals and their rule.
Nur Jahan
Nur Jahan was a well-read, cultured, liberal, sharp woman who was fond of poetry,
music and art. She was also a capable and smart administrator who was not deterred
by criticism or grave problems. She acted as an advisor to her husband, Jahangir, and
was, in fact, have said to take most important decisions related to the rule of the
empire. She worked constantly on increasing her influence on the king and the court
and treated power as her right. Due to these reasons, she left a mark on the history
and all recounts of Jahangir’s rule. In AD1613, Jahangir formally elevated Nur Jahan
to the position of Badshah Begum or the first lady of the land. Nur Jahan’s increasing
influence led to a lot of discontent among nobles and other officials of the court, such
as Mahabat Khan and Jahangir’s son from another wife, Khurram, who felt that he
was the rightful heir to the throne. However, Nur Jahan always favoured Shariyar
instead, who was the son- in-law of Jahangir to ascend the throne after Jahangir. Nur
Jahan’s opposition to Khurram led him to revolt against the king, his father, in AD1622
.This revolt resulted in the loss of Kandahar, an important part of the Mughal Empire.
In all, Nur Jahan’s meddling in state affairs caused two major rebellions in the last
years of Jahangir’s reign which ultimately weakened the Empire and injured its image.
Development of Art and Culture
Jahangir was a knowledgeable and refined individual. He knew many languages well,
like Persian and Turkish and also had good command over Hindi and Arabic. He
worked independently on his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri for 17 years and
subsequently got it formalized by official court writers. Historians find his descriptions
very well-written and evince that he was an intelligent man, had wide-ranging interests
Self-Instructional
110 Material
and sophisticated tastes in art and architecture. He also promoted painting and brought Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
the art to new heights under his reign.
Development of Architecture
Jahangir also had a keen eye for architecture and he was responsible for getting NOTES
constructed many well-known monuments, such as the tomb of Akbar at Sikandrabad,
the mosque at Lahore, which is comparable to the great Jama Masjid, constructed
later by Shah Jahan at Delhi. The most well-known and unique monument constructed
during Jahangir’s time is the tomb of Itimad-ud-daula near Agra, commissioned and
envisioned actually by Nur Jahan. Jahangir also got constructed many vast, beautiful
gardens in Kashmir and Lahore.
Conquests of Jahangir
Even though Jahangir was highly trained in the use of multiple arms and also a proficient
horse rider, Jahangir not much interested in actually participating in battles and
preferred to send out his son or other military generals in his place. He did not take
part in any major battles even during his father’s reign. He was also not very enthusiastic
about improving the military system that his father had built up or to add more
sophisticated weaponry to his army. As far as religious beliefs are concerned, Jahangir
was neither an extremist nor an atheist, but stood somewhere midway. He did believe
in God and observed the basic traditions and customs of Islam.
Check Your Progress
Death of Jahangir 3. State whether the
following
Jahangir was very fond of his drink and ultimately died because of excessive statements are true
consumption of alcohol in AD 1627, on his way back from Kashmir, the region of or false.
Sarai Saadabad. His final resting place was Shahdara Bagh, in Lahore. His son, (a) Jahangir assumed
Khurram, later known as Shah Jahan, succeeded him on the throne. the title of Nur-
ud-din
Nur Jahan, Wife of Jahangir Muhammad
Jahangir after he
Nur Jahan was the daughter of Mirza Ghiyas Beg who belonged to a noble family of ascended the
Tehran and she was married to Mughal Emperor Jahangir. She was earlier known as throne.
Mehr-un-nisa. Mehr-un-nisa got married to Jahangir in AD1611 and was given the (b) He was greatly
title of Nur Mahal and Nur Jahan respectively by Jahangir afterwards. assisted by his
wife Nur Jahan
Early Life of Nur Jahan in administrative
affairs.
Mirza Ghiyas Beg worked under the service of Akbar and being a talented person he (c) The long-drawn
soon rose to eminence. He was appointed as the Diwan at Kabul and later on became war between
the Diwan of the emperor’s household. In AD 1594, Mehr-un-nisa was married to Ali Mewar and the
Mughals ended
Quli Beg. In AD 1599 Ali Quli Beg was given the title of Sher Afghan by Jahangir during Jahangir’s
when he killed a tiger single-handedly. reign.
When Jahangir ascended the throne, he appointed Sher Afghan as the Jagirdar (d) Jahangir greatly
improved the
of Burdwan in Bengal but he was eventually killed in a combat with Qutub-ud-din,
military system
the governor of Bengal. Mehr-un nisa was appointed in the service of Salima Begum, which he
the widow of Akbar, and it was there that Jahangir fell in love with her and eventually inherited from
married her. his father and
increased the
Influence of Nur Jahan on Mughal Politics fighting strength
of his army.
Jahangir, who was gradually becoming accustomed to her decision-making owing to
age and indifferent health, was also not reluctant to delegate his authority to his Self-Instructional
Material 111
Foundation of the intelligent and hardworking queen. Nur Jahan’s political career may be divided into
Mughal Empire-II
two periods. In the first, from AD1611 – 1622, her father and mother were alive and
kept a sobering influence on her ambitions. During the second period—AD1622 –
1627— Jahangir gave her more liberty to control the administration due to his ill-
NOTES health during this period. This resulted in her ambition to capture power of the throne
even after the death of her husband and consequently came in conflict with Shah
Jahan. Soon after her marriage, Nur Jahan formed a clique of her own called Nur
Jahan Junta. Each member of this clique was capable and occupied high offices in the
state. Nur Jahan remained supreme in administration till AD1622 with the help of
these powerful members of her clique.
Revolts Under Nur Jahan
In AD1621, Ladli Begum, Nur Jahan’s daughter by Sher Afghan, was married to
prince Shahryar. Nur Jahan desired to keep the power of the state in her hands even
after the death of her husband. Therefore, Nur Jahan planned to put Shahryar on the
throne after the death of Jahangir. This resulted in the revolt of Shah Jahan and the
weakening of the Empire in his later years of Jahangir’s reign. Mahabat Khan also
revolted in AD1626 and tried to finish the influence of Nur Jahan in the state. Mahabat
Khan was loyal to the throne but was among those nobles who did not like the increasing
influence of Nur Jahan in the state.
Nur Jahan knew it and therefore, she put a check on his promotions though he
was one of the ablest commanders of Jahangir. It resulted in the revolt of Mahabat
Khan. Thus, the interference of Nur Jahan in the politics of the state resulted in two
major rebellions during the last years of the reign of Jahangir which weakened the
Empire and harmed its prestige. If Nur Jahan would not have been interested in
accession of her son-in-law, Shahryar to the throne, the revolt of Shah Jahan would
not have occurred and there was no question of the revolt of Mahabat Khan. Thus, the
interference of Nur Jahan proved harmful to the Empire. When Nur Jahan married
Jahangir, she was thirty-four years of age. She was extremely beautiful even at that
age. Besides, she was an educated, intelligent and cultured lady and was fond of
poetry, music and painting. She wrote verses in Persian. She had an inventive brain
and devised new dresses, ornaments and styles of fashion and decoration. She was
interested in administration and had the capacity to tackle the relevant problems. She
was courageous, patient, social, generous, religious and friend of the poor and
oppressed. Nur Jahan was highly ambitious as well. She participated in administration,
interfered in the politics of her time, increased her influence and tried to keep the
power of the state in her hands. Therefore, she influenced the history and politics of
her time.
Revolt of Shah Jahan
The revolt of Shah Jahan resulted largely from the towering political ambition of Nur
Jahan and her conspiracy to prevent Shah Jahan from becoming the emperor after
Jahangir. The marriage of Ladli Begum, with prince Shahryar, in AD 1621, changed
the attitude of Nur Jahan towards Shah Jahan. He was regarded the crown-prince of
the Empire, and was a member of the Nur Jahan Junta. But Nur Jahan desired that in
place of Shah Jahan, the next emperor should be her own son-in-law, Shahryar who
could be a puppet in her hands. Therefore, she planned to reduce the power and
prestige of Shah Jahan. Her mother and father being dead by AD1622, there remained
nobody to put a check to her towering ambition. Shah Jahan also grew suspicious of
her activities and a conflict between the two became inevitable.
Self-Instructional
112 Material
The Fort of Kandhar was besieged by Persia in early AD 1622. Jahangir ordered Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
Shah Jahan to march for its rescue. Shah Jahan agreed to march towards Kandhar
after the rainy reason and demanded entire Punjab and the fort of Rohtasgarh in
return. Nur Jahan got a chance to poison the ears of the Emperor because of the
demands of the prince. Shah Jahan was in the Deccan at that time and the enraged NOTES
emperor asked him to dispatch the troops and the officers under his command
immediately to the court. Another incident occurred at this very time which drove
further the wedge between the two parties. Shah Jahan had asked the jagir of Dholpur
from the emperor and, believing that his request would be granted he dispatched his
troops to occupy it in advance. But Nur Jahan had already got this jagir transferred in
the name of Shahryar from the Emperor. When the troops of Shah Jahan reached
Dholpur they quarreled with the Faujdar who was deputed there by Shahryar. This
enraged Jahangir who ordered Shah Jahan to send all his troops to the court.
Jahangir assigned his jagir in Dholpur to Shahryar. Nur Jahan grew suspicious
of the intentions of Shah Jahan and therefore, called Mahabat Khan from Kabul to the
court and deputed Asaf Khan to safeguard the royal treasury. Shah Jahan proceeded
forward from Mandu and made a surprise attack on Agra. He was, however, defeated
by the imperialists near Agra early in April AD1623. He returned to Mandu. Mahabat
Khan pursued him. Shah Jahan lost entire Gujarat to the imperialists. He then went to
Burhanpur and sought help from Ahmednagar and Bijapur which was, however,
refused. Mahabat Khan captured Burhanpur which was left unprotected by Shah
Jahan. Shah Jahan marched to Orissa and it fell easily in his hands. He captured
Bengal as well. He then proceeded to Bihar and occupied Bihar including the Check Your Progress
Rohtasgarh fort, Jaunpur and Patna. He next besieged the fort of Allahabad. Mahabat
4. Fill in the blanks
Khan followed him to the north and forced him to fight a battle near Allahabad. with appropriate
Shah Jahan was defeated and agreed to retreat. He returned to Ahmednagar via words.
Bihar, Bengal and Bijapur. Mahabat Khan followed him to the Deccan. But this time (a) Nur Jahan was
Shah Jahan received help from Malik Ambar and besieged the fort of Burhanpur but the daughter of
had to withdraw due to the timely arrival of Mahabat Khan for the rescue of the fort. who
belonged to a
Shah Jahan retreated to Balaghat and took shelter in the fort of Rohangarh. Shah noble family of
Jahan begged mercy of the Emperor which was granted to him. Jahangir gave him Tehran.
the governorship of Balaghat as well. In return, however, Shah Jahan surrendered the (b) In AD1613, Nur
forts of Rohtasgarh and Asirgarh to the imperialists and sent his sons Dara Shikoh Jahan was
and Aurangzeb to the court as hostages for his good conduct in future. elevated to the
rank
Shah Jahan of .
5. State whether the
following
Shah Jahan ruled the Mughal Empire from AD 1628–1658. The son of the royal
statements are true
leader Jahangir and his Rajput Queen, popularly called Jodhabai, Shah Jahan was or false.
born on 5 January 1592. Subsequent to the death of his father, he proclaimed himself
(a) Shah Jahan was
the Emperor of the Mughal Dynasty. He extended the political supremacy which was a member of the
established in India by Akbar. The kingdom enjoyed peace and opulence during his Nur Jahan Junta.
reign. His reign was said to be the golden age of Mughal Empire in India. (b) Shah Jahan
agreed to
Reign of Shah Jahan recapture the
Fort of Kandhar
The reign of Shah Jahan was marked as the golden age of the Mughal dynasty. Shah and demanded
Jahan was well educated and cultured, and was known to have provided protection to the entire Punjab
and the fort of
scholars. Persian and Sanskrit literature flourished during his reign. He also patronized Rohtasgarh in
fine arts, appreciated music, painting and structural design. return.
Self-Instructional
Material 113
Foundation of the He had several wives; nonetheless, he was devoted to them. He constructed
Mughal Empire-II
the Taj Mahal to commemorate his love for Mumtaz Mahal. He loved his children
and gave them all necessary training and comforts. He was a hard fighter and an
accomplished commander. He participated in all important campaigns not only during
NOTES his life time, but also had led most of the conquests for his father Jahangir. Soon after
he occupied the throne, he started his military campaigns and busied himself with
extending the boundaries of the Mughal Empire. During his reign, Ahmednagar was
completely annexed to the Mughal dominion, and Bijapur and Golconda were enforced
to accept the suzerainty of the royal leader. He even attempted to conquer Central
Asia and recover Kandahar. Shah Jahan was a just sovereign and solemnly desired
the welfare of his subjects. Trade, industry and agriculture flourished and the state as
well as the subjects enjoyed prosperity during the entire period of his reign. He worked
hard and personally supervised the administration of the Empire. He brought about
enhancement in the mansabdari system. He helped his subjects generously in times
of famines and natural calamities. With regard to religious affairs, he was
unquestionably orthodox when compared with Jahangir and Akbar; yet he did not get
in the way of the daily life of the Hindus and the Christians. He participated in fairs
and festivals of the Hindus and he continued the practices of Jharokha Darshan and
Tula Dan as before. He continued the policy of his father and grandfather towards the
Rajputs and commanded their respect and loyalty.
Trade activities flourished between Delhi, Agra, Lahore, and Ahmedabad during
the reign of Shah Jahan as a result of improved network of roads and waterways. The
greatest achievement of this great good judge of art was the architectural structures
and gravestones erected by him during his life time. A major revolution that occurred
during his period was the replacement of red sandstone with the more expensive
marble as the construction material. As seen in the Diwan-i-am (hall of public audience)
or the black marble exhibition area of the Shalimar Gardens in Srinagar. The Jama
Masjid, the Moti Masjid and the tomb of Jahangir in Lahore unquestionably deserves
mention here. The most famous of all his works is the legendary Taj Mahal at Agra
built as a tomb for his wife, Empress Mumtaz Mahal.
Achievements of Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan pursued the same guiding principles of his ancestors Akbar and Jahangir
regarding the extension of the Empire’s boundaries towards south India. Moreover,
the fact that the states of south India sheltered the rebels in opposition to the Mughals
did not sit well with Shah Jahan and hence, he desired to get the better of these states.
In AD1633 Ahmednagar was annexed to the Mughal Empire.
The ruling family of Golconda was Shia and its rule had refused to acknowledge
the suzerainty of the Mughals. Shah Jahan desired to conquer Golconda. He was able
to manage this when Abdullah Qutub Shah ascended the throne, and he agreed to the
terms and conditions of the Mughal Emperor. In AD 1636, Shah Jahan attacked
Daulatabad. Bijapur was weak at that time due to rebellious attempts of its nobles.
Consequently, Muhammad Adil Shah voluntarily agreed for peace and an agreement
was signed between the two parties. The Deccan guiding principle of the Mughals
proved fairly triumphant for the duration of the period of influence of Shah Jahan.
Since the annexation of Ahmednagar, both Bijapur and Golconda also accepted the
suzerainty of the royal leader. The rulers of these kingdoms were obligatory to pay the
annual acknowledgment from time to time and parts of their territories for the Mughals
to establish their forts and watch stations. Some other minor invasions also occurred
Self-Instructional during Shah Jahan’s rule. These conquests include the following:
114 Material
 The Bhils of Malwa and Gonda Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
 Raja Pratap of Palam
 The Raja of Little Tibet
Raja Pratap of Palam and the Raja of Little Tibet were pardoned after they accepted NOTES
the suzerainty of the Mughals. Moreover, Assam was forced to establish trade relations
with the Mughal kingdom after constant fighting for over a decade spanning from AD
1628 – 1639.
War of Succession
Chaos and bloodshed related to wars of succession for the throne had become the
order of Mughal Era. All the four sons of Shah Jahan – Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja,
Aurangzeb and Murad, started fighting among themselves during the last years of
Shah Jahan’s rule. Shah Jahan personally chose Dara as the would-be heir. But the
Muslim nobles disliked the popular Dara for his liberal mindset.
Ultimately, Aurangzeb cleansed all obstructions through coercion and bloodshed.
He imprisoned Shah Jahan, and murdered Murad and Dara, while the helpless Shah
Shuja ran away from India. Shah Jahan died on 22 January, 1666, in Agra.
War of Succession and Emergence of Aurangzeb
The war of succession after Shah Jahan was a fierce battle waged by the sons of the
royal leader —Shah Shuja, Dara Shikoh, Aurangzeb and Murad—in order to seize
the Mughal throne. Emperor Shah Jahan fell critically ill in November1657. When he
recovered from his illness and because of the embarrassment caused by his illness
(dysentery and strangury), he commanded the fortress doors to be closed to everybody,
except his elder son Dara Shikoh and daughter Jahanara. Moreover, he asked his
faithful Rajputs, Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur and Ram Singh, to set a guard in his fort.
This resulted in the rumours among the local population that the Emperor had passed
away. Check Your Progress
The news reached Shah Shuja. He instantaneously gathered a force of 40,000 6. Fill in the blanks
cavalry and an authoritative infantry and marched towards Delhi with the intention of with appropriate
seizing the throne. Contrary to the prevalent rumours, Shah Jahan recovered completely words.
from his ailments, even though Aurangzeb later confined him to a cell till his death in (a) A major
the Agra fort. At Dara‘s commencement, Shah Jahan sent a letter to his son telling revolution that
him of his recovery. But Shuja‘s advisers told him that this might be a ruse and urged occurred during
his period was
him to proceed with his revolt. In retaliation, the Emperor sent Suleman Shikoh with the replacement
a strong force to oppose him. Despite the fact that he was very courageous and of with
intellectual, he lacked the field know-how and was consequently backed by Raja Jai the more
expensive
Singh of Jaipur and Daler Khan the Pathan. They laid an ambush for Shah Shuja and as the
the prince walked into it. His force was in flight and he just about managed to break construction
away from, abandoning his combat elephants, artillery and men. material.
Aurangzeb was in the Deccan when he heard of the rumours of the death of his (b) Shah Jahan built
the tomb of
father. Being a thorough diplomat, he started plotting the actions and being an Jahangir
experienced strategist, he bided his time. Murad Bakhsh’s initial reaction, on the in .
other hand, was to congregate a small armed force and rush to his father’s side. He (c) Ahmednagar was
suspected someone had tried to poison him. Aurangzeb realized that whatever course annexed to the
events took, he would become involved in the conflict, so he took action to ensure an Mughal Empire
in .
impermanent peace in his province. Aurangzeb struck a deal with Shivaji Bhonsle
Self-Instructional
Material 115
Foundation of the that he would not attack the prefecture while Shivaji is gone and in return Shivaji will
Mughal Empire-II
get a part of the revenue from the Deccan. When Shah Jahan heard that his third son
was also planning to attack his capital, he came back to Agra. In the meantime, Dara
Shikoh also warned Aurangzeb against committing treason against their father in a
NOTES letter he wrote to Aurangzeb. Next, Aurangzeb put efforts into winning Murad over
to his side and wrote a letter to Murad to this effect.
In the letter, he declared that he wanted to put Murad on the throne because of
his fervor for the Holy Quran, and his disinterest in acquiring power for himself. He
also stated that he just wanted to spend his last days peacefully in Mecca. He promised
Murad a war funding, encouraging Murad to claim his right to the throne. Murad,
little knowing the true intentions of Aurangzeb, was thankful and acknowledged his
brother’s enthusiastic support. He promised to take care of his family, as it was his
significant privilege, and agreed that his other brothers would have forgotten even
their religious convictions in their quest for power.
Thus Aurangzeb gained Murad’s trust and Murad also fell into the trap. This
led to the royal family being split apart and every family member now had to decide
which camp to join in the war of succession. Aurangzeb left his capital on 5 February
AD 1658, leaving Moazzam Shah in Aurangabad. He reached Burhanpur on 18 th
February. Along the way, he imprisoned his father-in-law, who had posed opposition
to him. In Early April he went across the river Narmada followed by his troops. He
met Murad Bakhsh on the banks of Lake Ujjain and later halted at Dharmatpur. Murad
Bakhsh had with him the reinforcement of 70,000 cavalry to help with Aurangzeb’s
cause.
The engaged in battle, on 20 April, with Jaswant Singh Rajput, whom they
overpowered. After crossing the turbulent River Chambal, they were ambushed by
Dara Shikoh’s son, Siphur Shikoh. A battle ensued and Aurangzeb lost 5,000 men by
drowning and to gun bullets. Finally, in end of May of 1658, at Sambugarh, eight
miles east of Agra, Aurangzeb and Murad’s armies encountered Dara Shikoh’s army.
Dara Shikoh had a strong army that comprised of 30,000 cavalry, 20,000 infantry and
musketeers, and 200 European artillery men. They also had elephants and camels in
abundance to carry their supplies. The army was made up of butchers, barbers,
carpenters, blacksmiths—all inexperienced men in terms of war. In addition, many
others had left the army because they were dissatisfied by Dara’s leadership. However,
Dara also had some able generals who brought along their own armies: Khalilullah
Khan commanded 30,000 Mughals; Ram Singh Rathore had 15,000 Rajputs, and
Rustam Khan, 15,000 cavalry. The army was camped next to the river Yamuna. On
the other hand, the army of Aurangzeb had fewer warriors but they were all experienced
men: Bahadur Khan commanded 15,000 cavalry, and Najabat Khan led 15,000 archers
and musketeers.
Murad was accompanied by Rajputs, 50,000 armed cavalry, and artillery and
also his own son, who was just a child at the time. The biggest mistake that Dara
Shikoh made was to wait to attack until the next morning, on the advice of his astrologer.
At dawn, Dara Shikoh found himself and his troops surrounded by Aurangzeb’s officers
Asalat Khan, Safshi Khan, and Sheikh Mir with their troops. The Rajputs refused to
be intimidated but were killed brutally by Aurangzeb’s artillery. Ram Singh died on
the battlefield. Dara’s archers finally got into the fray by showering the enemy with
arrows. In the meantime, Dara was asked to come down off his elephant by Khalilullah,
his friend, so that he is not in clear sight of the enemy. This was a major mistake, as it
Self-Instructional
116 Material
turned out, because as soon as his army men saw him dismounting, they assumed that Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
he had surrendered or abandoned the troops and they were panic-stricken and ran
away, deserting their own posts.
Somehow, Dara and his son managed to escape from the melee even though
Aurangzeb sent 4,000 cavalrymen to chase and capture them. The father and son NOTES
subsequently reached Delhi. Successfully having overpowered Dara Shikoh,
Aurangzeb and Murad proceeded to Agra and camped at Bagh-i-Dara, in a hunting
pavilion near Mathura. Here, they were visited by Jahanara who brought a missive
from Shah Jahan, their father, which chastised them for their attempt to seize the
throne while their father was alive. He commanded them to give away their struggle
for power and agree to his wishes. Naturally, Aurangzeb was not happy and opined
that it was time that his father stopped favoring Dara Shikoh over his other sons. He
also declared that since his father was almost 70, he should step down from his throne.
This disappointed Jahanara, who went back to her father to report that his sons wanted
him to renounce the throne. Aurangzeb then began his negotiations with his father.
However, the negotiations failed and he subsequently attacked the Agra fort. Shah
Jahan’s defeat seemed imminent and he surrendered to his son’s obviously superior
military power.
After it was made certain that all the nobles and the court had submitted to
Aurangzeb and Murad, the two brothers went to Mathura, to the Bagh-i- Dara, since
Murad needed to get treatment for deep arrow wounds to his face. While he was laid
up with injuries, Aurangzeb took it upon himself to deal with matters that came up
after their victory.
After things normalized, Aurangzeb invited Murad to a celebratory dinner.
Murad’s advisers were suspicious of this and advised him against attending. However,
Aurangzeb proved to be a gracious host and after dinner, invited his brother to sleep
overnight at his palace and leave only in the morning. Murad agreed and paid for his
folly because he was bound in his sleep in chains by Aurangzeb’s men. Aurangzeb
imprisoned him in Salimgarh first, under protection of 4,000 soldiers and later sent
him to Gwalior on 25 June. Aurangzeb’s forces also defeated Shah Shuja at Khwaja
on 9 January 1659. After a long chase, on 9 June 1659 Dara and his son Siphur were
also captured by Aurangzeb and Dara was beheaded. The victorious Aurangzeb
became the emperor on 23 May 1658. On 8 June, Shah Jahan, Jahanara, and some
other members of the royal family were made virtual prisoners in the palace at Agra.
Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb was the son of Shah Jahan and he ascended the throne as the sixth Mughal
Emperor in AD1658. Even though he was an extremely able administrator, it was his
religious intolerance and fanaticism which created unrest among his subjects and led
to the gradual undoing of the Mughal Empire.
Self-Instructional
Material 117
Foundation of the Aurangzeb was the third son of Shah Jahan and among the last Mughal Emperors
Mughal Empire-II
to rule over India. He was born in AD 1618 at Dohad near Ujjain. Aurangzeb was a
hardworking and thorough man who had proved himself as an able administrator in
the years that he spent in the Deccan as well as other regions of the Empire. He learnt
NOTES all the tactics of diplomacy due to his expertise as a skilled soldier and general. All
this came handy when he waged the war of succession with his father and his brothers.
The end of the conflict was marked by Aurangzeb succeeding his father to the throne.
On taking authority as the supreme ruler of the mighty dynasty, he assumed the title
of Alamgir (conqueror of the world), followed by Badshah (Emperor) and then Ghazi
(Holy Warrior) to propound the essence of the roles he would play.
During the reign of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Dynasty was at its pinnacle with
more regions of India becoming part of the Empire. From the time he was young,
Aurangzeb had occupied various important positions during his father’s reign. Thus,
when he usurped the power of his father and ascended the throne, he had the rich
experience as the governor of Gujarat, Multan and Sind to aid him in his day-today
affairs. Aurangzeb was a staunch Sunni Muslim and followed the principles of Islam.
He led a disciplined life and abstained from drinking alcohol. He led a very simple
life and spent little on his attire and food.
Administration of Aurangzeb
Having succeeded Shah Jahan to the throne, Aurangzeb had the dominion over the
largest area under him as a Mughal Emperor, compared to both his predecessors and
successors. He proved himself as a capable ruler and ruled with an iron fist and keen
intellect. His empire extended from Ghazni in the west to Bengal in the east and from
Kashmir in the north to the Deccan in the south.
In fact, one of the reasons cited by prominent historians for the downfall of the
Empire was the over-extended empire that Aurangzeb ruled. Since his youth,
Aurangzeb, being a staunch Sunni Muslim, was deeply devoted to Islam. Soon after
occupying the throne, he felt the need to model his administration along Islamic
principles. He felt indebted to the divine powers for making him the emperor and
wanted to do his duty towards Islam by holding up its tenets through his rule, especially
Check Your Progress those of the Sunni faith. He was of the opinion that all Mughal kings who rule before
7. State whether the him had done grave injustice to Islam by being tolerant of other religions and treating
following them the same as Muslims. As a result, they could not establish the supremacy of
statements are true
or false.
Islam in India. He vowed to change this as he felt that this was his foremost duty as a
Muslim ruler. This mindset actually led to Aurangzeb’s limited vision, narrow vision
(a) In the war of of his empire and turned him into a brutal and unjust ruler.
succession fought
between the four As the first step towards establishing the Muslim supremacy in his empire, he
sons of Shah introduced various policies, most of which were a simple reverse of the policies that
Jahan, Aurangzeb
emerged the were introduced by his forefathers. Thus, his administration saw the birth of a new
winner. class of people whose responsibility was to cleanse the society of various non-Islamic
(b) Aurangazeb was practices such as gambling, alcohol consumption and prostitution. Besides banning
the eldest son of the cultivation and production of narcotic substances, he did away with many of the
Shah Jahan. taxes which found no mention in the Islamic law. Besides all this, he also banned Sati,
(c) Murad Bakhsh a Hindu practice which was common in his time.
suspected that
someone had Most of these steps when implemented found favour among his people. But
poisoned his with the passing of time, and in his attempt to realize his bigger objective of fulfilling
father.
his religious vows, he adopted more puritanical ways. Some of these factors that
made him unpopular among his subjects were the ban on music which meant that
Self-Instructional
118 Material
many musicians lost their livelihood. The emperor also put a stop to general festivities Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
at the court, including the ceremony of giving gifts to emperor on his birthday. He
banned the celebration of Hindu festivals like Holi and Diwali at the court. Besides
this, he imposed rules and laws on Muslims naming them a religious duty. Even
tolerant Shias and Sufis were punished during Aurangzeb’s reign. He proceeded to NOTES
demolish the schools and temples patronized by Hindus. In April AD1679, Jaziya
was imposed on the Hindus. Pilgrimage tax on the Hindus was also revived and
while the Muslim traders remained free from tax, their Hindu counterparts were
asked to pay one part of the value of their commodities as tax.
While he went about with the demolition of schools and temples of Hindus, a
lot of the resources were spent from the treasury for the construction of many masjids
and the upkeep of the existing mosques and other Mughal buildings. Some popular
and exquisite buildings that were erected during his time include the Moti Masjid in
the Red Fort. The masjid is made entirely of white marble and has exquisite carvings.
Another significant monument is the splendid Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, which
boasts of grand domes soaring over the red sandstone walls.
Military Campaigns of Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb was an extraordinary statesman, as is evident from his achievements. The
first one is the annexation of the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda in less than a year,
which none of his predecessor could do. One must acknowledge the power of his iron
control that even when he was in the Deccan making military conquests, there were no
major uprisings in the north of the country. However, there were some minor episodes
of civil disturbances and a generally slack administration with the ruler being absent.
Revolts during the Reign of Aurangzeb
The tyrannical rule of Aurangzeb could not have gone smoothly. People were bound
to rise up in protest. The first community to rebel against his rule was of the Jats.
They can lay claim to the first organized revolt by the Hindus against Aurangzeb’s
stringent religious laws. Jats were led by Gokul and launched their revolt in AD1669.
To make matters worse Aurangzeb ordered to raze down the temple of Keshav Rai in
AD 1670.
With this incident, the Hindus rose up against him in the Battle of Tilpat, but
however, they were defeated and the surviving Jat leaders were put to severe ordeal.
The Jats who remained undaunted and determined, accumulated their forces under
the leadership of Raja Ram and staged yet another revolt against the Mughal Emperor
in AD 1686. Even though the outcome of the revolt was not a success for both the
parties, the Jats continued their fight against the Mughals till the death of Aurangzeb.
Finally, after his death, the Jats succeeded in founding their own independent kingdom
and Bharatpur was made its capital.
Besides the Hindus, the Sikhs also had fallen out of the favour of the Emperor,
who persecuted them also along with their Hindu brothers. The uprising of the Satnamis
was a major one during the rule of Aurangzeb. They were brave warriors but ultimately,
Aurangzeb’s forces overcame the rebellion.
Guru Gobind Singh led the Sikhs to revolt against Aurangzeb. While the revolt
itself was quickly suppressed by the strong military of Aurangzeb, the Sikhs as a
community came to be recognized as fierce warriors and as a result also made their
mark in the political machinery in Punjab later on.
Self-Instructional
Material 119
Foundation of the The Rajputs, who were in the good books of all the Mughal Emperors from
Mughal Empire-II
Akbar, became an eyesore to Aurangzeb. Doubting the loyalty of the Rajputs,
Aurangzeb began a series of conflicts with them and wished to end their independent
status by annexing their states to the Empire.
NOTES
Combat with the Marathas
One of the strategic mistakes that Aurangzeb made was his decision to subjugate
Bijapur and Golconda. However, the people of these two states were not ready for
Mughal rule and Bijapur residents resisted his invasions with the help of Marathas
and the Sultan of Golconda. Further, Shivaji emerged as an able general and disrupted
Aurangzeb’s run of victory. While the Mughal official, Shaista Khan proved to be
powerless against the Marathas, Mughals led by Jai Singh managed to wreak havoc
among Shivaji’s army. Consequently, in AD1665, Shivaji was made to sign a peace
treaty after spending his entire life in thwarting Mughal invasions against Maratha
power. Shivaji finally died in AD1680, and handed over the reins of carrying on the
fight against the Mughals to son Shambhuji. When Shambhuji helped out Akbar,
Aurangzeb’s son, Aurangzeb himself traveled to the Deccan in AD 1682, to handle
the situation. In 1682 finally, after a number of attempts, Aurangzeb managed to gain
control of Bijapur. Golconda fell soon after in 1687. However, the Marathas were not
going to be suppressed easily and raised a nation-wide resistance against Mughal
power by AD 1691. The rebellion carried on beyond the end of the 17th century.
Policies of Aurangazeb
In this section, you will learn about religious, deccan and Rajput policies of Aurangzeb.
Check Your Progress
Religious Policy of Aurangzeb
with the Akbar had consolidated the Mughal Empire by his policy of religious tolerance.
appropriate word. Jahangir had also followed the same religious policy. Though Shah Jahan was not
(a) At the time of liberal like his two predecessors, still he kept politics away from religion. But
being crowned as Aurangzeb was a staunch Sunni Muslim and a fanatic. He wanted to win the sympathy
emperor,
Aurangzeb
of the fanatic Sunni Muslims by means of his fanatic religious policy. Therefore, to
assumed the title convert Hindustan from Dar-ul-Harb to Dar-ul-Islam he adopted two types of
of . measures – the first, which were in accordance with the Islam and the second, those
(b) Cultivation of which were against the non-Muslims and non-Sunnis.
was
banned Measures of Aurangzeb in accordance with Islam
throughout the
Empire. First of all he brought to an end the musical gatherings, dances, painting, poetry
(c) The Jats under reading, etc. Though, in spite of his restrictions on music, it continued among the
their leader ladies of the Harem and in the household of the chiefs. It is important that it was
revolted
against his
during his time that the most number of books were written in Persian on music. He
tyranny in ended the Jharokha Darshan describing it as individual worship, which was against
AD1669. Islam. He also ended the practice of Tuladan (weighing of the Emperor with coins)
(d) The Islamic thinking that it was a Hindu custom and a sort of superstition.
academic
curriculum, Moreover, weighing the Emperor in gold caused a significant economic loss to
known as the treasury. He also placed restrictions on the astrology and making of ‘panchang’.
, was But he was not very much successful in this effort, because many members of the
begun in his
reign.
royal household and many chiefs continued to act against this order.
Self-Instructional
120 Material
He also closed the brothels and gambling dens because Islam did not permit Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
them. This act was morally and socially right. He decorated the royal court in an
ordinary manner and the clerks were given mud-inkpots instead of silver ones. He
gave up wearing silken clothes and in the Diwan-i-Aam golden railing was replaced
by that of Lapiz Lazuli, which was inlaid with gold. NOTES
These measures of Aurangzeb were commendable from an economic point of
view. To decrease the state expenditure, he closed the government department
responsible for recording history. He ended the inscribing of ‘Kalma’ on the coins so
that it does not get dirty in exchange or it does not get trampled underfoot. He placed
restrictions on Nauroz because it was a festival of the Parsis and it had the support of
the Shias of Iran. He appointed Muhatasibs in all the provinces, whose main job was
to see whether people lived according to the Shariat or not. They had also to check the
people from indulging in liquor in public places. The Emperor had issued clear
instructions that officials were not to interfere in the personal life of the people but to
fully aid the government in raising the moral standards of the people. This encouraged
the trading profession among the Muslims and Aurangzeb made it tax-free but when
Muslim traders started indulging in dishonesty and started carrying the goods of the
Hindu traders as their own, then this tax was reimposed on them. But still they had to
pay only half the tax as compared to the Hindu traders. We can call it a discriminatory
decision which proved to be dangerous for the Empire and he had to revise this decision
very soon because of the opposition of the chiefs and the lack of able Muslims for the
post. He also issued instructions to put an end to the practice of Sati. In fact, Aurangzeb
took a commendable step in stopping this inhuman practice.
In view of the above-mentioned activities and measures of Aurangzeb, we
cannot call him fanatic because these measures were inspired by different motives.
Many of these measures were undertaken by Aurangzeb to fulfil his political and
economic motives. Aurangzeb knew that in the Mughal Court there were a large
number of members who were influenced deeply by Islam. Yadunath Sarkar has
pointed out the fact that Aurangzeb wanted to present himself as a strict Sunni and
thus wanted to diminish the marks of his cruel treatment towards Shah Jahan. But
whatever may have been his motives, it would have to be conceded that many of his
measures were not in accordance with the liberal religious policy started by Akbar.
Anti-Hindu steps and activities
Now we will turn our attention towards the measures which Aurangzeb took against
non-Muslims and for which he is described by many historians as intolerant and
fanatic. It is said that he destroyed many Hindu temples, did not give permission for
repairing the old temples and placed restrictions on the building of new temples.
Some modern historians defend Aurangzeb against the charge of fanaticism and hold
that the Firman issued by Aurangzeb to the brahmins of Banaras and Brindabana
clearly show that he neither desecrated the old temples nor prohibited the repair of old
temples. But even these historians agree that he did not give permission for the
construction of new temples.
According to them, Aurangzeb caused old temples to be destroyed to give
warning and punishment to the elements which were against him. He considered the
religious places of the Hindus to be a means for propaganda against him. In fact,
Aurangzeb did not issue any specific instructions for destructing the temples; temples
were destroyed only in times of war. Some of the temples that were destroyed during
Self-Instructional
Material 121
Foundation of the his time were the temples in Thatta, Multan and Banaras in AD 1669 and in Udaipur
Mughal Empire-II
and Jodhpur in AD 1679-1680. Though we have very few instances of Aurangzeb
giving grants to the Hindu temples, but often, he adopted a hostile attitude towards
temple building.
NOTES
Jaziya
In AD 1679, Aurangzeb revived Jaziya, the trade tax imposed on the Hindus. According
to contemporary historians, he imposed it to oppress the Hindus. Some modern
historians are of the opinion that Aurangzeb imposed this tax after considering its
pros and cons. He spent much time in taking this decision—in fact, he introduced this
tax only in his twenty-second year of rule under pressure from staunch Muslim chiefs.
Italian traveller Manuchi wrote that ‘Aurangzeb wanted to improve his economic
condition by means of the imposition of jaziya’. In fact, Manuchi’s view does not
appear to be correct. Some scholars hold that he imposed this tax to attract the Hindus
towards Islam. But like that of Manuchi, even this view does not appear to have been
effective because the economic burden of this tax was very light. Moreover, it was
not imposed on children, women and handicapped and even on the poor and the
government servants.
The truth is that Aurangzeb imposed jaziya due to both – political as well as
principle reasons. According to Satish Chandra, ‘His real motive was to organize the
Muslims against the Marathas and the Rajputs, who were bent upon starting a war.’
The money collected by jaziya was given to Ulemas, as most of them were unemployed.
But whatever might have been the reason for the imposition of Jaizya, it proved to be
more harmful than beneficial. This tax was responsible for spreading discontent among
a majority of Hindus because they considered it a discriminatory practice by the
government, against themselves. Besides, the Hindus who came to pay the tax had to
suffer humiliations at the hands of the Ulemas.
Removing the Hindus from the government posts
Another charge levelled at Aurangzeb was that he removed the Hindus from
government posts. But recent research proves that this charge was false because
during the later part of Aurangzeb’s reign the number of the Hindus who were at
government posts was more than in the time of Shah Jahan. It is said that whereas the
Hindus enjoyed 25 per cent of posts under Shah Jahan, the number had increased to
33 per cent by the time of Aurangzeb.
Restriction on the festivals of the Hindus
Some scholars hold that Aurangzeb imposed a restriction on the celebration of the
Hindu festivals like Holi, Diwali, and Dussehra in the cities. This charge appears to
be true to a certain extent but it will have to be conceded that Aurangzeb could not
enforce this restriction on all the cities and towns of the Empire and it was restricted
to the areas in the neighbourhood of the royal palace.
Anti-Shia measures
Aurangzeb not only adopted anti-Hindu religious policy, but an anti-Shia policy as
well. In this context, two charges are levied on Aurangzeb that are worth mentioning.
He removed the Shias from the government posts and annexed two Shia states of the
Deccan—Bijapur and Golkunda to the Mughal Empire. But recent studies disprove
Self-Instructional
122 Material
both the charges. The historians who refuse the charges hold that many important Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
Shia officials like Zulfikar Khan, Asad Khan and Mir Jumla enjoyed special favours
from Aurangzeb. He followed only the traditional expansionist policy against Bijapur
and Golkunda. He wanted their annexation to the Mughal Empire so that they are
prevented from giving support to the rise of the Maratha power in the Deccan. NOTES
Consequences of the Religious Policy of Aurangzeb
Some scholars hold that Aurangzeb tried to bring about a transformation in the nature
of state through his religious policy, but could not do so because he knew that in India
the majority was Hindus and they were loyal to their religion. Though Aurangzeb did
emphasize on Islam for his political motives, as he himself was a staunch Muslim, he
wanted to enforce Sharia but his main aim was the extension and consolidation of his
empire. Historians are of the opinion that the religious policy of Aurangzeb neither
aided in the extension nor in the consolidation of the empire because it led to many
revolts against him. Besides, most of the revolts against him such as that of the Jats,
Sikhs, and Marathas occurred due to his religious fanaticism. Some scholars hold
that the fanatic policy of Aurangzeb accelerated the process of decline and disintegration
of the Mughal Empire. Because of this policy, very often, he had to adopt contradictory
steps which ultimately proved injurious to the Empire.
Achievements of Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb had made some remarkable achievements, both before and during his
reign. Like all his Mughal predecesors, Aurangzeb’s main aim was to expand his
kingdom as far as possible. A notable conquest, where everyone before him had failed,
was the conquest of Bijapur and Golconda, which were Maratha strongholds against
the Mughal Empire. From the day that he became the emperor, till the day he died,
Aurangzeb single-mindedly pursued his aim of expansion. To this end only, he built
up a strong and massive army as well. He managed to push the northwest boundaries
of Punjab upto Afghanistan, as we know it now and in the south, up till Bijapur and
Golconda.
Conquests of Aurangzeb in the East
The initial conquests made by Aurangzeb after coming to the throne were in eastern
India. While Aurangzeb had been fighting his brothers for the throne, the Ghinud
rulers of Cooch Behar and Assam took advantage of the distraction and launched an
attack on Mughal territory. In AD 1660, Aurangzeb ordered a counter-attack, and as
a result, Mir Jumla went to Dhaka and took control of Cooch Behar after just a few
weeks of struggle. Assam was next and the rule of Assam was made to sign a degrading
treaty of surrender. This was a tribute to the Mughal military power as they also
managed to conquer some nearby forts and towns close to borders of Bengal.
Aurangzeb also conquered Chittagong, which had been under the control of the Arakan
pirates who had made the entire area unsafe. Chittagong was given the name, Islamabad
later on and turned out to be an integral part of the Mughal Empire. Conquering
erstwhile East Pakistan was also a big achievement for Aurangzeb. Area east of the
Brahmaputra River had been isolated from the subcontinent for long because of its
geographical location, typical weather, topography, and native population. The area
was finally annexed by Aurangzeb and added to the Mughal Empire.
Self-Instructional
Material 123
Foundation of the Conquests of Aurangzeb in the Northwest
Mughal Empire-II
Soon after settling the troubles of the eastern parts, Aurangzeb had to contend with
unrest in the north-west frontier region. Bhaku, a Yusafzai leader, raised a rebellion in
NOTES AD1667. Aurangzeb succeeded in suppressing this rebellion for some time. Later in
AD 1672, trouble broke out again when large numbers of people from different tribes
formed groups and staged an uprising against the ruler. When the governor of Kabul
failed to suppress the rebellion, Aurangzeb vowed to handle the problem. Finally,
with a combination of aggression and negotiation, he was able to regain control of the
region and restore peace. All this trouble apart, Aurangzeb could affect a transformation
in the erstwhile bitter relations between the Mughals and Afghanis and establish order
in the region.
Aurangzeb and the Sikhs
Aurangzeb and the Sikhs were constantly engaged in a struggled. In reality, it was the
Sikh community that finally played a big part in the downfall of the Mughal rule. As
was his nature, Aurangzeb was ruthless with the rebellious Sikhs. Surprising to note
now, the Sikhs and the Mughals had shared a cordial relationship initially. When
Guru Nanak propounded the tenets of Sikhism and it became a religion, it was seen
by Mughal rulers to be a potential bridge between Hinduism and Islam. Akbar had, in
fact, made a visit to the third Sikh Guru and had gifted him the land where the Golden
Temple was later built. But with time, conflicts started among the Sikhs and Mughal
noblemen. This first happened during Jahangir’s reign following which the Sikhs
started organizing armies which had only Sikh cadres. The ninth Guru, Guru Tegh
Bahadur, was markedly aggressive and incited his followers against the Mughals.
Aurangzeb later got him killed in Delhi. The Sikh trouble was so pronounced that
Hindu Rajas of the Punjab were intimidated by Sikh military strength and begged
Aurangzeb to help them. Aurangzeb sent forces that defeated the Guru at Anandpur.
Aurangzeb and the Marathas
During the entire period of his reign, Aurangzeb sent out many Mughal generals to
usurp the power of Shivaji. All his generals—Shayista Khan, Dilir Khan and Mirza
Raja Jai Singh as well as his own son, Prince Muazzam failed in their attempts to
overpower Shivaji. In the numerous conflicts that occurred between the two forces,
Shivaji emerged successful to the indignation of Aurangzeb.
Later, the atrocities unleashed against Muslims of Burhanpur by Shivaji’s son
Shambhuji was the last straw of patience for Aurangzeb, who then took things into
his own hands. In the third week of march, AD 1682, he reached Aurangabad in his
attempt to conquer the Deccan, and the last 25 years of his life were spent in that part
of the subcontinent. Bijapur and Golconda which often gave shelter to the Maratha
raiders were finally annexed in AD1686 and AD1687, respectively and Shambhuji
was captured and executed in AD1689. Even though the Mughals had many successes
to their credit, they were all temporary.
Following the death of Aurangzeb, the Marathas became a major factor in the
downfall of the Mughal Empire. Thus the achievements of Aurangzeb have been
quite a few and rather remarkable. His constant policy of expansion, even though it
cost him many lives and an enormous amount of money from the treasury, led to a
widening of the boundaries of the Mughal Empire and the quelling of long-drawn out
issues of contention.
Self-Instructional
124 Material
Revolt of Jats during Aurangzeb Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
Revolts of the Jats during the reign of Aurangzeb took place under the leadership of
Gokul in AD 1669. The Jats organized the first revolt of the Hindus against Aurangzeb
in AD1669. The local Muslim officer at Mathura, Abdul Nabi destroyed the temples NOTES
of the Hindus and disrespected their women. In the year AD1661, Abdul Nabi
destroyed a Hindu temple and raised a mosque on its ruins. The Jats under their
leader Gokul revolted against the oppression in AD1669, killed Abdul Nabi and looted
the Tehsil of Sadabai. In AD1670, the temple of Keshav Rai was destroyed on the
orders of Aurangzeb. It further inflamed the Hindus and Gokul could collect 20,000
followers and he defeated a few small Muslim forces which were sent against him.
He was, however, defeated and killed at the Battle of Tilpat. The Jats were punished
severely. But, the Jats remained undaunted. In AD 1686, they again raised the standard
of revolt under their leader Raja Ram who gave serious trouble to the Mughals for
many years, defeated a few Mughal officers and attacked even Agra. Raja Ram was,
however, defeated and killed in AD1688. Following the death of Raja Ram, Churaman,
his nephew led the Jats. This revolt of the Jats continued till the death of Aurangzeb
and, ultimately, the Jats succeeded in establishing their independent kingdom with its
capital at Bharatpur.
4.3 DECLINE OF THE MUGHALS

The great Mughal Empire was so much more extensive and strong as compared to
other empires of its time that they could easily be jealous of it. It was founded by
Babur, consolidated by Akbar, prospered under Jahangir and Shah Jahan and attained
its zenith at the time of Aurangzeb. But immediately after Aurangzeb’s death, began
that process of disintegration and decline which led to its being limited to areas in the
vicinity of Delhi by AD 1750. In AD 1803, the English army occupied Delhi and the Check Your Progress
great Mughal Empire became a mere pensioner of the English East India Company.
The factors responsible for its disintegration and decline were as follows: with the
(i) Lack of a definite law of succession: The Mughal Emperors never made any appropriate words.
attempt to fix any definite law of succession. Therefore, generally the Mughal (a) The earliest
Emperor had to deal with the revolt of the rebel princes even during their own conquests of
Aurangzeb were
lifetime. Humayun had to witness the hostility of his brothers, Akbar the revolt in the
of Salim and Jahangir had to face the revolts of his sons. Similarly, after parts of
Aurangzeb’s death, his sons fought the battle for succession. Struggles like the Empire.
this encouraged indiscipline among the Mughal Empire and its prestige suffered. (b) In 1660, on
Aurangzeb’s
(ii) Incapable successors of Aurangzeb: After Aurangzeb’s death, his son orders, Mir
Bahadur Shah ascended the throne at the age of sixty-five. Soon after he had to Jumla marched to
face stiff opposition because of his Rajput policy but he realized the mistake of Dhaka and
occupied .
following an anti-Rajput policy and entered into an agreement with them. But
(c) Chittagong was
this agreement was not a liberal one. He did not give any high mansab to the
later renamed
Rajputs. Towards the Maratha chief also he adopted a policy of superficial as _.
friendship only. He gave them the right of sardeshmukhi in the Deccan but did (d) Gokul the Jat
not give them the right of chauth. Therefore, he could not satisfy them leader was
completely. He did not recognize Sahu as the rightful leader. The civil war in defeated and
killed in the
the Maratha region continued and disorder continued in the Deccan.
Battle of .
Self-Instructional
Material 125
Foundation of the He committed another serious mistake by adopting a harsh policy towards the
Mughal Empire-II
Sikh leader, Banda Bahadur, after the death of Guru Gobind Singh. The Sikhs
continued their struggle against the Mughals which led to Mughal Empire
suffering a heavy loss. Bahadur Shah further deteriorated the financial condition
NOTES of the Empire by blindly distributing jagirs in order to make the amirs happy
and by giving the officials promotions. In the war of succession that followed
Bahadur Shah’s death, the incapable Jahandar Shah emerged victorious. He
became a puppet in the hands of his minister, Zulfikar Ali Khan. He adopted a
policy of friendship towards other sects but continued the old policy of repression
towards Banda Bahadur and the Sikhs. He encouraged the persecution of the
peasants by reviving the zamindari policy of farming and revenue. To free
himself from the clutches of his powerful minister, he adopted a policy of
indulging in intrigues against him instead of dismissing him directly. This policy
of his was just like digging the grave of the Mughal Empire. After his death, his
successor Farukhsiyar remained a mere puppet in the hands of the Sayyed
brothers, Abdulla Khan and Hussain Ali Khan. Because of growing influence
the powerful clique of the amirs started intriguing against them and the court
became a ground of parties and politics. After him, Muhammad Shah became
the Emperor. Though he could have given a new direction to the Mughal Empire
in the long thirty years of his reign but he spent most of his time in mere luxury.
It was during his time that the rulers of Bengal, Hyderabad, Oudh, Punjab
became independent and the disintegration of the Mughal Empire got
accelerated.
(iii) Moral decline of the amirs, cliques and selfishness: Selfish and degraded
nobles also contributed towards the decline of the Mughal Empire. After
Aurangzeb the character of the nobles continued to decline. They became
pleasure loving, luxury loving and spendthrifts. Their selfishness and lack of
loyalty towards the Empire led to corruption in the administration and mutual
dissension. In order to increase their income, influence and prestige they made
cliques against each other and even against the Emperor. Their mutual quarrels
made the Empire powerless and therefore it fell an easy prey to the foreign
invaders.
(iv) Crisis of jagirs: One of the causes of the decline of Mughal Empire was the
increasing number of amirs. Increases in their expenditure lead to a scarcity of
the jagirs and a fall in the income from the jagirs. The nobles started making
efforts to earn maximum income from their jagirs, which increased the burden
on the peasants. This affected the popularity of the Mughal Empire. They started
reclaiming the Khalsa land in order to get over the crisis of jagirdari system.
This aggravated the financial crisis of the central government. Because of the
paucity of jagirs, the nobles decreased their army (so that they could lessen
their economic burden), which led to a further weakness in the military power
of the Mughal Empire.
(v) A bad financial situation in the royal treasury: One of the causes of the
downfall of the Mughal Empire was its worsening financial position. It worsened
as a result of many factors. Bahadur Shah distributed jagirs blindly, promoted
officials without any reason, abolished the jaziya, pilgrimage taxes, gave right
of sardeshmukhi to the Marathas, Jahandar Shah and his successors gave costly
gifts and jagirs to please the mansabdars and amirs and gave to the Marathas
the right of extracting the chauth. This was further worsened because of the
Self-Instructional
126 Material
invasions of Nadir Shah and loose administrative control. The worsening of the Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
financial condition made it impossible for the Mughal Emperor to fulfil the
minimum requirements of his people. The conditions of the peasants worsened
from day to day. The government gave no attention to the growth of agriculture,
trade and industries. NOTES
(vi) Military weakness: After Aurangzeb, there was a continuous indiscipline in
the Mughal army and a fall in their fighting morale. Because of the paucity of
money, it became impossible to keep a big standing army. The Mughal emperors
were unable to give salaries to their army and army officials for months on end.
The majority in the army was that of the mercenaries who were always dissatisfied
and it was very easy for them to rise in revolt. In the time of Aurangzeb and even after
him no attention was given to the importance of the navy. The Mughals first gave no
attention to the scientific, technical and new military inventions. Later on, the weak
Mughal army could not face the foreign invaders and the European Navy.
Foreign Invaders
The final blow to the Mughal Empire was given by the continuous foreign invasions.
In AD 1730, the Persian Emperor, Nadir Shah severely defeated the Mughal army in
Kerala. Massacre went on in Delhi, wealth was plundered and women were molested.
The Mughal Emperor and his army could not stop him. After him in AD 1761, Ahmad
Shah Abdali defeated the guardian of the Mughal Empire viz., the Marathas badly in
the Third Battle of Panipat. Because of these foreign invasions the Mughal Empire
was made destitute. Trade and industries also came to a standstill in northern India.
The Mughal Empire which was already breathing its last was dealt another blow in
AD 1764 by the Battle of Buxur in the time of Shah Alam. Gradually, the sphere of
the Mughal Empire shrank and that of the East India Company increased.
In AD1803 Delhi came under the English occupation and the Mughal Emperor
was rendered a mere prisoner and they continued to be like that till AD 1857. The last
of the Mughal Emperors Bahadur Shah Zafar had to die as a mere prisoner in Rangoon
in AD 1862 as a British prisoner.
Aurangzeb and the Decline of Mughal Empire
The process of the disintegration of the Mughal Empire had begun in the time of
Aurangzeb itself. Aurangzeb was very despotic and harsh because of his suspicious
nature. The stability and unity of the Mughal Empire suffered a blow because of his
rigid and despotic rule. In the words of famous historian Irwin, it was imperative for
the Mughal Empire, which was based on military strength, to disintegrate ultimately.
Aurangzeb wanted to keep more and more power in his hands. Because he had ill-
treated his father and killed all his brothers so he was always suspicious that his sons
might behave with him in the same manner.
Rajput Policy of Aurangzeb
The policy adopted by Aurangzeb towards Marwar after Jaswant Singh’s death also
proved to be another factor that resulted in the disintegration and decline of the Mughal
Empire. Because of his folly he incurred the hostility of both the rivals in Marwar
between whom he divided the Mughal Empire. The Rajput guiding principles of
Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb were stern and he attempted to destroy the supremacy
of the Rajputs and annex their kingdoms. Rajput policies adopted by Aurangzeb were
strict and stern. Aurangzeb upturned the guiding principle which was enunciated by
Self-Instructional
Material 127
Foundation of the Akbar and pursued by Jahangir and Shah Jahan. The Rajputs were the greatest obstacle
Mughal Empire-II
in his pursuance of the religious policy against the Hindus. Aurangzeb, consequently,
attempted to destroy the supremacy of the Rajputs and annex their kingdoms. There
were three significant Rajput monarchs at that time—Raja Jaswant Singh of Marwar,
NOTES Rana Raj Singh of Mewar and Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur. All the three were at peace
with the Mughals when Aurangzeb ascended the throne, despite the fact that Aurangzeb
never believed in the loyalty of these Rajput rulers.
Aurangzeb deputed Raja Jai Singh in the Deccan in AD1666. Following his
death, Raja Jaswant Singh was deputed to defend the north-western frontier of the
Kingdom. Two of his sons died fighting against the Afghan rebels and he himself died
in Afghanistan in AD1678. Aurangzeb was waiting for this opportunity. At that time,
there was no successor to the throne of Marwar. He occupied Marwar without delay
and, with a view to disgrace the Rajput family, sold the throne of Jaswant Singh for
36 lakhs. It seemed that the Rajputs had lost Marwar forever. But, a son was born to
one of the wives of Rana Jaswant Singh. Durga Das, the commander-in-chief of the
Rathors came to Delhi with the prince Ajit Singh and requested Aurangzeb to hand
over Marwar to Maharaja Ajit Singh. Aurangzeb refused to do so; following which
Ajit Singh was declared the ruler of Marwar by the Rajputs, who then announced
their war of independence.
Rana Raj Singh of Mewar, who realized that it was in the interest of Mewar to
fight against the Mughals, gave support to Marwar. In AD1681, Akbar, the son of
Aurangzeb revolted against his father with the support of the Rajputs. The revolt of
Akbar failed and he fled to Maharashtra under the protection of Durga Das. Aurangzeb
offered peace to Mewar and it was accepted. The Rathors of Marwar, however,
continued their fight against the Mughals. Pursuing his son Akbar, Aurangzeb left for
Deccan and could never come back from there. Marwar fought against the Mughals
till the death of the Emperor in AD 1707; even though they had agreed to maintain
peace twice in between and finally succeeded in gaining its independence.
Thus, Aurangzeb failed to suppress both Mewar and Marwar. The outcome of
this policy was that he lost the support of the Rajputs. Their services could no more
be utilized in strengthening the Mughal realm. On the contrary, it added to the troubles
of the territory. It encouraged other revolts also. Thus, the Rajput guiding principle of
Aurangzeb failed and its failure contributed to the failure of Aurangzeb and resulted
in the weakening of the Mughal Empire.
According to most historians, because of his Rajput policy the Mughal Empire
was engaged in a prolonged struggle with Marwar and Mewar which gave a financial
and military blow to the Mughal Empire, besides tarnishing its prestige as well. Many
historians hold that if Aurangzeb had adopted a friendly attitude towards the Rajputs
as followed by Akbar, he could have appointed Rajputs in big numbers in the Deccan
and a more successful struggle could have been waged against the Marathas.
Immediately after Aurangzeb’s death, when his successors gave up Aurangzeb’s policy
of hostility towards the Rajputs to save the Mughal Empire, the problem of Rajputs
came to an end.
Religious Policy of Aurangzeb
Most historians hold that a great blow was given to the stability of the Mughal Empire
by the religious orthodoxy and opposition to the non-Muslims followed by Aurangzeb.
During the time of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan, the Mughal Empire was basically
Self-Instructional
128 Material
a secular state. All those great emperors had opened the doors of the highest military Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
and civil offices for the Muslims and the non-Muslims equally. During their reign
jaziya was not imposed. Within a few years of his accession, however, Aurangzeb
ended that secular nature of the empire by re-imposing jaziya, desecrating temples
and statues and imposing pilgrimage tax upon the Hindus. Because of this fanatic NOTES
religious policy, the Hindus drifted away from the Mughals. The Mughal Empire
started disintegrating as the people of higher classes and high officials drifted away
from each other on the basis of religion. Though Aurangzeb’s successors tried to
consolidate the Mughal Empire by abandoning his orthodox policy, they did not succeed
in reviving it.
Sikh Policy of Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb committed a serious blunder in not extending a hand of friendship towards
the Sikhs. He imprisoned and forced the ninth Guru of the Sikhs to embrace Islam.
On refusing to comply, he got him murdered. After the assassination of their Guru,
the attitude of the Sikhs became all the more hostile towards the Mughals. Guru
Teghabadur’s son and the tenth Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Gobind Singh organized the
Sikhs into a military power. He got two of Guru Gobind Sing’s sons buried alive and
killed two more. Guru Gobind Singh kept the Khalsa engaged in a fight against the
Mughal Empire throughout his life. Because of this struggle the Mughal Empire had
to suffer tremendous military and financial loss and advanced towards disintegration.
Deccan Policy of Aurangzeb
Inspired by his anti-Shia attitude, Aurangzeb tried to annex the two Shia states of the
Deccan—Golkunda and Bijapur—completely to the Mughal Empire. He might have
satisfied his imperialistic ambition by annexing the two states, but later on it proved
to be a terrible mistake. Both these states gave financial and military aid to the Marathas
against the Mughals. By weakening these two states, he indirectly helped the rise of
the Marathas because now there was nobody in the Deccan to impose a check on their
activities. Aurangzeb spent about 26 years of his reign in the Deccan to suppress the
three big powers of the Deccan. This gave an opportunity to the Rajputs, Sikhs, and
Jats to flourish in the North and the administrative machinery became inefficient in
his absence.
The constant wars in the Deccan led to the Mughal Empire suffering tremendous
financial and military losses which affected adversely the trade industries as well as
the agriculture. The Mughal administrative machinery started breaking up following
the extension of the Empire to Golkunda, Bijapur and Karnataka. Now, the Mughal
Empire was subjected to direct attacks by the Marathas which made it difficult for the
Mughal officials to raise revenue also.
Maratha Policy of Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb could not understand the real nature of the Maratha Empire and he
disregarded Jai Singh’s advice to make friendship with Shivaji. He could have
strengthened the Mughal Empire by cultivating friendship with the rising Maratha
power under Shivaji’s leadership; instead, he showcased his lack of farsightedness by
insulting Shivaji at his Agra Court. One of his other serious mistakes was to assassinate
Sambhaji. This left no effective Maratha leader on the scene with whom Aurangzeb
could enter into an agreement. He thought that after the annexation of Golkunda and
Bijapur by him, Marathas would beg for mercy and they would be left with no other
alternative, but to accept the terms and conditions imposed by him. But those very Self-Instructional
Material 129
Foundation of the Marathas whom he used to call hill rats and dacoits proved an important factor in the
Mughal Empire-II
disintegration of the Mughal Empire. Though by AD 1703 Aurangzeb had virtually
entered into an agreement with the Marathas, but till the end of his life he remained
suspicious towards Sahuji and other Maratha leaders. Therefore, he could not save
NOTES the Mughal Empire from their terrible attacks. He accorded mansabs also to the
Marathas, but he never assigned to them any post of responsibility or trust. It was
because of the Maratha policy of Aurangzeb that Marathas could never become an
integral part of Mughal political system.
4.4 SUMMARY
 Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar was born to Hamida Banu Begum in AD 1542
in Amarkot.
 On 19 February 1556, Akbar was declared the Emperor at Kalanaur when he
was just thirteen years of age. The initial difficulties that Akbar faced during
his accession were that he was a minor, he had only a small kingdom, he faced
problems from Sikandar Suri, and other Afghan chiefs. Akbar gradually
overcame all these difficulties through his own good fortune and the guidance
Check Your Progress and loyalty of Bairam Khan.
10. Fill in the blanks  Akbar conquered the whole of northern India, the Deccan, and Gwalior in
with the central India. Akbar faced a major challenge from Rana Pratap who refused to
appropriate word.
accept his sovereignty and the historic Battle of Haldi Ghati was fought between
(a) Aurangzeb being them.
a ruler
wanted to keep  Akbar’s policy towards the non-Muslims was one of toleration. He soon
all power under abandoned the rigid, cruel and hostile policy followed by the Delhi Sultans and
him.
the early Mughal emperors towards the Hindus.
(b) The policy
adopted by  Akbar found the so called order or religion Din-i-Illahi to give a common
Aurangzeb platform to the Hindus and Muslims.
towards after
Jaswant Singh’s  Jahangir was born on 20 September AD1569 and ascended the throne a week
death also proved after the death of his father Akbar.
to be another
factor that  Revolt of Prince Khusrav, the eldest son of Jahangir, resulted from his desire of
resulted in the becoming the emperor after his grandfather Akbar.
decline of the
Mughal Empire.
 Nur Jahan, the wife of Jahangir, was the daughter of Mirza Ghiyas Beg who
belonged to a noble family of Tehran.
(c) Aurangzeb tried
to annex the two  The revolt of Shah Jahan resulted largely because of the towering political
Shia states of the ambition of Nur Jahan and her conspiracy to prevent Shah Jahan from becoming
Deccan
and the Emperor after Jahangir.
completely to the  Shah Jahan was an accomplished and skilled ruler, who had ascended the throne
Mughal Empire.
after the death of his father Jahangir in AD 1628. Shah Jahan contributed
(d) Aurangzeb spent extensively towards fortifying and enlarging the Mughal kingdom.
about
years of his reign  During Shah Jagan’s reign some of the most impressive Mughal structures
in the Deccan to were erected upon Indian soil. These include the Diwan-i-am, the black marble
suppress the
three big powers exhibition area of the Shalimar Gardens in Srinagar, the Jama Masjid, the Moti
of the Deccan. Masjid and the tomb of Jahangir in Lahore. The most famous of all is the
Self-Instructional
130 Material
legendary Taj Mahal at Agra built as a tomb for his wife, Empress Mumtaz Foundation of the
Mughal Empire-II
Mahal.
 Aurangzeb succeeded to the throne as Mughal Emperor in AD1658, after
disposing off his brothers and all other enemies.
NOTES
 Even though Aurangzeb was an extremely able administrator, his religious
intolerance and fanaticism created unrest among his subjects and led to the
gradual undoing of the Mughal Empire.
 Soon after he began his reign, Aurangzeb introduced numerous reforms to
cleanse the Muslim society. As part of this cleansing programme, he appointed
many officials who kept a strict watch and punished the offenders. Moreover,
Aurangzeb who belonged to the Sunni sect of Islam, went about persecuting
the Shia Muslims, and earned their wrath also.
 Aurangzeb earned much acclaim for the annexation of Bijapur and Golconda
which had remained elusive during the reigns of his predecessors.
 Various factors have been accounted for the downfall of the Mughal Empire,
which reached its zenith during the reign of Aurangzeb. Of all these factors,
the most important was the various harsh policies which Aurangzeb adopted
towards the ‘Islamization’ of his Empire.
 His reversal of the Rajput policy practiced by his ancestors distanced the Rajputs
from him; the Rajputs later formed a confederacy and revolted against him.
 Aurangzeb failed to assess correctly the power of the Maratha chief, who
troubled him throughout his reign. The Deccan invasion undertaken by
Aurangzeb resulted in the financial depletion of the Mughal Empire.
4.5 KEY TERMS

 Ibadat Khana: House of worship where Akbar encouraged religious debates
 Firman: A royal mandate or decree issued by a sovereign in certain historical
Islamic states, including the Ottoman Empire, Mughal Empire and Iran
 Jaziya: Per capita tax levied on a section of an Islamic state’s non-Muslim
citizens, who meet certain criteria
 Doab: The flat alluvial tract between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers in western
and southwestern Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand
 Mansabdar: The generic term for the military-type grading of all imperial
officials of the Mughal Empire. The mansabdars governed the empire and
commanded its armies in the emperor’s name. The term is derived from mansab,
meaning ‘rank’
 Sati: A religious funeral practice among some Indian communities in which a
recently widowed woman either voluntarily or by use of force and coercion
would have immolated herself on her husband’s funeral pyre
 Ulemas: Educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields
of Islamic studies. They are best known as the arbiters of Islamic law
 Shariah: Code of law derived from the Quran and from the teachings and
examples of Mohammed; Sharia is only applicable to Muslims
Self-Instructional
Material 131
Foundation of the  Dar-ul- Islam: An Islamic term for the Muslim regions of the world under the
Mughal Empire-II
system of divisions of the world in Islam
 Dar-ul-harb: ‘Abode of War’. A land ruled by infidels that might, through
war, become the ‘Abode of Islam’, dar-ul-Islam
NOTES
1. (a) Adil Shah; (b) Punjab, Delhi; (c) Bairam Khan
2. (a) Firman (b) Jizya; (c) Nine jewels; (d) The unification of India
3. (a) True; (b)True; (c) True; (d) False
4. (a) Mirza Ghiyas Beg; (b) Badshah Begum
5. (a) True; (b) True
6. (a) Red sandstone, Marble; (b) Lahore; (c) AD 1633
7. (a) True; (b) False; (c) True
8. (a) Alamgir; (b) Narcotics; (c) Gokul; (d) Dars-i-Nizamiya
9. (a) Eastern; (b) Cooch Behar; (c) Islamabad; (d) Tilpat
10. (a) Despotic; (b) Marwar; (c) Golkunda, Bijapur; (d) Twenty-six
1. Assess the character and personality of Akbar.
2. Describe the imperialist policy introduced by Akbar.
3. Describe the events that led to the Second Battle of Panipat.
4. Describe the early career and accession of Jahangir.
5. Describe briefly the war of succession after Shah Jahan.
6. Summarize the various achievements of Aurangzeb.
7. Explain the religious policy of Aurangzeb, with special reference to the revolt
by Jats.
8. Analyse the relation of Aurangzeb with the Sikhs.
1. Highlight the features of Din-i-Illahi.
2. Analyse the features of the religious policy adopted by Akbar.
3. What was the influence of Nur Jahan in state administration? Elaborate.
4. Discuss the early life and accession of Shah Jahan.
5. Discuss the early career and accession of Aurangzeb.
6. Analyse the factors that led to the decline and disintegration of the Mughal
Empire.
Self-Instructional
132 Material
Foundation of the
4.8 FURTHER READING Mughal Empire-II
1982. NOTES
Nizami, K.A.; Studies in Medieval Indian History and Culture, Kitab Mahal,
New Delhi, 1966.
New Delhi, 1917.
Sarkar, Jadunath; Fall of the Mughal Empire (Volume 5), Orient Longman,
New Delhi, 1992.
 The ascension and falls of the major Mughal rulers, including Akbar,
Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb
 The decline of the Mughal rule in India
Self-Instructional
Material 133
Rise and Rule of the
Bahmanis
UNIT 5 RISE AND RULE OF THE

BAHMANIS NOTES
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Unit Objectives
5.2 Vijaynagar Empire
5.3 Expansion and Disintegration of Bahmanis
5.4 Summary
5.5 Key Terms
5.8 Further Reading
5.0 INTRODUCTION
During the last years of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign (AD 1324–1351), disorder
spread in most of the areas of his empire because of his misguided policies, and many
regions declared their independence. The Hindus of South India also did not deter
from taking advantage of the situation. They founded the Vijaynagar empire in AD
1336 under the leadership of Harihar and Bukka, two of the five brothers viz., Harihar,
Kampa I, Bukka I, Marappa and Madhuappa. According to the inscriptions of the
later kings, they were the sons of Chandravanshi Sangam of the Yadav family.
In this unit, you will learn about the Vijaynagar Empire and the rise and fall of
the Bahmani kingdom.
5.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the rise of the Vijaynagar Empire
 Explain the rise and fall of the Bahmani kingdom
5.2 VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE

The two brothers, Harihar and Bukka, were both in the service of Pratap Rudra II, of
the Warrangal kingdom. When Gayasuddin Tughlaq conquered Warrangal in AD
1323 they came away to Kampli. In AD 1325 a cousin of Muhammad Tughlaq named
Bahauddin Gurshasp revolted against him in Sagar and the Sultan himself suppressed
the rebellion. Bahauddin sought refuge with the ruler of Kampili to his empire. Among
the six officials whom Muhammad Tughlaq took as captives to Delhi were these two
brothers also who either voluntarily or forcibly embraced Islam and became the
favorites of the Sultan.
In AD 1327-1328, a chain of revolts started against Muhammad Tughlaq in
Bidar, Daulatabad, Gulberga, Madura, Telengana and Kampili. Muhammad Tughlaq
dispatched Harihar and Bukka to Kampili in the South so that they should quell the
Self-Instructional
Material 135
Rise and Rule of the rebellious Hindus and take over the reins of administration from the Governor of that
Bahmanis
place viz. Malik Muhammad. What transpired in South after the departure of these
two brothers is not at all clear because of mutual contradictory accounts of Muslim
historians and traditional stories of the Hindus.
NOTES Still both sources agree on one point; that soon after the two brothers gave up
Islamic religion they founded the Vijaynagar Empire. They founded this kingdom in
Kampili (modern Karnataka state), under the influence of a saint, Vidyaranya, to
immortalize their father’s memory and declared themselves independent of the control
of Muhammad Tughlaq. This empire was ruled by three successive dynasties between
AD 1336 and AD 1565 viz., Sangam Dynasty, (AD 1336-1485), Saluva Dynasty
(AD 1485-1506) and Tuluva Dynasty (AD 1506-1565). Out of these three, the first
two dynasties were contemporaneous with the united Bahmani Kingdom and the
third was the contemporary of the five Muslim kingdoms viz., Bidar, Berar, Bijapur,
Ahmednagar and Golkunda which arose on the decline of the Bahamni Empire.
Following is a brief account of the rise and fall of the Vijaynagar Empire or a brief
political description of its rulers:
Sangam Dynasty (1336–1485)
(i) Harihar I (AD 1336–1353): After laying the foundation of the Vijaynagar
Empire in collaboration with his brother Bukka, Harihar first of all forced the
area of Gutti and neighbourhood to acknowledge his suzerainty on the southern
bank of the river Tungabhadra at a place called Anegandi. They established the
two cities of Vijaynagar and Vijaynagar. On the 18 April, 1336 Harihar
accomplished his coronation ceremony according to Hindu rites. With the help
of his brother Bukka, Harihar started extension of his empire rapidly. In AD
1346 Ballal, the last Hoysala king was killed in a campaign against the Kingdom
of Madura. Taking advantage of this situation, Harihar annexed the Hoysala
kingdom to the Vijaynagar Empire.
Before his death, Harihar extended his kingdom along the sea coast east to
west in the areas, in the north to river Krishna and the river Kaveri in the South.
In the reign of Harihar I, the first struggle against the Bahmani empire
(established in AD 1346) took place when he established his control over the
fort of Raichur situated between the river Krishna and Tungabhadra. Harihar
compensated to some extent the loss of Raichur fort by attacking the Kingdom
of Madura in AD 1356 and achieving success in acquiring certain areas from
Madura. Harihar I not only extended his kingdom but also prepared an outline
of its administrative system. Following the Kakatiya ideal he organized his
kingdom into Sathals and Nadus and appointed Brahmin officials to run the
administration. He also paid attention to the progress of agriculture.
(ii) Bukka I (AD 1353–1377): According to some scholars, Bukka I had become
joint ruler with his brother as early as AD 1346 and had his capital at Gutti but
after his brother Harihar’s death in AD 1353, he succeeded him as the sole heir
and ruled till AD 1377. He sent his ambassador to establish diplomatic relations
with China.
He was mostly engaged in conflict with the Bahmani Sultans, Muhammad I
and Mujahid which resulted in great ruin of Vijaynagar. During his time there
were three conflicts between Vijaynagar and the Bahmani Empire (AD 1360,
1365 and 1367). The main cause of the conflict was the ambition of both the
Self-Instructional
136 Material
kingdoms to establish their control over Raichur Doab. Being situated in the Rise and Rule of the
Bahmanis
midst of rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra, this area was very fertile. But Bukka
was not successful in this campaign and he could not regain the Raichur Doab
which was lost during the time of Harihar. When Muhammad II ascended the
throne of Gulbarga in AD 1378, the conflict between these two states came to NOTES
a halt because the new Bahmani Sultan was peace-loving. In the reign of Bukka
I, his son Kampan achieved success in defeating the sultan of Madura. He
forced the northern and southern Arcot to acknowledge the suzerainty of the
Vijaynagar Empire.
According to a Sanskrit poem named ‘Madura Vijayam’ written by Kaman’s
wife Ganga Devi, he achieved his success between AD 1365 and 1370.
Bukka I died in AD 1377. He was a great warrior, statesman and a lover of
knowledge. Following a tolerant and liberal policy, he established a feeling of
unity between the followers of Jainism and Vaishnav sects. Undoubtedly, he
could not recover the Raichur area from the Bahmani empire but they did not
lose any area of their empire either.
He got many old temples repaired and with the help of many Hindu scholars
got literary works composed on religion, philosophy and law chief amongst
which is the commentary on the Vedas written by Sayanacharya. Praising the
strength and prosperity of the Vijaynagar empire during his time, Farishta writes
that the Bahmani rulers maintained their superiority on the basis of their bravery
whereas the rulers of Vijaynagar far excelled them in strength, wealth and
extent of the empire.
(iii) Harihar II (1377–1404): After Bukka I his son Harihar II ascended the throne
and he ruled for 27 years (AD 1377–1404) and consolidated the power of
Vijaynagar empire in the whole of South India. He assumed the titles of
Maharajadhiraj and Rajparmeshwar. He was a great warrior and conqueror.
He established his control over the areas of Canara, Mysore, Kanchi, Trichnapalli
and Chingliput etc. In AD 1398. his son Bukka Rai II invaded the Bahmani
kingdom for establishing his control over the Raichur Doab. The Bahmani
ruler Firozshah defeated him. In 1399 a peace treaty was concluded in which
the ruler of Vijaynagar had to pay a big indemnity. Harihar II died in August
1404 and his death was followed by a war for succession amongst his sons. In
this struggle, his third son Devrai I succeeded ultimately. During the period of
struggle at first Virupaksha became the ruler from whom the throne was snatched
by Bukka II after only a few months and he ruled for two years (AD 1405-
1406). He was followed by Devrai I on the 5 November, AD 1406.
(iv) Devrai I (AD 1406–1422): During his reign Devrai I came into conflict with
the Bahmani Sultan Firozshah. Two causes are attributed to this conflict.
According to one description, it was caused by the firm ambition of Firozshah
to carry on a Jihad (religious war) against Vijaynagar whereas according to
Farishta the blind love of Devrai for a beautiful daughter of a farmer of Mudgal
was the cause of this conflict. Whatever be the case, Firoz initially suffered a
defeat in the ensuing conflict but later on Devrai was defeated and according to
the terms of the treaty he had to marry his daughter to Firozshah and surrender
the fort of Bankapur.
On the other hand, the Reddis of Kondavidu invaded Vijaynagar and took away
Udaigiri which Vijaynagar kings could only reconquer in AD 1413. During
Self-Instructional
Material 137
Rise and Rule of the peace time, Devrai gave attention to the construction works. He constructed a
Bahmanis
dam on the river Tungabhadra and diverted canals from there to get away with
the water scarcity in the city. The canals were used to irrigate the neighbouring
fields as well. He also built a dam on the river Haridra. For irrigation purposes
NOTES these canals added about 3½ lacs to the royal revenue. It was during the time of
this ruler that the Italian traveler Nicolo Conti came to Vijaynagar and he has
given a vivid description of the city. During Devrai’s reign, ample grants were
given to the temples and the priests. After the death of Devrai (AD 1422) for a
few months his son Ramchandra ascended the throne followed by his second
son Vir Vijay Rai. Various guesses are made about the reign period of this
ruler.
According to Nilkantha Shastri, his reign roughly covered the period from AD
1422-1426. Probably he suffered defeat at the hands of the Bahmani ruler
Ahmadshah and had to give an enormous sum as the war indemnity.
(v) Devrai II (AD 1426–1446): Vijay Rai was followed by his son Devrai II on
the throne in AD 1426. In AD 1428 he conquered and annexed the Kingdom of
Kondavidu. Then he launched an attack on the Gajpati kingdom of Orissa
because after the integration of Knodavidu kingdom with Vijaynagar, a struggle
ensued amongst their feudatories. But the struggle between Vijaynagar and
Orissa was not prolonged because of the intervention of Allaureddi of Rajmundri
and a compromise was reached. Later on, Devrai defended the Reddi kingdom
from the Kalinga invading army. Devrai invaded and annexed the Kerala
Kingdom to the Vijaynagar Empire.
Devrai II was not only a great conqueror but was also a great organizer, and a
patron of art and literature. To recognize his army he not only recruited the
Muslims in it but also added to the number of horses in it and arranged for
training in archery. According to Farishta, he recruited about 2,000 Muslims in
his army and gave Jagirs to them. These Muslim soldiers trained the Hindus in
the art of archery but some historians do not accept this statement of Farishta
on the excuse that on the basis of historical sources, it is proved beyond doubt
that there were about 10,000 Muslim soldiers in the army of Devrai. He also
imported horses from Arab countries in very large number. Undauntedly, the
efforts of Devrai II resulted in an improvement in the army but at the same time
burdening the state economy though Devrai II extended his patronage to many
literates and poets as well. Famous Telugu poets Shrinath was the court poet of
Devrai II. It is said that he was showered with an immense quantity of gold
coins. Devrai II was probably a liberal from the religious point of view. He
gave full freedom to the Muslims to construct mosques in his kingdom. His
reign saw the sojourn of the famous Persian poet Abdurrazaq to Vijaynagar.
He had greatly praised Vijaynagar and Devrai II. This great ruler died in mid
AD 1446.
(vi) Mallikarjun or Devrai the elder (AD 1446–1466): After the death of Devrai
II, at first Vijayrai II ascended the throne, followed soon in May, 1447 by his
own son in AD 1447, Mallikarjun who is also called Devrai the elder. During
his reign period, the decline of Vijaynagar Empire started. He was unable to
check the invasions of the Gajpatis of Orissa and the Bahmani Sultans and had
to sign on humiliating treaties. Dissensions and disorder became rampant
Self-Instructional
138 Material
everywhere in the kingdom. Probably, he died in July, AD 1465 and Virupaksha Rise and Rule of the
Bahmanis
II became his successor. Howsoever incapable Devrai the elder might have
been from military point of view, he maintained the love of his predecessors
towards the Hindu culture. He gave grants to the Brahmins and the temples.
NOTES
(vii) Virupaksha II (AD 1465–1485): He is said to be the last ruler of the Sangam
Dynasty. He was a very luxury loving ruler and used to drink excessively.
During his time, both the internal revolts as well as foreign invasions were
accelerated.
A great part of the empire along with the regions of Goa, Damol and Chaol
went over to the Bahmani Empire. The greatest blow to his power was dealt at
the Eastern coast where his authority was reduced to being only a nominal
leader. But the powerful chieftain of Chandgiri named Narsinga Saluva also
rendered some valuable services to the Vijaynagar Empire. He started a
campaign against the Gajpatis of Orissa, occupied Udaipur, and suppressed
the Kapileshwar. He drove out the Orissians from the eastern Coast and himself
occupied the Godavari regions.
In AD 1485, the eldest son of Virupaksha II assassinated his father but seated
his younger brother Pachha Rao on the throne instead of ascending himself.
He, in turn, assassinated his elder brother and immersed himself in luxury. In
such a situation, Saluva Narsingh of Chandgiri attacked Vijaynagar, conquered
it and began the reign of the Saluva dynasty in Vijaynagar.
(viii) Saluva dynasty (AD 1486–1505): Saluva Narsingh (AD 1486–1492) founded
the second ruling dynasty of Vijaynagar in AD 1486. He ruled for six years. He
had to spend his time and energy in fighting against many feudatories and
bringing them under control. He achieved success against his integral enemies
but was defeated and captured by Gajpati Purshottam of Orissa. He had to
give over to Purshottam the fort of Udaigiri and the neighbouring region only
then he was released from the prison but achieved victory over Tulu region and
the port areas of Honavar, Battakul, Baknur and Mangalore so that he could
resume horse trade with the Arab countries. He died in AD 1491. The greatest
contribution of Saluva Narisingh is that he saved Vijaynagar from imminent
ruin and re-conquered the entire area lost by his preceding rulers of Vijaynagar.
(ix) Regent Narsa Nailk and Immadi Narsingh (AD 1493–1504): Saluva
Narisingh was followed on the throne by his eldest son, Immadi Narsingh. He
was a minor therefore, Commander Narsa Naik became his regent. Gradually,
however, he usurped the entire power. When the son came of age there was a
difference of opinion between the two whereupon the commander imprisoned
him in the fort of Penukonda. For the next 12 to 13 years Narsa Naik was the
real ruler of Vijaynagar. In April, AD 1493, he snatched many forts of Raichur
Doab from Kasim of Bidar. But due to the lack of discipline in the army, the
victory soon turned into defeat. Raichur and Mukdala were again lost. He,
however, waged a successful campaign against the rulers of Bijapur, Bidar,
Madura, Shrirangapattam etc. From the inscriptions of his successors, it is
proved that he forced the Chera, Chola and Gajpati rulers to accept the suzerainty
of the Vijaynagar Empire. In AD 1503 continued regent Narsa Naik died and
was followed by his son Vir Narsingh who was also a regent.
Self-Instructional
Material 139
Rise and Rule of the (x) Tuluva dynasty (AD 1505–1565), Vir Narsingh (AD 1505): According to
Bahmanis
some historians, Vir Narsingh founded the Tuluva dynasty in AD 1505. During
his time there were revolts everywhere. He suspected his step brother Krishna
of harbouring rebellious tendencies and ordered his Prime Minister Saluva
NOTES Tikka to take out his eyes who, however, freed Krishna, taking merey on his
tender age and befooled Vir Narsingh by showing him the eyes of a goat.
Probably, in AD 1505 Vir Narsingh died and his cousin brother Krishnaria
became the ruler of Vijaynagar thus founding the third ruling dynasty of
Vijaynagar in a real sense.
(xi) Krishnadev Rai (AD 1505–1529): Krishnadev Rai is supposed to be the real
founder of the third dynasty of Vijaynagar. He ascended the throne on 8th August,
AD 1505. He had to face many problems at the time of his accession. But,
gradually, he overcame all the difficulties and began an era of successes for
Vijaynagar again.
The rebellious feudal chieftain of Ummutur wanted to occupy a very large part of
Karnataka. The Gajpati rulers of Orissa had under their control the north-eastern
districts of Vijaynagar Empire and the ruler Prataprudra had assumed an attitude of
open hostility and aggression. Though the Bahmani kingdom had been divided into
five parts, yet there was a pressure from the side of the Bijapur state. The Portuguese
were fast assuming control over the Ocean trade.
Inspite of all these difficulties, Krishnadev Rai achieved some important
successes during the years of his reign which were as follows:
(a) In AD 1509, he defeated the ruler of Bihar, Sultan Mahmudshah, near Adoni.
He had attacked Vijaynagar seeing Krishnadev Rai surrounded by many
difficulties.
(b) In AD 1510, he suppressed the rebellious chieftain of Ummutur.
(c) In AD 1512, Krishnadev Rai started a campaign against Yusuf Adilshah of
Bijapur and took away the Raichur Doab from him.
Then he turned his attention towards Prataprudra Gajpatti of Orissa so that the eastern
parts of the empire should be snatched from him. He organized a separate campaign
to conquer each fort and arranged for the sending of confidential commanders to
organize their administration after their conquests. In AD 1514, he captured the fort
of Udaigiri and imprisoned the uncle and aunt of the ruler of Orissa. His inscriptions
speak of his achieving success in conquering many small forts like Achhanaki,
Venukonda, Belankonda, and Nagarijunkonda etc. He also occupied the fort of
Kondavidu. He remained in his capital from AD 1516–1519.
The last victory of Krishnadev Rai was against the ruler of Bijapur, Khan Ismile
Adilshah. He tried to reconquer the area of Raichur Doab and dashed to the ground
the famous fort of Gulburga and thus the influence of Vijaynagar became supreme
over all the kingdoms of the South. But the results of these victories were that
Krishnadev himself became very adventurous and placed inciting conditions before
the rulers of the defeated kingdoms. He detained the emissary of Adilshah for about a
month in his own kingdom and sent a message at his hands that if Sultan Adilshah
came and prostrated himself before Krishnadev Rai and kissed his feet, only then
would return all his forts and other areas. The five Muslim kingdoms, which rose on
the disintegration of the Bahmani kingdom, gradually realized the growing power of
Self-Instructional
140 Material
Vijaynagar and a feeling of combining against Vijaynagar gained ground amongst Rise and Rule of the
Bahmanis
them. Krishnadev Rai died in about AD 1529.
Evaluation of the achievements of Krishnadev Rai
(a) As a conqueror: Krishnadev Rai was the best ruler of the third ruling dynasty NOTES
of Vijaynagar – the Tuluva dynasty, whose mention has been made by Babur in
his Tuzuk-i-Babari. Even the contemporary historians have praised his
personality, administration and able commandership. He defeated most of the
Muslim Kingdoms of the Deccan and avenged the defeat of his predecessors.
(b) As a ruler: Krishnadev Rai was as great a statesman, administrator and a
patron of art, as he was a conqueror. He was the all powerful ruler of his
kingdom. But for taking advantages from the decentralization of his empire, he
divided his empire into many parts and their administration was assigned to a
governor, who was usually the military commander. The provincial governors
sent annual tributes to the central government, maintained a regular army and
gave military help to the central government in case of need. He also took a
keen interest in the activities of public welfare. He gave equal respect to all the
sects of Hindu religion. He made good arrangements for providing trading
facilities at many ports.
(c) As a literate: Krishnadev Rai himself was a great scholar and a poet. He
wrote a poem ‘Amuktamalyada’ in Telugu. Many literary experts enjoyed
patronage in his court, chief amongst whom was the Telugu court poet Allasani
Peddana.
(d) As a patron of art: He was a great lover of art. He got a new Gopura tower
constructed and the Gopura of Virupaksha temple repaired. He got the
Krishnaswamy temple constructed and got the statue of infant Krishna installed
in it. He built the city of Nagpur. He got many ponds constructed for the irrigation
and water facilities. After his death, Vijaynagar Empire started disintegrating.
Achyutdev Rai (AD 1529–1542)
Before his death, Krishnadev Rai nominated his cousin (brother) Achyutdev Rai as
his successor because his own son was just eighteen months old and was incapable of
ascending the throne. But the son in law of Krishnadev Rai, Ram Rai did not like the
arrangement. He tried to proclaim the minor son of Krishnadev Rai as the rightful Check Your Progress
ruler but Achyutdev Rai, in order to advent the civil war, made Ram Rai a co-partner 1. Name the five
in the power. Seeing this internal dissension, all the enemies of Vijaynagar started brothers who
started the
attacking it. Prataprudra Gajpati of Orissa attacked Vijaynagar but they had to retreat. Vijaynagar Empire.
Ismail Adil of Bijapur occupied the forts of Raichur and Mudgal. Sultan Quli 2. Name the three
Qutubshah of Golkunda tried to occupy Kondavidu but even he had to return dynasties that were
disappointed because Achyutdev Rai himself led an army against Golkunda. part of the
Vijaynagar Empire.
In AD 1534, he re-conquered Raichur and Mudgal from Bijapur because an 3. Who was the last
internal conflict was going on there. (After the death of Ismail Adilshah there was a ruler of the Sangam
struggle for the throne between his son Mallu and Ibrahim. Taking advantage of the dynasty?
absence of Achyutdev Rai, Ram Rai appointed his nominees on some important posts 4. Who founded the
Saluva dynasty and
setting aside those of Achyutdev Rai). It is said that when Achyutudev Rai returned what was his
from the campaign of Bijapur, Ram Rai imprisoned him and proclaimed himself as greatest
the ruler. But seeing the disapproval of the public he nominally placed his nephew achievement?
(the nephew of Achyutdev Rai) Sadashiv Rai on the throne and ran the administration
Self-Instructional
Material 141
Rise and Rule of the in his name. Meanwhile, there was a rebellion in the far south and Ram Rai had to
Bahmanis
leave the capital to reach there. In his absence one of his close confidants betrayed
him, freed Achyutdev Rai from the prison and became his Chief Minister. But the
brother-in-law of Achyutdev Rai set all of them aside and he assumed the reign of
NOTES power. Hearing about these events, Ram Rai came back to Vijaynagar. Meanwhile
the Sultan of Bijapur, Ibrahim Adil Khan started a campaign against Vijaynagar and
dashed Nagpur to ground but due to good luck of Vijaynagar, the ruler of Ahmadnagar
attacked Bijapur and then the ruler of Bijapur himself tried to make Achyutrai and
Ram Rai friends and himself went back to Bijapur. According to the agreement between
the two, Achyutdev Rai became the ruler but Ram Rai was given the right to take any
decision in Gutti without any interferences. But Achyutdev Rai assigned many rights
to his brother-in-law, Tirumal which led to corruption in the Vijaynagar Empire and
people had to bear the burden of many taxes. Rebellious tendencies raised their head
against Vijaynagar in Madura, Jinji and Tanjavur and on the other hand the Portuguese
tried to establish their influence on both the sea coasts.
In AD 1542, Achyutdev Rai died. After him, his minor son, Venkata I was
made the ruler of Vijaynagar and his maternal uncle Tirumal became his regent. The
mother of the minor prince, Vardha Devi suspected the intention of her brother Tirumal
and asked help from Adilshah of Bijapur. Adilshah started towards Vijaynagar but
Tirumal bribed him and won him over to his side while he was on his way to Vijaynagar.
On the other hand Ram Rai freed the nephew of Sadashiv from the prison in Gutti and
proclaimed him as the ruler of Vijaynagar in agreement with Adilshah.
Sadashiv (AD 1542–1565)
Sadashiv remained on the throne from AD 1542 to 1565, though the actual power
remained in the hands of Ram Rai. Ram Rai was helped a great deal by his two
brothers Tirumal and Venkatadri. Ram Rai appointed his supporters on the highest
posts after dismissing the old loyal and faithful officials. He suppressed all his rivals
and established the control of Vijaynagar on Travankore and Mastsya. The conflict
between Vijaynagar and the Muslim states of Deccan started with the accession of
Sadashiv only. Ibrahim Adilshah of Bijapur, in collaboration with Burhan Nizamshah
of Ahmadnagar, attacked Vijaynagar and conquered a few areas of it. In this situation,
the rulers of Vijaynagar adopted a policy of interfering in the internal affairs of its
enemy Muslim kingdoms. By its diplomacy and strength Vijaynagar brought about
dissension amongst Bijapur and Ahmadnagar, won Burhan over to its side and with
his support defeated Ibrahim Adilshah successively in three conflicts. By AD 1552
Adilshah was suppressed completely. Vijaynagar established its control both over
Raichur and Mudgal. In AD 1553 after the death of Burhanshah, his son Hussain
Nizamshah became the Sultan of Ahmadnagar. He, in collaboration with Ibrahim
Qutubshah of Golkunda attacked Bijapur in AD 1555.
On the request of Bijapur, Ram Rai came to his side and forced the armies of
Ahmadnagar and Golkunda to retreat. In AD 1559 Ahmadnagar had to sign a
humiliating treaty. The ruler of Golkunda also had to surrender before Vijaynagar
because he also used to fight against Vijaynagar in league with the rulers of
Ahmadnagar. In this way, Vijaynagar became the supreme power of the Deccan by
AD 1560. For about twenty months Ram Rai kept his control over the Muslim rulers.
It would not be wrong to say that the military might of Vijaynagar kept under control
the three Muslim kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Golkunda and Bidar and kept Bijapur at
the mercy of Vijaynagar.
Self-Instructional
142 Material
Decline of Vijaynagar and the War of Rakshasa – Tangdi Rise and Rule of the
Bahmanis
The Muslim Kingdom of Deccan saw it clearly that Ram Rai was taking advantage of
their mutual dissensions. All of them got scared of the growing power of Vijaynagar
and decided to come together, forgetting their mutual differences. All the Muslim NOTES
states decided to enter into a confederation against Vijaynagar. Vijaynagar had inflicted
the greatest problems on Ibrahim Qutubshah and Hussain Nizamshah. Therefore,
they took the keenest interest in the formation of the confederation. Historians differ
widely on the causes of the formation of this confederation and the background of the
war of Rakshasa–Tangdi. Ferishta writes that the rulers of Vijaynagar had assaulted
the Muslim women, desecrated the mosques and disrespected the Holy Quran.
But no independent evidence corroborates this view. Hindu historians mention
that the five Muslim Sultans were in opposition to Ram Rai but Muslim historians
leave out the name of Berar from it. There is difference of opinion also on the question
as to which Muslim Sultans took the lead in forming the great confederation against
Vijaynagar. According to Ferishta this plan originated with Adilshah of Bijapur whereas
Shirazi attributes it to Husain Nizamshah of Ahmadnagar. Whatever be the case, the
actual cause of the formation of this confederation was that the power of Vijaynagar
had increased greatly and all the Muslim Sultans of the Deccan felt jealous of it. They
realized that they would not be able to rule peacefully unless and until the power of
Vijaynagar was suppressed. The haughty behavior of Ram Rai of Vijaynagar can also
be held responsible for this confederation and the ensuing war. Whatever be the causes
of the war, there is doubt in the fact that Ibrahim Qutubshah of Golkunda took solid
steps towards bringing together Ali Adilshah and Hussain Nizamshah who were
engaged in mutual conflict for the control over Sholapur. Ibrahim Qutubshah made
both the other rulers give up their mutual hostility for the common cause of defeating
Vijaynagar and consolidated their friendship by a matrimonial alliance. In accordance
with this agreement Hussain Nizamshah married his daughter Chand Bibi to Ali
Adilshah and gave Sholapur in dowry. The elder son of Hussain Nizam Shah named
Murtaza married the sister of Ali Adilshah. In AD 1559, Ibrahim Qutubshah of
Golkunda himself married the daughter of Hussain Nizamshah. Ali Bidarshah of
Bidar also joined the confederation when the formation of the confederation was
complete. He demanded of the ruler of Vijaynagar that he should return the forts of
Raichur, Mudgal etc. Ram Rai did not heed the demand.
Then the combined Muslim armies of the Deccan Sultans advanced towards
Vijaynagar (28 December, AD 1564) and encamped at Talikota. According to Ferishta,
this battle was fought at Talikota but the actual field of the battle was between the two
villages Rakshasa and Tangdi.
Therefore, historians refer to it not as the battle of Talikota but as the battle of
Rakshsa and Tangdi. Both the armies stood opposite each other for some time and the
actual battle started on 25 January, AD 1565. Initially, the armies of Muslim
confederation were defeated but later on the Muslim artillery wrought ruin in the
Vijaynagar army and its cavalry unsettled them completely.
In the time of this crisis the Muslim generals in the Vijaynagar army went over
to the side of their co-religionists along with their armies and dealt a fatal blow in the
midst of the battle. Ram Rai was surrounded. Hussain Nizamshah immediately
imprisoned and murdered him so that Ali Adilshah might not press for his release.
The victors entered Vijaynagar and encamped there for five months and perpetrated
massacre, plunder, desecration and destruction in such a manner that Vijaynagar whose
Self-Instructional
Material 143
Rise and Rule of the beauty was praised by all the foreign travellers alike was ruined to such an extent that
Bahmanis
its reconstruction was rendered impossible. The period of the glory of the Vijaynagar
Empire is said to have come to an end after this war.
Although the Vijaynagar Empire continued to shrink and lost its political
NOTES significance in South India, the next ruler Tirumal entered into a treaty with the Deccan
Sultans and gave them back all the regions that Ram Rai had snatched from them. It
is said that in AD 1568 Vincent II, the son of the actual ruler Tirumal Rai, who was
ruling in the name of nominal ruler Sadashiv Rai had made Penougonda his new
capital, and murdered the nominal ruler Sadashiv Rai. With this the third dynasty of
Vijaynagar came to an end and was replaced by the Aravidue dynasty. Chief rulers of
this dynasty were – Tirumal Rai (AD 1568-1572), Shir Ranga I (AD 1572-1585),
Venkata Rai Ii (AD 1586-1614), Shir Ranga II (AD 1614-1617), Ramdev Rai (AD
1618-1630), Venkata III (AD 1630-1642) and Shir Ranga III (AD 1642-1649). In
1649 this kingdom had to surrender itself before Bijapur and Shri Ranga III stayed on
in Mysore and died there only in AD 1672 dreaming of regaining his lost kingdom.
Causes of the Conflict between Vijaynagar and Bahmani Empires
The region of Raichur Doab

The most important cause of the conflict between the two empires was the region of
Raichur of Doab. Both the powers wanted to establish their hold over this fertile
region, situated between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra. This remained the single
most important cause of conflict in the reigns of Bukka Rai I, Harihar II etc.
Diamond mines
Some historians are of the opinion that there were diamond mines in the Golkunda
region of Bahmani Empire and the rulers of Vijaynagar wanted to make their empire
prosperous by establishing their hold over them.
Imperialist Ambition
Some scholars are of opinion that the rulers of both the Vijaynagar and the Behan
kingdoms were imperialist and ambitious. They wanted to extend their empire to
include the entire Deccan and therefore, the conflict went on between the two for
acquiring the new regions and sometimes to regain their lost territory.
Rewati Dwipa (Goa)
Some historians are of the opinion that the Kings of Vijaynagar wanted to occupy the
Revati Dwipa to augment their foreign trade and to acquire horses of superior breed
as this island was situated on the western coast of the Bahmani Empire’s boundary.
Growing Power of Vijaynagar
By AD 1560 Vijaynagar had come to occupy the highest position in southern India. It
had suppressed completely the power of the three Kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Golkunda
and Bidar and the existence of Bijapur was on the mercy of Vijaynagar. This growing
power of Vijaynagar terrorized the Muslim Sultanates of the Deccan and forgetting
their mutual differences, they decided to form a confederation and launch a struggle
against Vijaynagar.
Self-Instructional
144 Material
Hurting the religious sentiments of the Muslims by Vijaynagar Rise and Rule of the
Bahmanis
According to some scholars, Vijaynagar perpetrated many atrocities in its struggle
against Ahmadnagar (AD 1522) Many Muslim women had to suffer humiliation. The
Vijaynagar armies not only desecrated the mosque but also insulted the Holy Quran. NOTES
This led the Sultanates rising on the decline of Bahmani kingdom to come together in
a fight against Vijaynagar.
Haughtiness of Ram Rai
According to some historians, the abandonment by Ram Rai of the old defensive
policy followed by the Vijaynagar rulers and adaptation by him of a new strategy of
making the Muslim states fight against one another and his haughty behaviour towards
the Deccan Sultanates after his numerous victories was the major factor that led to the
ultimate fierce battle (Battle of Rakshasa Tangdi) between the five Muslim states
rising on the decline of the Bahmani Kingdom and the Vijaynagar empire.
Jealousy of the Power of Vijaynagar
In fact Bahmani and Vijaynagar empires were the patrons of two different cultures —
the Muslims and the Hindus, respectively. Both the empires followed expansionist
policies. Each considered the other a danger to its existence. When the Vijaynagar
Empire acquired a great deal of power by AD 1560 the Muslim Sultans grew jealous
of it. Because of the matrimonial alliances they drew near to each other and now
began to consider themselves powerful enough. Ali Adilshah then demanded the return
of the forts of Raichur, Mudgal and other forts which were not heeded by Ram Rai.
This led to the battle of Rakshasa–Tangdi.
ACTIVITY
Trace the family tree of Achyutdev Rai for at least four generations.
5.3 EXPANSION AND DISINTEGRATION OF

BAHMANIS
Bahmani Empire was founded by an ambitious Afghan, Alauddin Hasan in AD 1347.
He had gradually enhanced his power under a Brahamin named Gangu so he was
called Hasan Gangu. The Brahmin had treated him kindly and had professed that he
would be a Sultan one day.
According to Ferishta, it was due to his gratefulness to the Brahmin that Hasan
later on assumed the title Bahmani and after his accession he assumed the title of
Alauddin Hasan Bahmani Shah. But Ferishta’s opinion is not accepted these days. It Check Your Progress
is said that he considered himself to be a descendant of a semi-mythical Persian 5. Who ascended the
warrior called Bahaman Shah. Whatever may be the reason behind the assumption of throne after
Achyutdev Rai
this title, it is certain that because of this title his empire came to be called the Bahmani died?
Empire. The rise of this empire is attributed to the following factors: 6. What was the
consequence of the
Misguided policies of Muhammad Tughlaq Rakshasa-Tangdi
battle?
Because of the fantastic plans and defects of the character of Muhammad Tughlaq
there was a widespread feeling of revolt against him everywhere. Following his Self-Instructional
Material 145
Rise and Rule of the imperialist policies, he brought major parts of the Deccan under him and took many
Bahmanis
measures for the establishment of consolidated administration there. For every group
of hundred villages, he appointed officials called Amiran-i-Sadah, who were also
called ‘Sadi’. They were responsible for the collection of revenue and also kept the
NOTES local troops under control. Because of these powers, these officials became very
powerful and when revolts spread everywhere against Muhammad Tughlaq, these
Sadi Amirs also raised the banner of revolt in the western and the southern India,
taking advantage of the opportunity.
The revolt of the Sadis originated in Gujarat and in order to suppress it
Muhammad Tughlaq came to Bharoach and ordered the Governor of the Deccan
Amir-ul-Mulk to send all the Sadis under Amiran-i-Sadah of Daulatabad to Bharoach.
According to the historian Neelkanth Shastri, ‘Muhammad Tughlaq had summoned
all the Sadis of Daulabad because he suspected their honesty.’ He writes further that
many of the foreign officials of the revenue department of Daulatabad had been
unsuccessful in recognizing the amount which was expected of them.
According to the Sultan’s orders, the Governor of Daulatabad sent these hundred
Amirs to Bharoach under armed escorts.’ It is said that Muhammad Tughlaq had
caused hundreds of Amirs of Malwa to be murdered mercilessly before this. When
these Amirs learned this, they rose in revolt after the first day of their journey and
came back to Daulatabad. They held a secret conference and within the next three
days chose one Ismil Khan, the eldest among them as their leader. After defeating the
Governor of Muhammad Tughlaq in Daulatabad; Ismile khan declared himself as the
emperor of Deccan under the title of Nasiruddin Shah. He conferred the titles of
Amir-Ur-Umra and Zafar Khan on Hasan, the chief of the confederacy of Amirs. On
learning about this revolt, Muhammad Tughlaq himself came to Daulatabad from
Bharoach at the head of a vast army and imprisoned the rebels in the Daulatabad fort.
Some of the rebels, under the leadership of Hasan Gangu (Zafar Khan), including the
brother of Ismile Khan ran away from the fort and reached Gulburga. Soon they
encircled the Daulatabad fort where Amirani-Sadah and his army were imprisoned.
But before he could free the fort of the Daulatabad from the rebels, he got the news of
the revolts in Gujarat and had to go back to suppress them. Immediately Zafar Khan
and his supporters, who had already occupied Gulburga and Sagar made an effort to
free the fort of Daulatabad of the remaining army of Muhammad-Bin- Tughlaq. He
defeated the army of Muhammad Tughlaq very easily, murdered its commander and
forced the army to run away to Malwa.
Popularity of Zafar Khan
Zafar Khan soon became very popular amongst the Amirs and the army because of
his many achievements. Luck also favoured Zafar Khan. Ismail Shah abdicated power
in the favour of Zafar Khan. The army and the people at Daulatabad had welcomed
this decision of his. As a result Hasan Gangu alias Zafar Khan declared himself the
king on the 3rd of August, AD 1347 with the title of Abul Muzaffar Allauddin
Behmanshah and the empire established by him came to be called the Bahmani empire.
Rise and Extension of the Bahmani Empire
Allauddin Hasaan Bahmani (3 August, AD 1347–11 February, AD 1358)

He ruled for eleven years. He proved himself to be a great conqueror and a powerful
ruler. He adopted a policy of incessant conquests to extend his small kingdom. He
Self-Instructional
146 Material
built his capital at Gulburga and named it Ahsanabad and decorated it with beautiful Rise and Rule of the
Bahmanis
buildings. When he died on 11 February, 1358, his empire extended to river Ban
Ganga in the north, Krishna in the South, Daulatabad in the West to Bhorgir in the
East. For purposes of administration, he divided his empire into four parts and appointed
a Governor for each. Three of them were named after their famous cities as Galburga. NOTES
Daulatabad, Bidar and the fourth one was called Berar. According to Ferishta, the
cause of the success of the first Bahmani Sultan was his generosity. He wrote that on
being asked by someone as to the secret of his success, the Sultan said that it was
possible because of his mercy for everyone be it his friend or enemy and his policy of
goodwill towards the poor. According to Isami, he was the first Muslim ruler of India
who ordered that Jaziya should not be levied on the Hindus and allowed all agricultural
produce to be imported in his kingdom without any duties. If the statement of Isami is
true, it would have to be conceded that Hasan believed in a policy of secularism for
which he needs to be praised.
Muhammad I (11 February, AD 1358–21 April, AD 1375)
After the death of Allauddin Hassan Bahmanshah, his son Muhammad I ascended the
throne on 11 February, AD 1358. He was very industrious and an able administrator
and the administrative system started by him not only continued to be in the Bahmani
empire for a long time but it also influenced the administrative system of the kingdoms
arising on the ruins of the Bahmani empire. As you know, kept the entire Bahmani
kingdom divided into four provinces (Tarafs) – Daulatabad, Bidar, Berar and Gulburga.
He appointed four governors over them. But the title of each governor was different
e.g., the governor of Daulatabad was called Masnad-I-Ali, that of Berar Majlis-I-Ali,
that of Bidar Azam-I-Humayun and that of Gulburga Malik-I-Nayak. Out of the four
governors, the governor of Gulburage was supposed to be the most important. He
only wielded authority over Bijapur. He established a council of eight ministers along
with Vakil as Sultanate or Chief Peshwa and adopted the decentralization of the
administration. The other ministers of his period were Wazir-I-Kul (Minister for
Supervision), Amir-I-Jumla (Finance), Wazir-I-Ashraf (Foreign Affaris), Nazir
(Deputy Finance Minister), Peshwa (Deputy Prime-Minister), Kotwal and Sadar-I-
Jahan (Justice). He reorganized the bodyguard force and divided them into four military
departments. He took rigid measures to stop dacoits and thugs and murdered about
two hundred dacoits. He started the use of gunpowder (first of all) which brought
about a revolution in the military organization. Muhammad I was not only an able
administrator but also was a great conqueror. He fought many battles against Vijaynagar
and Telengana. He acquired Golkunda after defeating Telengana but his wars against
Vijaynagar failed to bring about any territorial gain for the Bahmani Empire. He died
in AD 1375. He got the world-famous mosque of Gulburga constructed.
Allauddin Majahid (21 April, AD 1375–16 April, AD 1378)

After Muhammad I’s death, his 19 year old son Mujahid ascended the throne. He
demanded from the Vijaynagar Empire some areas of Raichur Doab, but as was
expected the demand was refused and thereupon he invaded Vijaynagar but was
defeated. On 16 April 1378, his uncle Daud Khan murdered him and became the
Sultan.
Daud Khan (16 April, AD 1378–21 May, AD 1378)
The Amirs helped the sister of Mujahid to hatch a plot against the murderer Daud
Khan. He was murdered in Jama Masjid of Gulburga by a man named Bakka.
Self-Instructional
Material 147
Rise and Rule of the Muhammad Shah II (21 May, AD 1378–20 April, AD 1379)
Bahmanis
Muhammad Shah II was peace loving. He took special interest in religion and literature.
He invited poet Hafiz from Persia, who however could not reach because of a storm.
NOTES During the time of famine he liberally helped the people from the royal treasury but
he died of a fever in April, AD 1379.
Gayasuddin alias Tahamtan (4 April, AD 1379 – 14 June, AD 1397)
He became the Sultan at the age of 17. He appointed many Persians on important
posts which was not liked by staunch Sunnis and one of them, Tugalchin, blinded and
dethroned him. He placed on the throne his younger brother Shamsuddin Daud and
himself became his regent.
Shamsuddin Daud II (14 June, AD 1397–11 November AD 1397)
The daughters of Sultan Mahmood II were married to Firoz and Ahmad, the Sultan
had brought them up as his sons. Both the princesses inspired their husbands to avenge
the death of their brother. After some initial reverses, their husbands succeeded in
bringing Tugalchin and Malik Daud under their control in November, 1397.
Shamsuddin Daud II was forced to abdicate the throne. Now Firoz Tajuddin ascended
the throne as Tajuddin Firoz Shah.
Tajuddin Firoz Shah (11 November, AD 1397–22 September, AD 1422)
Tajuddin was a very healthy and an intelligent Sultan. According to Ferishta, he was
the blessed of the Sultans of Bahmani Kingdom. Initially, he was very liberal and
possessed high character but gradually his character declined. It is said that he appointed
the Brahmins on the high posts and earned his livelihood by selling the copies of Holy
Quran. He waged wars against Warrangals (Telangana), king Kherla and Harihar II
of Vijaynagar. He defeated Vijaynagar as well in AD 1398 and AD 1406 but was
himself defeated in AD 1420. He had to surrender the eastern and western forts of his
empire to Vijaynagar. This defeat had a very adverse effect on him and he had to
abdicate his throne in favour of his brother Ahmadshah.
Even though he suffered defeat ultimately in the battlefield, he patronized
literature and art during his reign. He patronized many foreign scholars in his court
and also took a keen interest in architecture and built a palace of Firozabad with four
vast doorways on the bank of the river Bhima.
Shihabuddin Admad II (22 September, AD 1422–14 July, AD 1436)
He is known in the Indian history as the first Sultan of the Bahmanis of Bidar because
he shifted his capital from Gulburga to Bidar immediately after his accession (on
1 November, AD 1422). According to the historians, he affected the transfer because
he wanted to get freedom from the intrigue-ridden atmosphere of Gulburga where
many royal murderers lived. According to another opinion, he shifted his capital because
of the healthy climate and fertile soil of Bidar.
According to a third opinion, Bidar was situated at the centre of the Bahmani
Empire that is why it was made the capital. He named Bidar as Muhammadabad. He
appointed Khalaf Hassan, who was instrumental in his acquisition of throne, as his
Wakil-Sultanate or Prime Minister. He waged a war against Vijaynagar to avenge the
defeat of his brother. He defeated the ruler of Vijaynagar on the battlefield, acquired
Self-Instructional
vast wealth and assassinated many people over there. In AD 1424 he attacked
148 Material
Telengana, occupied Warrangal and made it a part of the Bahmani Empire. In AD Rise and Rule of the
Bahmanis
1425 he invaded Mahur and murdered its king along with 6,000 of his supporters. In
AD 1429 he defeated the Sultan of Malwa named Hoshangshani but later suffered a
defeat at the hands of Ahmadshah Gujarati and was forced to sign a treaty. After his
defeat at Gujarat, the chiefs of Telengana made an unsuccessful bid for freedom. NOTES
During his reign jealousy increased between the two groups of Amirs viz., Deccanis
and Afaquis (Iranis, Arab and Turkish Amirs) Sultans sympathy towards the Afaquis
accelerated it all the more. He died in AD 1436.
Allauddin Ahmad II (14 July, AD 1436–4 March, AD 1458)
During his lifetime, the effect of the foreign Amirs increased. He sent his brother
Muhammad to ask the ruler of Vijaynagar named Devrai II to give him the pending
tribute before leading a military campaign against Vijaynagar. He was successful in
this effort but he became very vain as a result of this success and claimed equal share
with the Sultan in the Sultanate. But he was defeated. The Sultan however pardoned
him and made him the governor of Raichur Doab.
For the rest of his life he was loyal to his brother. In AD 1436 Allauddin Ahmad
II led a campaign against the ruler of Sangameshwar. He was successful there also
and the ruler of Sangameshwar had to marry his daughter to the Sultan. The Sultan of
Kandesh carried out invasions against Alauddin and got help from the Sultan of Gujarat
and the Rai of Gondwana. The Bahmani Commander of Berar was imprisoned in the
fort of Narnala and Nasir Khan got his name inscribed on the main mosque of the
province. During the time of this crisis the Afaqis or the foreign Amirs advised the
Sultan to fight against Nasir Khan with full preparations.
Their leader (Malik-ut Tuzzar Khalaf Hassan Basari) was successful as well
which led to an increase in the influence of foreign Amirs at the court and the decline
of the Deccani nobles.
Seeing the successes of the Bahmani Empire, the Rai of Vijaynagar affected a
reform in his army, recruited thousands of Muslims in his army and with their help
conquered the fort of Mudgal in Raichur Doab and also plundered Nusartabad, Sagar
and Bijapur. The Sultan once again carried out a successful campaign against
Vijaynagar and captured the fort of Mudgal and also claimed the revenue due.
Allauddin’s character became worse as age increased and he remained immersed in
pleasures. The Deccani nobles made a plan to effect an end to the foreign nobles. In
AD 1446–1447, Konkan was attacked and an army of Afaqis was sent under the
leadership of Khalaf Hassan. The ruler of Sangameshwar was also helping the Deccani
nobles in this intrigue. In this war, the Afaqis were defeated and their leader Khalaf
Hassan was killed along with his many associates. The remaining Amirs were charged
with treachery and the Deccani nobles made the Sultan murder them. It is said that
about 22,000 Afaqis were murdered on the occasion of a royal feast. The Deccan
established their control over their property but the Sultan repented heavily when he
came to know the truth through Qasim Beg and some foreign nobles and he also gave
death punishment to the Deccanis. He again started giving big offices to the Afaqis as
against the Deccanis. The brother-in-law of the Sultan, Jalal Khan, revolted in Golkunda
and declared himself the Sultan. To suppress this revolt, a foreign noble named
Mahmud Gawan was appointed. He suppressed the revolt successfully but the Sultan
pardoned the rebel Jalal Khan. The Sultan died from a deep wound on 4 March, AD
1458.
Self-Instructional
Material 149
Rise and Rule of the Humayun Shah (4 March, AD 1458–11 September, AD 1461)
Bahmanis
After the death of Allauddin Ahmad II his son, Humayun, who, being the eldest son
had already been appointed as heir apparent by his father, succeeded him on the
NOTES throne. He was a very severe natured man. He removed his younger brother Hassan
Khan and his supporters from his way before becoming the Sultan. He appointed
Mahmud Gawan as his Prime Minister. Because of his ability the Sultan succeeded in
suppressing three revolts against himself. He was assassinated by his own servants
while he was drunk on 11 September, AD 1461. People were jubilant over his death
because they were fed up with him on account of his cruel nature.
Ahmad Hassan and his Regency (11 September, AD 1461–30 July, AD
1463)
Humayun was followed by his eight years old son on the throne. The administrative
council formed during the reign of Humayun himself started running the administration.
It consisted of three members including the queen mother Makdoom-i-Jaha-Nargis
and Mahmud Gawan. The queen mother had the decisive power. The Hindu kings of
Telangana and Orissa and Mahmood I of Malwa launched an attack on the Bahmani
Kingdom. The Bahmani kingdom defeated Telangana and Orissa, but was defeated
by the armies of Malwa. Queen mother and her younger son Mahmud III were forced
to take refuge in the fort of Firozabad. Mahraud Gawan appealed to Mahmud Bigar
of Gujarat for help which was accepted by him and the army of Malwa was driven
back. On 30 July, AD 1463 Ahmad Hassan died and his younger brother Mahmud III
ascended the throne.
Shahabuddin Mahmud III and the Regency (13 July, AD 1463–22
March, AD 1482)
After the death of Ahmad Hassan (alias Nizamuddin III) his younger brother Mahmud
Khan ascended the throne assuming the title Muhammad III. He was only nine years
old therefore the Regency continued to run the administration even in his time. One
member of the regency, Khwaja Jahan, revolted and for this treachery the queen
mother punished him by having him hanged. Mahmud Gawan, who was devoting
great attention towards the education of Baby Sultan was given the title Amir-ul-
Umra and he was ordered to stay in the capital itself. When the Sultan was fi fteen
years of age, the queen mother left the politics and the Sultan began to rule under the
supervision of Mahmud Gawan. In the Prime Ministership of Mahmud Gawan the
Bahmani empire not only achieved cultural progress but for the first time it was
extended from the Koromandal Coast to the Arabian Sea Coast. In the reign of Mahmud
III in AD 1472 Bankapur was invaded, whose ruler Virkan surrendered. Next four-
five years were spent in struggle with Orissa in AD 1474-1475 because of the
misbehavior of the officials at Kondavidu.
The people there had risen in revolt and had murdered the Governor. After a
prolonged struggle the ruler Purushotam Gajpati was forced to surrender but, soon
after, in AD 1480-1481, the army posted at Kondavidu revolted and went over to the
side of Vijaynagar ruler Rai Narshingh. The Bahmani Sultan suppressed this revolt
and invaded Vijaynagar to teach the kingdom a lesson. Vijaynagar was defeated and
a major part of it was annexed to the Bahmani Empire. This was the last and the most
important achievement of Mahmud Gawan. The Deccanis plotted against him. To
Self-Instructional
150 Material
prove the charges framed by them, they got a plain paper stamped and on it a forged Rise and Rule of the
Bahmanis
letter was drafted in the name of Raja Purushotam on the behalf of Mahmud Gawan.
In it was written that the people were fed up with Sultan Muhammad because of his
cruelty and drunkenness and that he should invade the Bechamani kingdom. When
this letter was shown to the Bahmani Sultan he became very angry. Though Mahmud NOTES
Gawan repeatedly asserted that he had no concern whatsoever with that letter but
Sultan paid to heed to it and ordered his Abyssinian Slave Gulam Jouhar to slay the
Wazir at that very spot. It was done on 5 April, AD 1481. Thus was killed the only
adviser of the Bahmani empire who was honest and able. After Mahmud Gawan’s
death when the Sultan came to know about the plot of the Deccani nobles against
Gawan, he was deeply grieved and himself died within a year on 22 March, AD
1482.
The Successors of Mahmud III and the Decline of the Bahmani
Empire (AD 1482–1527)
Mahmud III was followed by his younger son Mahmud Shah as Sultan. He was very
incapable and pleasure loving. Since he was only twelve years of age, he made Nizam-
ul-mulk his Regent or Malik Naik. The struggle between the two sections of the
Amirs increased because of their selfish interests. It is said that on the incitement by
the Deccani nobles the Sultan issued the orders of the massacre of the Turks and
about 4000 people were done to death. After the domination of the Deccani nobles for
four years the Sultan made an unsuccessful attempt to get Nizam-ul-mulk assassinated
during the Telangana campaign so that he should be able to get out of their strangle
hold. He became inclined towards the African Group. On the other hand, the Governor
of Telangana revolted and there was revolt in Goa and Chakan as well which was
assisted by Amir Yusuf Adil, staying at Bijapur at that time. He had left the port of
Bidar in anger. Malik Hassan tried to capture the treasury for becoming the Sultan
himself. The Sultan thereupon ordered the Governor of Bidar Dilpasand Khan to
assassinate him. In November, 1487 the Deccani noble, in alliance with their African
counterpart, tried unsuccessfully to slay the Sultans. In AD 1490 Yusuf Adil Khan of
Bijapur and Fathulla Imadulmulk of Berar declared their independence in AD 1512.
Qutubul Mulk of Golkunda and Barid-Ul-Mulk of Bidar also declared themselves
independent as also like the Nizamulmulk of Ahmednagar. Sultan Mahmud III and
three of his immediate successors (who were only nominal Sultans) remained a puppet
in the hands of Barid Ul-Mulk of Bidar and after his death that of his son Amir Ali
Brid. The last Bahmani Sultan was Kalimulla Shah. In AD 1527 with his death ended
the Bahmani empire as well and on its ruins arose five independent kingdoms—
(1) Baridshashi Kingdom of Bidar, (2) Adilshashi Kingdom of Bijapur,
(3) Nizamshashi Kingdom of Ahmednagar, (4) Imadshahi Kingdom of Berar and
(5) Qutubshahi Kingdom of Golkunda.
Self-Instructional
Material 151
Rise and Rule of the Causes of the downfall of Bahmani Kingdom
Bahmanis
Many causes were responsible for the decline of the Bahmani Kingdom. Chief causes
amongst which were:
NOTES (i) Internal intrigues and Civil Wars: In its 175 years of reign the Bahmani
Dynasty had in all 17 Sultans; out of which five were assassinated, three deposed,
two blinded and two died of excessive drinking. It can be said, therefore, that
due to the lack of any definite rules of succession, incessant intrigue within the
royal household as well as among the highest officials caused monetary and
physical damage to it and contributed to the growth of indiscipline. During the
reign of Sultan Shahabuddin Mahmud, the Queen mother ordered Khan-i-Jahan
to be hanged.
(ii) Partisanship of the Deccanis (original inhabitants) and the Afaquis (foreign
settlers): Some historians say that the Bahmani Kingdom was founded by
those Amirs who had come and settled in India from Persia, Turkey etc. There
was a deep enmity between them and the original inhabitants. They wanted to
give the entire credit for every success to their party and put the blame for
every failure on the opposite group. In this party rivalry an able man like Mahmud
Gawan became a victim. He had served the Bahmani Kingdom for 35 years
but the party politics led to his assassination and within a short time of his
death, the Bahmani Kingdom disintegrated.
(iii) Religious fanaticism of some rulers: Some of the Bahmani rulers were
religious fanatics and they did not show real sympathy towards their Hindu
subjects. The Bahmani Sultans considered it their God given duty to propagate
Islamic culture in the Deccan. Since Muslims numbered less than the Hindus,
many a time they raised the slogan of Jihad (crusade) and the Muslim soldiers
lost their lives in large numbers in the ensuing warfare. Fanatic Sultans tried to
carry out a general massacre of the Hindus quite a numbers of times which
aroused the fanaticism of the Hindus as well and thus the Bahmani Empire
grew weak progressively.
(iv) Defective Foreign Policy: Bahmani Sultans followed a policy of warfare and
enmity towards all their neighbouring states like Malwa, Khandesh, Gujarat,
Telangana, Vijaynagar etc. Majority of the Sultans tried to win popularity by
their military achievements; very few of them utilized their time for the public
welfare activities. Their attitude weakened the Bahmani Kingdom.
(v) Excessive authority given to Provincial Governors: Ever since the time of
founders of the Bahmani Empire, the Governors of four major provinces (who
were called Tarafs) were given the right to collect revenue and maintain a big
army. The centre had no great control over them. Mahmud Gawan tried to
divide them into eight parts and tried to bring them under the greater control of
Check Your Progress the centre but the Sultans following him could not arrest their ambition and
7. Why was the soon after his death they started proclaiming themselves independent and the
Bahmani Empire central Government could do nothing against it.
given this name?
(vi) Financial Disparity: Some historians hold opinion that an important cause of
8. Why was Zafar
Khan popular? the downfall of the Bahmani Empire was financial disparity prevailing there. A
9. Who is considered Russian merchant Atansiuv Nikitn, who stayed in Bidar in AD 1470–1474
the blessed among wrote that the population of the empire was too much but the condition of the
the Bahmani rulers common man was miserable, whereas the Amirs were very rich and lived a
and why? luxurious life. Briefly then, the party groupings in the Bahmani court,
administrative defects and a protected struggle against Vijaynagar and other
Self-Instructional kingdoms contributed to its downfall.
152 Material
5.4 SUMMARY Bahmanis

 During the last years of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign (AD 1324–1351), NOTES
disorder spread in most of the areas of his empire because of his misguided
policies, and many regions declared their independence. The Hindus of South
India founded the Vijaynagar empire in AD 1336 under the leadership of Harihar
and Bukka.
 Soon after the two brothers gave up Islamic religion they founded the Vijaynagar
Empire. They founded this kingdom in Kampili (modern Karnataka state), under
the influence of a saint, Vidyaranya, to immortalize their father’s memory and
declared themselves independent of the control of Muhammad Tughlaq.
 The last victory of Krishnadev Rai was against the ruler of Bijapur, Khan Ismile
Adilshah. He tried to reconquer the area of Raichur Doab and dashed to the
ground the famous fort of Gulburga and thus the influence of Vijaynagar became
supreme over all the kingdoms of the South.
 Before his death, Krishnadev Rai nominated his cousin (brother) Achyutdev
Rai as his successor because his own son was just eighteen months old and
was incapable of ascending the throne.
 In the battle of Rakshasa-Tangdi, the Muslim generals in the Vijaynagar army
went over to the side of their co-religionists along with their armies and dealt a
fatal blow in the midst of the battle. Ram Rai was surrounded. Hussain
Nizamshah immediately imprisoned and murdered him.
 Bahmani Empire was founded by an ambitious Afghan, Alauddin Hasan in AD
1347. He had gradually enhanced his power under a Brahamin named Gangu
so he was called Hasan Gangu. The Brahmin had treated him kindly and had
professed that he would be a Sultan one day.
 In AD 1527 with his death ended the Bahmani empire as well and on its ruins
arose five independent kingdoms—(1) Baridshashi Kingdom of Bidar, (2)
Adilshashi Kingdom of Bijapur, (3) Nizamshashi Kingdom of Ahmednagar,
(4) Imadshahi Kingdom of Berar and (5) Qutubshahi Kingdom of Golkunda.
5.5 KEY TERMS

 Confederation: An organization which consists of a number of parties or groups
united in an alliance or league
 Suzerainty: Control a state over another state that is internally autonomous
 Contemporary: A person or thing living or existing at the same time as another

1. The five brothers were- Harihar, Kampa I, Bukka I, Marappa and Madhuappa.
2. The three dynasties were: Sangam Dynasty, (AD 1336-1485), Saluba Dynasty
(AD 1485-1506) and Tuluva Dynasty (AD 1506-1565).
3. Virupaksha II (AD 1465–1485)
4. Saluva Narsingh (AD 1486–1492) founded the second ruling dynasty of
Vijaynagar in AD 1486. The greatest contribution of Saluva Narisingh is that Self-Instructional
Material 153
Rise and Rule of the he saved Vijaynagar from an imminent ruin and re-conquered the entire area
Bahmanis
lost by his preceding rulers of Vijaynagar.
5. After him, his minor son, Venkata I was made the ruler of Vijaynagar and his
maternal uncle Tirumal became his regent.
NOTES 6. The victors entered Vijaynagar and encamped there for five months and
perpetrated massacre, plunder, desecration and destruction in such a manner
that Vijaynagar whose beauty was praised by all the foreign travellers alike
was ruined to such an extent that its reconstruction was rendered impossible.
The period of the glory of the Vijaynagar Empire is said to have come to an end
after this war.
7. Bahmani Empire was founded by an ambitious Afghan, Alauddin Hasan in AD
1347. It is said that he considered himself to be a descendant of a semi-mythical
Persian warrior called Bahaman Shah.
8. Zafar Khan soon became very popular amongst the Amirs and the army because
of his many achievements. Luck also favoured Zafar Khan. Ismail Shah
abdicated power in the favour of Zafar Khan.
9. According to Ferishta, Tajuddin Firoz Shah was the blessed of the Sultans of
Bahmani Kingdom. Even though he suffered defeat ultimately in the battlefield,
he patronized literature and art during his reign. He patronized many foreign
scholars in his court and also took a keen interest in architecture and built a
palace of Firozabad with four vast doorways on the bank of the river Bhima.
1. Who were the two most prominent kings of the Sangam dynasty? Write in
detail about both.
2. Write a short note on Sadashiv Rai.
3. How did the misguided policies of Muhammad Tughlaq contribute to the rise
of the Bahmani Empire?
4. Who was Achyutdev Rai? How was he overthrown?
1. List the achievements of Krishnadev Rai.
2. How did the Rakshasa-Tangdi battle figure in the downfall of the Vijaynagar
Empire?
3. Enumerate the causes of conflict between the Vijaynagar and Bahmani Empires.
4. Write in detail about the Bahmani kings who contributed to the expansion of
the Bahmani Empire.
5. What were the causes of the fall of the Bahmani kingdom?
Self-Instructional
154 Material
5.8 FURTHER READING Bahmanis
Basu, Shyama Prasad; Rise and Fall of Khilji Imperialism, U.N. Dhur and Sons,
Kolkata, 1963. NOTES
Islam, Misbah; Decline of Muslim States and Societies, Xlibris Corporation,
Philadelphia, 2008.
Mahajan, V.D.; History of Medieval India (Part I), S. Chand and Sons, New Delhi,
1991.
Farooqui, Salma Ahmed; A Comprehensive History of Medieval India, Pearson
Education India, New Delhi, 2001.
Jackson, Peter; The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History, Cambridge
University Press, London, 2003.
 The rise of the Vijaynagar Empire

 The rise and fall of the Bahmani kingdom
Self-Instructional
Material 155
The Rule of the Marathas
UNIT 6 THE RULE OF THE

MARATHAS NOTES
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Unit Objectives
6.2 Rise of Shivaji
6.3 Reign of Shambhuji
6.4 Fall of the Marathas
6.5 Summary
6.6 Key Terms
6.9 Further Reading
6.0 INTRODUCTION
The Mughal Empire which gave Indian history an era of splendid accomplishments
disintegrated with the irreparable mistakes of emperors like Aurangzeb.
At the time of the Mughal Empire, a powerful group emerged in the Deccan
known as the Marathas. They were great warriors. When the Bahmani Empire
collapsed, many Hindu kingdoms rose to high positions; Marathas were also among
them. They lived in the Deccan, in the region of present Maharashtra and north
Karnataka. Shivaji and Peshwa Baji Rao were the prominent Maratha rulers and they
challenged the supremacy of the Mughal Empire. But the Third Battle of Panipat
shattered the dream of the Marathas to establish their supremacy on the whole of
India and gave the opportunity to the East India Company to establish its rule in India.
In this unit, you will study about the historical background of the Marathas and
the causes and consequences of the Third Battle of Panipat.
6.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the rise of Shivaji as a ruler
 Describe the reign of Shambhuji
 Trace the events that led to the fall of the Marathas
6.2 RISE OF SHIVAJI

At the beginning of the 17th century, most parts of Maharashtra were under the
possession of Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar and Adil Shah of Bijapur. They took the
help of local Marathi speaking people to run their administration. They recruited a
large number of Maratha sardars and soldiers in their armies. The Mores, Ghatages,
Nimbalkars, Jadhavs, Gorpades, Sawants and Bhonsales were sardar families who
rose to fame during the 16th and 17th centuries. The Desphandes and Deshmukhs Self-Instructional
Material 157
The Rule of the Marathas traditionally performed the duty of collecting land revenue. They were granted tax-
free land in return for their services. Such a land grant was called watan.
The Bhonsle family of Pune district acquired military and political prominence
in the Ahmadnagar kingdom at the close of the 16th century. Shahji Bhonsle was the
NOTES major ruler of this clan and he was married to Jijabai. He sought his fortune under the
Sultan of Bijapur and had his jagir at Pune.
Shivaji was the son of Shahji Bhonsle. Shivaji was born in AD 1630 as the
second son of Shahji and Jijabai. The early life of Shivaji was led in great simplicity
and austerity, influenced by his mother’s beliefs. Dadaji Kondadev was entrusted
with the responsibility of being a guardian to Shivaji. He showed rather early signs of
rebellion in opposition to the Muslim rule as he was highly resentful of the inequality
that existed between the Mughal rulers and the Hindu subjects.
The early life of Shivaji was conditioned to a great extent by his mother, Jijabai.
When he was fourteen years old, his father entrusted the administration of the Pune
jagir to him. The peasants living in Shivaji’s jagir had grown tired of the despotic rule
of the watandars. Shivaji’s administration responded to the aspirations of the masses.
Shivaji realized that he could establish a welfare state for the benefit of his subjects
only by controlling the neighbouring forts and building new ones.
Shivaji showed his mettle at the young age of eighteen, when he overran a
number of hill forts near Pune–Rajgarh, Kondana and Torana in the years, AD 1645–
1647. Shivaji began his real career of conquest in AD1656, when he conquered Javli
from the Maratha chief, Chandra Rao More. The Mughal invasion of Bijapur in AD
1657 saved Shivaji from Bijapuri reprisal. In AD 1659, Bijapur, free from the Mughal
menace, sent in the army against Shivaji under Afzal Khan, whom he murdered
treacherously. In AD1660, the combined Mughal–Bijapuri campaign started against
Shivaji. In AD 1663, Shivaji made a surprise night attack on Pune, wounded Shaista
Khan (maternal uncle of Aurangzeb) and killed one of his sons. In AD1665, the
Purandhar Fort, at the centre of Shivaji’s territory was besieged by Jai Singh and a
treaty was signed between the two. Shivaji’s visit to Agra and his escape from detention
in AD 1666, proved to be the turning point of the Mughal relations with the Marathas.
The Treaty of Purandhar was signed in AD1665, according to which Shivaji
agreed to help the Mughals against Bijapur. Shivaji ceded 23 forts to the Mughals
and agreed to visit the royal court of Aurangzeb. Shivaji reached Agra in AD1666,
and was admitted in the Hall of Public Audience. The Emperor gave him a cold
reception by making him stand among the mansabdars. A humiliated and angry Shivaji
walked out of the court. He was put under house arrest, along with his son. However,
they tricked their guards and managed to escape in a basket of sweets which was to
be sent as a gift to the Brahmins.
Shivaji reached Maharashtra in September, AD1666. After consolidating his position
and reorganizing his administration, Shivaji renewed his war with the Mughals and
gradually recovered many of his forts. Shivaji declared himself the independent ruler
of the Maratha kingdom and was crowned Chattrapati in AD1674. Politically speaking,
two factors contributed to the rise of Maratha power under Shivaji. These were as
follows:
(i) The comparatively advantageous position of the Marathas under the Deccan
Sultanates
(ii) The threat to Bijapur and Golkonda from the annexationist policy of the Mughal
Empire
Self-Instructional
158 Material
The poets and writers of Maharashtra played a significant role in provoking and The Rule of the Marathas
sustaining the national spirit of the Marathas. Among the poets, special mention should
be made of the following:
 Jnaneswar and Namdev (13th and 14th centuries)
NOTES
 Eknath and Tukaram (15th and 16th centuries)
 Ramdas (17th century)
Apart from the above reasons, the Mughals’ control over the Deccan had weakened.
Also, the Marathas had worked out a revenue system by which they attained large
revenue and could maintain strong armies.
Shivaji’s coronation symbolized the rise of people to challenge the might of the
Mughals. By coronating himself king under the title Haindava Dharmodharak of the
new and independent state Hindavi Swarajya, Shivaji proclaimed to the world that he
was not just a rebel son of a sardar in Bijapur court, but equal to any other ruler in
India. Only a coronation could give Shivaji the legitimate right to collect revenue
from the land and levy tax on the people. This source of income was necessary to
sustain the treasury of the new kingdom.
Shivaji’s Relations with Aurangzeb
Shivaji’s relations with the Mughals may be discussed under the following heads:
1. Struggle against Shaista Khan
The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb became much worried upon seeing the growing
Maratha power in the Deccan. He ordered his maternal uncle Shaista Khan (who was
a newly appointed Mughal Subedar of Deccan) to invade Shivaji’s territory and the
Sultan of Bijapur was asked to cooperate with him. It is said that in accordance with
the instructions of Aurangzeb, the Sultan of Bijapur at first sent his General Siddi
Jauhar who besieged Shivaji in Panhala, but Shivaji managed to escape from there
and the fort of Panhala was occupied by the Bijapur army.
After this, the ruler of Bijapur thought that he could use the Marathas as a
shield in the struggle between the Mughals and Bijapur and he showed no interest in
taking further any action against Shivaji. It is said that he entered into a secret
understanding with Shivaji. On the other hand, the Mughal governor of the Deccan,
Shaista Khan occupied Pune in AD 1600 and made it his headquarters. Shivaji was
on the lookout for a suitable attack, his headquarters at Poona disguised as a marriage
procession. Shivaji’s army managed to kill one of Shaista Khan’s sons and one of his
generals and Shaista Khan himself was wounded badly.
Aurangzeb was so annoyed that he transferred Shaista Khan from the Deccan
to the Bengal and did not even see Shaista Khan at the time of proceeding of the
transfer as was the usual custom.
2. Plunder of Surat
The success in Poona against Shaista Khan greatly increased the morale of Shivaji
and the Maratha army. Immediately, he resorted to one more attacks and launched a
terrible attack on the Mughal port of Surat. From 16 – 20 January, 1664 he plundered
the rich city to his heart’s content. Shivaji got enormous wealth from this first plunder
of Surat City.
Self-Instructional
Material 159
The Rule of the Marathas 3. The campaigns of Muazzam and Jai Singh against Shivaji and the
Treaty of Purandar
The earlier-mentioned activities of Shivaji made the Mughal Emperor Aurangezeb
NOTES very worried. He sent a vast army against Shivaji under the leadership of his principal
advisor, Jai singh of Amer and his own son, Prince Muazzam Rai. Jai Singh was
given all the necessary military and administrative rights so that he did not have to
depend upon the Mughal Governor of Deccan. He was also ordered to keep in direct
contact with the Emperor himself. Jai Singh was an able and brave general and a far-
sighted politician. He did not commit a mistake like his predecessors in assessing the
military strength of Shivaji. He tried first to win over all the opponents of Marathas to
his side and also managed to win over the Sultan of Bijapur to his side, then, with full
military preparation attacked the main centre of Shivaji, viz. the fort of Purandar.
Shivaji’s treasury was there and he lived there, with his family. He besieged the fort
of Purandar and appointed an army to plunder and terrorize the Maratha regions. Not
seeing any help coming from anywhere, Shivaji thought it necessary to start negotiations
for peace because in the fort of Purandar, families of the amirs also lived and Shivaji
considered it his duty to protect their lives and honour. Shivaji met Jai Singh and
settled the peace terms. This treaty is famous in history as the Treaty of Purandar
(June 1665). The terms of this treaty were as follows:
(i) Shivaji had to surrender to the Mughals twenty-three of his thirty-five forts
yielding annual land revenue of 4 lakh Huns. Shivajji was left with just twelve
forts of one lack Huns of the annual land revenue.
(ii) Shivaji promised to remain loyal to the Mughal Emperor.
(iii) Shivaji’s hold over the Konkan region yielding 4 lakh Huns annually was allowed
to remain as before.
(iv) Besides some regions in Balaghat yielding 5 lakh Huns annually which Shivaji
had yet to conquer from Bijapur were allowed by Mughals to remain with him.
In return, Shivaji had given to the Mughals 40 lakh Huns in installments.
(v) Shivaji was granted the permission not to go personally to the Mughal court
but his son Sambhaji was granted a mansab of 5000.
(vi) Shivaji promised to help the Mughals against Bijapur.
As far as a critical assessment of the treaty of Purandar is concerned, it would have to
be conceded that the treaty represented a great political and diplomatic success of Jai
Singh against Shivaji. Within a short period of three months Jai Singh forced a rapidly
rising Maratha leader and the rising power of Marathas, to accept Mughal sovereignty.
With great cleverness he sowed the seeds of a conflict between Bijapur and Shivaji.
But the success of the treaty’s settlement depended on the extent to which the Mughals
helped Shivaji to conquer the regions of Bijapur to enable him to pay the instalment of
the war indemnity.
This plan could not come through. Aurangzeb was yet not assured about Shivaji
and viewed suspiciously any prospect of a combined attack by the Mughals and Shivaji
on Bijapur. Jai Singh wanted to take Shivaji to Agra so that he could enter into a
permanent settlement with him. According to Jai Singh, for the conquest of the Deccan,
friendship with Shivaji was essential for the Mughals. Shivaji was suspicious of
Aurangzeb and he did not agree to go to Agra till Jai Singh assured him completely
by putting the responsibility of his protection on his son Ram Singh. Probably, Shivaji
Self-Instructional
160 Material
also wanted to go to the north to view the situation there and prepare a group of his The Rule of the Marathas
supporters in the Mughal court. He also expected that by negotiating with Aurangzeb
he would get Mughal help to conquer Janzira islands and thus safeguard his western-
frontier. Jai Singh started on his first campaign against Bijapur in alliance with the
Marathas. But it was not successful. Shivaji was given the task of conquering the fort NOTES
of Panhala but even he did not succeed. Seeing his plans failing like this, Jai Singh
persuaded Shivaji to come to Agra and meet the emperor and Shivaji reached Agra in
AD 1666.
4. Shivaji in Mughal court and his successful escape from prison
Shivaji came to the Mughal Court on 12 May, AD 1666 along with his son Sambhaji
and 350 soldiers. Aurangzeb made him stand among ‘Panch Hazaris’ and did not
even talk to him. Shivaji was very annoyed. Aurangzeb made him and his son prisoners,
but after some time both effected their escape from the prison through a clever device
and in the guise of Sadhus reached Raigarh on 22 September, AD 1666. Aurangzeb
held his own carelessness responsible for this successful escape of Shivaji. After
reaching the Deccan, Shivaji was quiet for about two years. Actually, Aurangzeb did
not give much importance to the friendship with Shivaji because for him Shivaji was
no more than a petty Zamindar.
But subsequent events showed that this disregard of Shivaji and the Maratha
power by Aurangzeb proved very dangerous for the Mughals.
5. Second plunder of Surat, conquest of other Mughal territories
Shivaji started his second campaign against the Mughals in AD 1666–1670. Though
he had started his campaign against Bijapur a short while ago but he did not gain
anything from Bijapur so he started his campaign against the Mughals again. He
reconquered gradually all the 23 forts he had surrendered to the Mughals by the
treaty of Purandar. Shivaji plundered Surat the second time on 6 October, AD 1670.
In a plunder of three days he got about 66 lakh rupees.
According to J.N. Sarkar, ‘This plunder of Surat affected trade quite adversely
and the merchants of Surat stopped getting goods from the internal parts of the country.’
After this Shivaji attacked Barar, Badlana and Khandesh and conquered the forts of
Salher and Muler. So much was the terror of Marathas in the Deccan that they even
exacted chauth and sardeshmukhi from Mughal regions there. Chauth was one-fourth
of the revenue of a province effected as tribute by Marathas as a tax of their protection
against the Mughals and sardeshmukhi was an additional surcharge of one-tenth of
the land revenue. In return, the Marathas protected these regions from the external
attacks. Mughals were fighting the Afghans in the North-West at this time, therefore,
they could not pay much attention towards Shivaji. Shivaji renewed his struggle against
Bijapur also. Through bribery he occupied Panhala and Satara and also attacked the
region of Canara.
Shivaji’s Judicial System
Shivaji did not establish organized courts like the modern courts nor did he establish
any law code. His judicial administration was based on the traditional ways only. At
the centre, the eight ministers of the Ashtapradhan, viz. Nyayadhish decided both the
civil and the criminal cases according to the Hindu Scriptures only. In the provinces,
Self-Instructional
Material 161
The Rule of the Marathas the same function was performed by the provincial judges only. In the villages judicial
work was performed by the Panchayats. Justice was impartial and the penal code was
strict.
In brief, Shivaji was an able administrator and he laid the foundations of a
NOTES
powerful empire. Undoubtedly his kingdom was a regional kingdom but it was based
on popular will. Shivaji adopted a secular policy in his empire. In the words of Dr.
Ishwari Prasad, he organized an administrative system which in many respects was
better than even that of the Mughals.
Although Shivaji was able to conquer land and gather enough power, he was
not considered a ruler or a superior. This led Shivaji to organize a formal coronation.
Coronation of Shivaji
Shivaji had conquered a large tract of land. He also started behaving like an independent
ruler. Yet, the Sultan of Bijapur considered him no more than a rebel Jagirdar. The
Mughal Emperor considered him as just a petty Zamindar. Many Maratha families
looked upon him only as a Nayab Amir or Zamindar whose ancestors were just ordinary
peasants. To prove his superiority among other Maratha families also Shivaji thought
it advantageous to get his coronation done in a formal manner. On 15 June, AD 1674,
Shivaji held his coronation with great pomp and show. On the auspicious occasion,
Pandit Gang Bhatt who presided over the function proclaimed Shivaji to be a high
ranking Kshatriya. To improve his social standing, Shivaji entered into matrimonial
relations with traditional Maratha families like Mohite and Shirke. The coronation
greatly enhanced Shivaji’s political position. Now he could enter into the independent
treaty relationship with the Sultans of the Deccan or the Mughal Emperor unlike
Check Your Progress
previously when he was treated like a powerful dacoit or a rebel Jagirdar.
with the
appropriate word.
(a) Shivaji was born

in the
year .
(b) Shivaji was
entrusted with
the
administration of
Pune when he
was
years old.
(c) Shivaji began his
real career of
conquests in 6.3 REIGN OF SHAMBHUJI
AD1656, when
he conquered
Javli from the Conquests after Coronation and Death of Shivaji
Maratha chief,
. In AD 1675, Shivaji again started encounters with the Mughals and acquired a lot of
(d) According to the booty by defeating the Mughal commander Bahadur Khan. In AD 1676, he took an
Treaty of important step. With the help of the two brothers Madanna and Akhanna in Hyderabad
, he decided to attack Bijapuri Karnataka. Seeing the growing power and influence of
Shivaji agreed to
help the Mughals Shivaji, Abul Hassan Qutubshah of Golkunda accorded a grand welcome to Shivaji
against Bijapur. in his capital and a peace treaty was signed between the two. Abul Hassan Qutubshah
promised to pay Shivaji one lakh Huns annually and permitted him to reside at his
Self-Instructional
162 Material
court. Shivaji took upon himself the responsibility of defending Golkunda from the The Rule of the Marathas
foreign invasions. Shivaji and the Golkunda ruler also decided to divide among
themselves the wealth of Karnataka and its conquered areas.
Abu Hassan Qutubshah gave to Shivaji his artillery and adequate money for
the military expenditure. This treaty proved to be very advantageous for Shivaji. He NOTES
seized Vellore and Zinji from the Bijapuri commanders and got enough money from
the region of Karnataka. When Shivaji returned after the conquest, the ruler of Golkunda
asked for his share. But Shivaji gave him neither territory nor money. This made Abul
Hassan Qutubshah angry and he entered into an agreement with Bijapur to lessen
Shivaji’s power, but at that very time Mughal army under Diler Khan attacked Bijapur
and the ruler of Bijapur instead of fighting against Shivaji requested his help against
the Mughals.
Shivaji rendered him help immediately. Shivaji made Bijapur agree to many
favourable terms for Velari. It is said that Adil Shah not only gave him the areas of
Kopal and Belldibut, but also abandoned his claim over Tanjore and the Gagir of
Shahaji Bhonsle. Shivaji also established his hold over many areas of his stepbrother
Ekoji. Karnataka expedition was the last of Shivaji’s important campaigns.
After establishing administrative arrangements in Karnataka, Shivaji came back
to Maharashtra. In AD 1678, he and his stepbrother Ekoji entered into an agreement
with each other and Shivaji returned him all his areas which he had conquered. But
that very year his eldest son Sambhaji started behaving like an independent young
man and he first went over to the Mughals and later to Bijapur.
Though he came back to Shivaji after remaining rebellious for about a year, yet
Shivaji was very unhappy with his conduct and behaviour. With this very worry and
after an illness of just twelve days he died on 12 April AD 1680, at the age of fifty-
three. Shivaji had begun his life as a manager of his father’s jagir at Pune and succeeded
in establishing an independent kingdom due to his military ability and qualities of
character. Maharashtra, Konkan and a large part of Karnataka were included in his
empire. His kingdom had about 240 forts. He laid the foundation of a strong
administrative system in his kingdom. He proved himself to be an able military
commander and a capable politician. He kept check over the power of the Deshmukhs
and laid the foundation of a powerful empire which lasted for a long time, even after
his death.
Successors of Shivaji and Mughal–Maratha Relations
Shambhaji (AD1680–1689)
There was a dispute about succession between the two sons of Shivaji (Sambhaji and
Rajaram) from his two different wives. Finally, after deposing Rajaram from the
throne, Sambhaji or Sambhuji ascended the throne on 20 July 1680. For more than a
year afterwards, however, his position continued to be insecure. As a matter of fact,
his whole reign was disturbed by frequent conspiracies and desertions among his
officers. Shambhaji, the eldest son of Shivaji, found a faithful adviser in a Kanauji
Brahmin on whom he conferred the title of Kavi Kalash. Aurangzeb was determined
to crush Shambhaji. In AD1689, Shambhaji and Kavi Kalash were captured by a
Mughal general and put to death.
Rajaram was crowned by the Maratha ministers at Raigarh as Shambhaji’s son
Shahu was too young. Then Raigarh was captured by the Mughals. By the end of
AD1689, Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy appeared to have achieved complete success.
Self-Instructional
Material 163
The Rule of the Marathas However, animated by the desire to avenge their wrongs, the Maratha bands spread
over the Mughal territories harassing Mughal armies, destroying their outposts. The
Mughals could not deal effectively with such raiders. When Aurangzeb died in AD
1707, he was aware that his efforts to crush the Marathas had failed.
NOTES
Rajaram (AD1689–1700)
At the time of Sambhaji’s death, his son Sahu was only seven years old. Rajaram, the
younger son of Shivaji and stepbrother of Sambhaji, who had been kept in prison by
the latter, was proclaimed King by the Maratha Council of Ministers and crowned at
Raigarh in February AD 1689. But soon thereafter, apprehending a Mughal attack,
Rajaram left Raigarh and, moving from one place to another, ultimately reached Jinji
(South Arcot district, Tamil Nadu). The Maratha Council of Ministers and other officials
also joined him at Jinji which, till AD 1698, became the centre of Maratha activity
against the Mughals.
Shortly after Rajaram’s flight to Jinji, the Mughals under Zulfiqar Khan captured
Raigarh in October 1689 and all members of Sambhaji’s family, including his son
Sahu, fell into Mughal hands. Although Sahu was given the title of Raja and granted
a mansab, he virtually remained a prisoner in the hands of the Mughals till the death
of Aurangzeb (AD1707). Thus, at the close of AD1689, the situation in the Maratha
kingdom had completely changed. The royal family was virtually immobilized, the
Maratha country no longer had a common head or a central government and the
whole of the Deccan was divided into different spheres of influence under various
Maratha commanders. With a nominal Maratha king living at a distance from the
Maratha homeland, the resistance to the Mughals in the Deccan was organized by the
Maratha leaders and commanders. This situation changed the basic character of the
Mughal–Maratha struggle into a civil war or a war of independence.
Tarabai (1700–1707)
After Rajaram’s death, his minor son by his wife Tarabai, named Shivaji II, was
placed on the throne. Tarabai’s energy and ability made her the de facto ruler of the
state. She saved the Maratha state during a period of grave crisis. The succession to
the throne was in dispute. Personal jealousies divided the throne in dispute. It divided
the Maratha leaders. Several thousands of mavles (Maratha hill infantry) were in the
Mughal pay.
Aurangzeb, after the fall of Jinji, concentrated all his resources on the siege of
successive Maratha forts. In this situation, Tarabai played a role which elicited high
praise from the hostile Muslim historian Khafi Khan who says ‘Under Tarabai’s
guidance, Maratha activities began to increase daily. She took into her own hands the
control of all affairs, such as the appointment and change of generals, the cultivation
of the country and the planning of raids into the Mughal territory. She made such
Check Your Progress arrangements for sending troops to ravage the ‘six subas’ of the Deccan and winning
2. After Rajaram’s the heart of her officers to the extent that all the efforts of Aurangzeb against the
death, who was Marathas down to the end of his reign failed.’ Tarabai moved from place to place with
placed on the a view to guiding the Maratha operations against the Mughals.
throne?
3. Name the two Sahu’s release from Mughal captivity and the rise of the Peshwas
brothers who
attacked Bijapur Nearly three months after Aurangzeb’s death, Sambhaji’s son Sahu (born 18 May
with Shivaji. 1682) who had been in Mughal captivity since 3 November 1689 was liberated on 8
Self-Instructional
May 1707 by Aurangzeb’s second son, who ascended the throne as Bahadur Shah I.
164 Material
Sahu was recognized as the king of the Marathas and his right to the Maratha swaraj The Rule of the Marathas
and to chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccani subahs of the Mughals was also
probably recognized. The Mughal suzerainty was protected through the arrangement
that he would rule as a vassal of the Empire. The intention of the Mughals was to end
long-drawn wars in the Deccan or to create dissensions in the Maratha camp. Both NOTES
situations were advantageous to the Mughals and they were not disappointed. Sahu’s
release was followed by a civil war between the forces of Tarabai and Sahu, which
lasted up to AD1714.
6.4 FALL OF THE MARATHAS

The conquest and occupation of the Punjab by the Marathas brought them into conflict
with Ahmad Shah Abdali. The Third Battle of Panipat took place on 14 January 1761,
at Panipat (Haryana). The battle pitted the French-supplied artillery and cavalry of
the Marathas against the heavy cavalry and mounted artillery of the Afghans led by
Ahmad Shah Durrani, also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali. The battle is considered as
one of the largest battles fought in the 18th century.
The battle lasted for several days and involved over 1, 25,000 men. Protracted
skirmishes occurred, with losses and gains on both sides. The forces led by Ahmad
Shah Durrani came out victorious after destroying several Maratha flanks. The extent
of the losses on both sides was heavily disputed by historians, but it is believed that
between 60,000 – 70,000 were killed in fighting, while the number of the injured and
prisoners taken vary considerably. The result of the Battle saw the end of the Maratha
advances in the North.
Causes of Third Battle of Panipat
The causes of the Third Battle of Panipat were many. Some of them were as follows:
 Invasions by Nadir Shah: Nadir Shah defeated the Mughal troops near Karnal.
Then he marched to Delhi, where he stayed for 57 days. He took away the
accumulated wealth of 348 years and the famous Peacock Throne from Delhi.
The invasion of Nadir Shah exposed the weakness of the Mughal Empire. It
encouraged the Afghans to invade India.
 Ambitions of Ahmad Shah Abdali: He was an ambitious ruler and a gallant
soldier. He dreamt to be the ruler of India and was not satisfied by merely
conducting plundering raids.
 Attack of Maratha army on Punjab: Maratha army attacked those regions
which belonged to the heirs of Nadir Shah. Ahmad Shah Abdali wanted to
teach a lesson to the Marathas and break their power.
 Internal disputes: The internal disputes were also responsible for foreign
invasion. Ahmad Shah Abdali took full advantage of the internal disputes. The
Mughals, Rajputs, Rohillas and the Marathas did not come together to face
their common enemy. Had they combined together it would have been not so
easy for Abdali to crush Marathas.
The Marathas had interfered in the internal affairs of the Rajputana states (present-
day Rajasthan) and levied heavy taxes and huge fines on them. They had also made
huge territorial and monetary claims upon Awadh. Their raids in the Jat territory had
resulted in the loss of trust of Jat chiefs like Suraj Mal. They had, therefore, to fight
Self-Instructional
Material 165
The Rule of the Marathas their enemies alone. The main reason for the failure of Marathas was that they went to
war without good allies.
 Distance of Punjab from South: Though Marathas had conquered portions
of Punjab but it was difficult to rule Punjab from the south because Marathas
NOTES did not want to be away from their homes in the south. It made the task of
recapturing the lost territories by Ahmad Shah easier. The Marathas did not
care to defend the northern frontier properly. Had the Marathas settled in Punjab,
Abdali’s success would have been doubtful.
 Maratha relation with Ruhelas: Marathas did not have good relations with
Ruhelas because the Mughals had gained support from Scindia and Holker
against Ruhelas. Under these circumstances, the Ruhelas invited Ahamad Shah
Abdali to invade India.
 Strong position of Afghans: After the murder of Nadir Shah, Abdali ascended
the throne and strengthened his power. In a short period of one year, he was
strong enough to invade India again and again.
 Dream of the Marathas to establish a Hindu state: Knowing the weaknesses
of the Mughals, they thought it is practicable to establish a Hindu state on the
ruins of the Mughal Empire. But Abdali never wanted that their dreams should
be materialized.
Third Battle of Panipat (AD1761)
At Panipat the two rival armies stood entrenched, face to face, for more than two
months.
There were skirmishes and minor battles. The Afghan cavalry patrols dominated
the environs of the Maratha camp and cut off its communications and also food supply.
Gradually, despair and terror seized the straying Marathas.
They decided to launch a direct attack on the Afghans when there was no food
for men and no grass for horses, and when filth and stench ‘made the confines of the
entrenchment a living hell.
The Bhau’s army marched out to battle on 15 January 1761. The battle actually
began about four hours after daybreak. Vishwas Ruo was shot dead at quarter past
two. Soon after, the Bhau was also killed. Among the leading chiefs who met death
were Jankoji Scindia, Tukoji Scindia and Ibrahim Khan Gardi. Mahadji Scindia
received wounds, which made him lame for life. ‘It was a nationwide disaster. An
entire generation of leaders was cut off at one stroke. Apart from those who fell on the
field, many fugitives lost their lives during their long flight without food or rest. About
50,000 men and women were saved by the kindness and hospitality of Suraj Mal.
The crushing defeat of the Marathas was easily explained. Numerically, the
Afghans had considerable superiority. Against 60,000 Afghans and their Indian allies
actually present in the field, supported by 80,000 behind the fighting line, the Bhau
had 45,000 troops in the field and 15,000 Pindaris in the rear. The Afghan army had
better training and discipline, and it was better organized. Moreover, a famished army
on less than half-dead country mares met the finest Afghan cavalry. Abdali had
superiority in artillery; he employed ‘the most efficient mobile artillery known in that
age’. Although the field guns of the Marathas were of larger caliber than those of the
Afghans, they could not be dragged forward with the advancing troops and became
useless as the battle developed. The Bhau had no worthy and dependable lieutenants
Self-Instructional
166 Material
as compared to Abdali’s front-rank officers. Malhar Rao Holkar did not exchange fire The Rule of the Marathas
till after the contest at the centre had been decided in Abdali’s favour; and at the last
stage he fled away. Abdali was a far greater military leader and strategist than the
Bhau. The defeat became virtually inevitable after the Bhau’s postponement of the
battle for two-and-a-half months. He kept his army on the defensive in a besieged NOTES
camp until starvation compelled him to make the last desperate effort for escape.
From the political point of view the defeat was largely due to the alienation of
the Rajputs and the Jats and the failure to neutralize Shuja-ud-daula and Najib-ud-
daula. While half of Abdali’s army was composed of troops furnished by his Indian
allies, the valiant Rajputs and the Jats did not fight on the Maratha side. The clue to
this situation lies in ‘the total diplomatic failure on the part of the Peshwa who dictated,
and the Bhau who carried out, his North Indian policy’.
Consequences of Third Battle of Panipat
Some modern Maratha writers argue that although the Marathas suffered terrible
losses in manpower at Panipat, the battle did not destroy the Maratha power in North
India nor did it essentially shake the Maratha Empire as a whole. Abdali made several
unsuccessful efforts to conclude peace with the Peshwa and Surajmal, and in the
following years he failed to crush the Sikhs in the Punjab.
There was a revival of the Maratha power in North India under Peshwa Madhav
Rao I (AD 1761–1972). After the death of Najib-ud-daula (AD 1770) who
‘administered Delhi as Abdali’s agent after Panipat, the Marathas restored the exiled
Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II to the capital of his ancestors (AD 1972).
Mahadji Scindia occupied Delhi in AD 1788 and it was from his successor
Daulat Rao Scindia that the English wrested the imperial capital in 1803. In South
India the Marathas secured victories against Haider Ali and the Nizam. S.G. Sardesai
maintains that ‘the disaster at Panipat was indeed like a natural visitation destroying
life, but leading to no decisive political consequences’. But the views of Sardesai and
the others were too simplistic. Undoubtedly the disaster at Panipat was the greatest
loss to the Marathas in both manpower and personal prestige.
The Maratha dream of being a successor to the great Mughals was lost forever.
Certainly, Panipat paved the way for the rise of the British power, which became a
paramount power in India by the close of the 18th century. Peshwa Balaji Bajirao
could not bear the shock of the awful catastrophe at Panipat and died six months after
the battle (June AD1761). During the post-Panipat era, the links of the Peshwa with
the Maratha Confederacy also grew very loose. In the words of Kashiraj Pandit, who
was an eyewitness to the Third Battle of Panipat, ‘It was virtually the doomsday for
the Maratha people’.
Peshwa Madhav Rao I (1761-1772)
After the death of Balaji Bajirao, his younger son Madhav Rao was placed on the
Peshwa’s gaddi. Since the new Peshwa was only seventeen years old, his uncle
Raghunath Rao, the eldest surviving member of the Peshwa’s family, became his
regent and the de facto ruler of the state.
During this period, serious differences broke out between the Peshwa and his
uncle, leading to a war between the two in AD1762, in which Peshwa’s army was
Self-Instructional
Material 167
The Rule of the Marathas defeated. For some time a reconciliation was arrived at between the Peshwa and his
uncle, but soon serious differences erupted again. In AD1765, Raghunath Rao
demanded the partition of the Maratha state between himself and the Peshwa.
Mysore war involved Haider Ali in a greater crisis. During this period, the
NOTES Marathas tried to restore their lost position in North India. In January 1771, Mahadji
Scindia occupied Delhi and succeeded in exacting money from the leading Rajput
princes; but the premature death of Madhav Rao in November 1772 placed the Maratha
dominion in a deep crisis. Madhav Rao was the last great Peshwa, had he survived
longer, the Maratha Empire could have been saved from disaster.
After Madhav Rao’s death the fortunes of the Maratha Kingdom and the prestige
of the Peshwas under Narayan Rao (AD1772–1774), Madhav Rao Narayan (AD1774–
95) and Bajirao rapidly declined, owing to their internal feuds and prolonged wars
with the English. The last Peshwa surrendered to the English and the Peshwaship
was abolished.
Check Your Progress
4. State whether true The Third Battle of Panipat: Effects and Importance
or false.
The effects and the importance of the Third Battle of Panipat were as follows:
(a) The Third Battle
of Panipat lasted  Loss of wealth and human power: The Third Battle of Panipat decided the
for several days. fate of India. In this battle the loss of money and life was enormous. It was a
(b) The forces led by nationwide disaster. It was stated that two pearls had been dissolved, twenty-
Ahmad Shah seven gold mohars had been lost and the loss of silver and copper could not be
Durrani came out
victorious after reckoned.
destroying  End of Maratha confederacy: The decisive battle of Panipat completely
several Maratha
flanks. destroyed the Maratha Confederacy. It destroyed the central organization of
(c) The Marathas the Marathas. After this battle Maratha’s central power became weak.
had good  Decentralization of Maratha power: The Third Battle of Panipat also brought
relations with the
Ruhelas. about the decentralization of the Maratha power. The Marathas were scattered
5. Fill in the blanks and divided. Maratha leaders established their independent kingdoms. Scindias
with the were wounded in the battlefield. They established their independent kingdom
appropriate words. and made Gwalior the centre of their kingdom.
(a) The Third Battle
of Panipat took  Downfall of Mughal Empire: The Third Battle of Panipat was the last and
place on final blow to the staggering Mughal power. It hastened its decline and paved
the way for British supremacy.
at Panipat.
(b) The Afghans
 Freedom of Rajputs: After the Battle of Panipat, the Marathas lost their hold
were led by over the Rajputana. The Rajputs regained their freedom. They did not support
Ahmad Shah Marathas either against Ahmad Shah Abdali or the Britishers.
Durrani, also
known as Causes of the Failure of Marathas in Panipat
.
(c) One of the main The causes that led to the failure of Marathas in Panipat were as follows:
causes of
Marathas' defeat  The main reason for the failure of the Marathas was Abdali’s superior strategy
at the Third and novel tactics and superiority of arms and ammunitions. Though Sadashiv
Battle of Panipat Rao was a brave and capable leader, he lacked the maturity and experience of
was due to the
alienation of the Abdali. The Marathas had made Jats and Rajputs their enemy while Abdali
was supported by Ruhelas and others. It was the total diplomatic failure on the
and the Jats. part of the Peshwa who dictated, and the Bhau who carried out, his North
Self-Instructional Indian policy.
168 Material
 Marathas had neither adequate force nor a good supply of quality horses or The Rule of the Marathas
seasonal troops.
 The Marathas had terrible want of food and adequate clothing. Starved and
barebacked in the bitter cold of January many of them fell sick or even died.
NOTES
 The absence of Duttaji from this fateful fight was a serious handicap to the
Marathas.
 Marathas had used guerrilla warfare in North India. Though their infantry was
based on the European style contingent and had some of the best French made
guns of the times, their artillery was static and lacked mobility against the fast
moving Afghan forces.
ACTIVITY
Prepare a chart giving a comparative account of the three battles of Panipat.
6.5 SUMMARY
 Shivaji’s father was a high military official at the court of the Sultan of Bijapur
and a powerful Maratha leader. His mother Jijabai was an intelligent and a
religious lady of high ideals.
 Shivaji gave an evidence of his bravery by conquering the forts of Rajgarh near
Poona, Konkan and Toran, from AD 1645–1647.
 Shivaji began his real military campaigns in AD 1655 when he seized Javali
from the Maratha Chief Chandra Rao More. The kingdom of Javali and the
treasure of More in it was very important for Shivaji and he occupied it by
intrigue.
 The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb ordered his maternal uncle Shaista Khan to
invade Shivaji’s territory and the Sultan of Bijapur was asked to cooperate
with him.
 The success in Pune against Shaista Khan greatly increased the morale of Shivaji
and the Maratha army. Immediately, he launched a terrible attack on the Mughal
port of Surat. From 16 – 20 January, AD 1664 he plundered the rich city to his
heart’s content. Shivaji got enormous wealth from this first plunder of Surat
City.
 On 15 June, 1674, Shivaji held his coronation with great pomp and show,
during which event Shivaji was proclaimed to be a high ranking Kshatriya.
 Shivaji is famous in Indian history not only as a brave daring person, a successful
general and the founder of an empire but also as a great administrator and a
ruler having the well wishes of his subjects at heart. He laid the foundation of
a strong administrative system.
 Shivaji was a despotic and an autocratic ruler who commanded that all the
powers of the state were vested in him. He was the supreme judge,
administrative head, law giver and general.
Self-Instructional
Material 169
The Rule of the Marathas  The Marathas reigned supreme till they were decisively defeated in the Third
Battle of Panipat in AD 1761.
 The defeat of the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat was due to the alienation
of the Rajputs and Jats and the failure to neutralize Shuja-ud-daula and Najib-
NOTES ud-daula.
6.6 KEY TERMS

 Peshwas: The Peshwas were the Brahmin prime ministers to the Marathas
who began commanding Maratha armies and later became the de facto rulers
of the Maratha Empire
 Third Battle of Panipat: Was fought between the Afghans and the Marathas
in AD 1761 in which the Marathas were defeated
 Treaty of Purandar: Signed by Shivaji and the Mughals in AD 1665. By this
Treaty, Shivaji had to surrender to the Mughals 23 of his 35 forts and had to
remain loyal to the Mughals

1. (a) AD 1630; (b) fourteen; (c) Chandra Rao More; (d) Purandhar
2. Shivaji II was placed on the throne.
3. Madanna and Akhanna were the two brothers who attacked Bijapur with Shivaji.
4. (a) True; (b) True; (c) False
5. (a) 14 January 1761; (b) Ahmad Shah Abdali; (c) Rajputs
1. Trace the events that led to the coronation and later the death of Shivaji.
2. Discuss the events that led to the Third Battle of Panipat.
3. Discuss the factors that led to the rise of the Maratha power.
1. Discuss the early career and conquests of Shivaji. Add a note on Shivaji’s
relations with Aurangzeb.
2. List the successors of Shivaji. What role did they play in the Mughal-Maratha
relations?
3. What were the consequences of the Third Battle of Panipat?
Self-Instructional
170 Material
The Rule of the Marathas
6.9 FURTHER READING
Ali, Athar; The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb, Oxford University Press, New
Delhi, 2001. NOTES
Faruki, Z.; Aurangzeb and His Times, Idarah-i Adabiyât-i Delli, New Delhi, 1972.
1982.
Laine, James, W.; Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India, Oxford University Press,
New York, 2003.
New Delhi, 1992.
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay and Muzaffar Alam (eds.); The Mughal State, 1526-1750.
Oxford University Press, Kolkata, 1998.

 The rise of Shivaji as a ruler
 The reign of Shambhuji
 The events that led to the fall of the Marathas
Self-Instructional
Material 171
Economic Aspects
of the Period
UNIT 7 ECONOMIC ASPECTS

OF THE PERIOD NOTES
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Unit Objectives
7.2 Agricultural Economy: Villages and Peasantry
7.3 Industries
7.4 Trade and Commerce: Internal and European
7.5 Summary
7.6 Key Terms
7.9 Further Reading
7.0 INTRODUCTION
The economy during the Mughal rule was largely supported by agriculture. Apart
from agriculture, handicrafts, silk weaving and trade also formed an integral part of
the economy in the Mughal kingdom. According to historians, agriculture formed the
main source of economy, because, since time immemorial agriculture has always
been the backbone of the economy of the country. Similarly, in the Mughal era also,
agriculture was the biggest source of income. Additionally, it was also one of the
main sources of livelihood of the people in the country. The major crops that were
cultivated during the Mughal period included millets, oilseeds, cereals, hemp, chilly,
sugarcane, cotton, indigo, betel and other cash crops. Indigo cultivation was popular
at that time in various places like Agra and Gujarat. On the other hand, Ajmer was
well known for the production of the best quality sugarcane.
In this unit, you will learn about the economic aspects of the Mughal period,
with focus on agriculture, industry and trade.
7.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

 Identify the importance of agriculture in the Mughal times
 Trace the growth of industries in Mughal period
 Discuss the internal and European trade carried out during Mughal era
7.2 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY: VILLAGES AND

PEASANTRY
The enhancements in transportation and communication services helped boost the
economy in the era of the Mughal royal leaders. The demand for cash crops, such as
silk and cotton, was also on the rise due to the advancement of the textile industry
during this period. Self-Instructional
Material 173
Economic Aspects Additionally, when Jahangir was the emperor, new crops like tobacco and potato
of the Period
were introduced by the Portuguese and began to be cultivated in India. Jahangir’s
grandfather, Babur had already brought in many new central Asian fruits to India.
Besides this, during the reign of Akbar Firoz Shah, the Yamuna canal started to be
NOTES used for irrigation of the fields. The trend among Mughal rulers, however, was to
settle their courts in urban areas like cities and towns.
The Mughal rulers were also very art-oriented and this led to a flourish in the
various arts, architecture, handicrafts and in turn, trade during their reign. In the
Mughal period, the society was classified such that merchants and traders were a
powerful class. Trade—domestic and international—expanded widely. As per most
historians, India saw a time of prosperity in that age because of the political merger
effected by various rulers all over India. The Mughal rulers were also particular about
the safety of the merchants’ goods and person and this also meant an environment
conducive to trading because traders from far and wide liked to come to India where
they and their wares were respected and valued. In fact, trade grew so much because
huge numbers of European traders could now travel to India, which in turn helped in
the monetization of the Indian economy. The major centers for silk weaving were
Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore and Agra while Cambay, Broach and Surat in Gujarat were
the chief ports where foreign trade and business were conducted. It is a credit to the
Mughal rule that India’s cities became real urban centers after they took over.
A lot of new changes were brought about by the Mughals that helped the
country’s ecoomy, such as urbanization and fixed markets. While earlier, in India
only fairs and moving merchants were the norm, after the Mughals came in; weekly
markets were replaced by urban trade centers, especially in the major cities. The
sophisticated highways and river transport system played a significant role in facilitating
round-the-year navigation for businessmen and patrons alike. Such projects undertaken
by Mughal emperors contributed vastly to the development of economy during the
Mughal Era.
Agriculture in Mughal India
In the Mughal era, agriculture and its associated activities constituted the most
significant part of the Indian economy. Most people were engaged in agriculture and
it was the source of their livelihoods. A large variety of food as well as cash crops
were grown, using different and sophisticated techniques. When the Mughal Empire
came to power, the irrigation system was not well organized and remained more or
less similarly haphazard in the years to come. However, most areas had access to
canals. For better administration, certain parts of the land that were controlled by
local leaders were confiscated and brought under the king’s rule.
The Mughal realm was largely divided into different zones for the cultivation
of different types of crops such as rice, wheat and millet. Rice was the dominant crop
in the eastern region and as far as the southwest coast. Other than Gujarat, many
areas began to cultivate rice with the aid of irrigation facilities, such as Punjab and
Sindh. Wheat was the second most largely grown crop in Mughal India. The cultivation
of wheat was done largely in the northern and central regions of the country.
Additionally, millets were grown in wheat focused regions and other drier parts of
India. Besides food crops, the growth of a variety of cash crops shaped an integral
part of India’s agriculture. A few of the most important cash crops were sugarcane,
indigo, cotton and opium, and later tobacco.
Self-Instructional
174 Material
In the cultivation of these crops, different patterns had to be applied. For example, Economic Aspects
of the Period
some parts of a piece of land was ‘single-cropped’, which meant that it was used for
rabi or kharif harvests. Some other parts were ‘double-cropped’ which meant that
they were used for crops of both harvests, one after the other. In this particular cropping
pattern, land remained fertile for close to six months or half a year and the same crop NOTES
could be cultivated twice. Development of various kinds of spices, particularly black
pepper, was dominant in the Malabar Coast. Cultivation of tea began in the hilly parts
of Assam.
Agriculture for the duration of the Mughal period also covered fruits and
vegetables, but largely in the cities. When the Mughals were at the helm, the Indian
economy grew to being the second largest in the world. Studies show that in the 16th
century, the net domestic production of India was estimated to be around 24.5 per
cent of the overall global economy.
Some forests and waste lands were re-treated and brought under cultivation.
Consequently, the total re-treated area depicted the net area under agriculture and
also served as an index for the population increase in various parts of the nation.
During the Mughal Period, people in India were divided into numerous social
classes and there were huge disparities in their standards of living. Still, the socio-
economic condition that prevailed during that period was better than that which existed
during the pre as well as post-Mughal periods. The people were divided into three
classes—the rich, the middle-class and the poor. There were wide differences among
all these three classes. The rich class was at the top of the socio-economic ladder.
This class had all the advantages and lived in exceptional luxury with access to plentiful
resources. The middle class was moderately a new development that eventually became
a vital force in Mughal India. The ruling class of Mughal India lived a life of sumptuous
homes, festivity and grand banquets. Both indoor as well as outdoor games were
popular as they had time and resources to indulge in them. The Mughal Kingdom
was highly successful and flourishing.
The middle class, more often than not, comprised merchants, businessmen and
other professionals. They led a contented and sensible life despite the fact that they
were not able to afford the lavishness of the higher rich class. On the other hand, some
of the middle class families were quite well off and indulged in an assortment of
luxuries. Next to the middle class was the class of poor people. They were often well
off, despite the fact that they were the least cared for among all the classes of the
society. There were huge differences between these two previous classes as far as
their standard of living was concerned. They did not have sufficient food and garments
and they were engaged in low paying jobs. In such jobs, they were asked to work long
hours. Because of their poor conditions, they were sometimes referred to as intentional
slaves. Regrettably, the socio-economic environment of the peasants declined
continuously and more than ever towards the end of the Mughal rule.
The Mughals gave due importance to education. Hence, the period saw the
establishment of various institutions that cared for people from all walks of life. Records
of historians show that education was imparted to both male and female students. The
Mughal emperors were well educated and proficient in many languages, especially
Persian and Turkish.
As part of the social upliftment of their subjects, Mughal rulers strived to abolish
many of the communal practices prevalent during the time. Some of these included
sati, child marriage and the dowry system. On the other hand, Mughal royal leaders
Self-Instructional
Material 175
Economic Aspects like Akbar also made attempts to reform the society. According to historians, one of
of the Period
the most notable shortcomings of the Mughal rulers was that they did not do enough
to change the social conditions of the agrarian community. Not only did they fail to
take any steps to increase the total area under cultivation; no innovative methods were
NOTES introduced to increase the productivity of the cultivable land. Hence, the Mughal Era
was plagued by periods of famines some of which were the worst in the history of
India. The famines had a detrimental effect on the economy. Economy in the Mughal
epoch started to deteriorate subsequent to Aurangzeb’s death.
Check Your Progress 7.3 INDUSTRIES

1. State whether true
or false. As you already know, agriculture was always a major part of the Indian economy,
(a) Class system in
even in the Mughal era. However, the types of crops being grown and the agricultural
India was absent techniques have been largely the same. Irrigation was not always possible in all areas
during the but some regions did have easy access to canals. There was variety in crops grown
Mughal Period. such that there were cash crops as well as food crops. Since there was a boom in the
(b) The socio- textile industry, cotton and silk, which were cash crops, were highly in demand. Also,
economic tobacco had emerged as an important cash crop since early 1600s. A major flaw of
conditions of the
peasants declined
the Mughal rulers in general was that they did not pay much attention to growth of
continuously agriculture and this resulted in frequent large-scale famines. Public had no way to
towards the end recover because the rulers did not extend any help to them. Ultimately, people moved
of the Mughal away in large groups from famine-hit areas to other places, sometimes even outside
rule.
the country. Frequent famines caused a severe blow to the Indian economy on the
(c) There was not whole.
much difference
in the social Industry in India had been developing even before the Mughal rulers came in
conditions of the but by the Mughal era, it had diversified to a great extent. A substantial number of
middle class and
lower classes.
people were involved in industry and produced a large number of goods in considerable
2. Fill in the blanks volumes. The large volumes helped in promoting international trade. For instance,
with the approp- cotton fabric was a high-in-demand export product in India and cotton manufacturing
riate word. units were present throughout the country. The state of Bengal was especially known
(a) Indigo cultivation for its good quality cotton and silk. In fact, it was believed that Bengal alone produces
was popular at more cloth than all of India and Europe put together. Along with the cotton production
that time in industry, related enterprises like dyeing and weaving also prospered. Shawl and carpet
various places
weaving was a major industry, especially during Akbar’s reign.
like and
. Besides textile, another important industry was the shipbuilding industry, despite
(b) was well the fact that India had fewer ports than many other countries. While the state did
known for the encourage industry, it did not provide any financial aid to bolster it, and this job was
production of undertaken by middlemen, who gradually started to exploit merchants and
good quality
sugarcane. industrialists. Industrialists also suffered at the hands of corrupt senior officials and
noblemen who forced industrialists to sell them goods at much lower rates than the
(c)
introduced market. While officials and noblemen exploited the industrialists on the one hand, on
the cultivation of the other hand, it was these same noblemen and officials who raised demands for the
tobacco and commodities and in the process managed to extract high-quality workmanship.
potato in India.
A large variety of industry was built around the needs of agriculture and practices
(d) was the
second most
connected with it. The knowledge, as one can interpret from the written records, was
prominent crop acquired through experience and was empirical in nature.
that was In the case of fruits, special practices and techniques appeared to have been
cultivated in
Mughal India.
evolved to meet special requirements of size, texture, seed size or its absence, juice,
flavour and aroma. A wide variety of oil seeds were cultivated and used for the purpose
Self-Instructional
176 Material
of cooking, pickling, medicine and cosmetics. Besides, sarson (mustard), til, coconut, Economic Aspects
of the Period
almond and other oils were used for these purposes. Ox driven and wooden cum
stone press was used for crushing seeds for extracting oil.
At this time, India excelled in the skill of perfume making so much so that
many Europeans came here to learn this art of making perfume from natural flowers. NOTES
Even today, we can discover fragranced hair oils and body oils that are made by using
natural flowers.
A number of industries of substantial significance grew during the medieval period.
The most significant ones were as follows:
 Textiles
 Metal work
 Stone work
 Sugar
 Indigo
 Paper
Indian textiles were very famous. Indian metallurgy also enjoyed global reputation.
The following arts and crafts reached their peak during this period:
 Stone carving
 Temple architecture
 Carpet making
 Utensils made of brass, copper and bronze
The state liberally gave grants to merchants and industries. The state also set up royal
Karkhanas (workshops) to work according to the needs of the Sultan and his family.
It is said that in Muhammad Tughlaq’s Karkhanas located in Delhi, there were 4,000
silk workers who used to weave and embroider various kinds of cloth for robes of
honour. These karkhanas practically supplied every article of royal use such as caps,
curtains, tapestry, waistbands, sashes, shoes, etc. Therefore, the karkhana industry
offered jobs to a large number of workers.
Check Your Progress

7.4 TRADE AND COMMERCE: INTERNAL AND 3. Name two
EUROPEAN significant Mughal
industries.
4. What was the
Indian trade in the Mughal times was varied and moderately developed and involved general opinion
huge numbers of people. The products manufactured in Indian industries were of a about Bengal’s
diverse nature and in huge numbers and had the capacity to match domestic as well clothe production?
as foreign requirements.
Self-Instructional
Material 177
Economic Aspects Indian cotton was massively popular, within the country as well as outside. The
of the Period
improved transportation systems ensured that the superior cotton weaved in the Indian
cloth making industry could be carried to most parts of the world. Also, cotton
production was not restricted to any one part of the country but was spread all over,
NOTES and was more than sufficient to meet the growing demand challenges.
For the duration of the Mughal rule, the Indian currency also flourished. The
Mughals had trade relations with many countries all over the world and foreign trade
featured prominently in the economy of the time. A few main Indian imports during
that era were gold, ivory, raw silks, perfumes, horses and precious stones. Other chief
Indian exports were spices, opium, textiles and indigo. Since transport on land was
not very smooth or convenient, sea and river transport were preferred modes. The
customs duties were low—about 3.5 per cent—on all exports and imports.
Pepper was the major commodity of trade along the western coast. Different
communities formed the dominated trade in different portions of the country. For
example, merchants from Punjab and Multan dominated in northern India, while the
Bhats ruled the trade field in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Since the government made a
concerted effort to set up trade, it flourished all over the country. Indian exports were
much more voluminous at the time than Indian imports. Trading was carried out
actively on and along the Ganga River and Yamuna River up to the city of Agra. The
trade in Agra was mostly focused on importing raw silk and sugar from Bengal and
Patna, along with importing butter, rice and wheat from the eastern regions. The
rivers also helped carry salt to Bengal besides carrying wheat, sugar and Bengal silk
to Gujarat from Agra. Above and beyond the advancements in transport system, trade
in India during Mughal era was also impacted by other things. For example, European
traders are believed to have played an important part in Indian trade at least for the
duration of the Mughal epoch. A significant number of them set up warehouses as
well as allocation points in Mughal India. However, historians say that nearly every
one of the European commodities was affordable only for the rich people, because
they included scented oils, perfumes, dry fruits, rare stones, wines, corals and velvets.
You have learnt already that the Mughal reign can be safely counted as the
golden age of peace and prosperity, which was also conducive to profitable trade and
business. The expansion in foreign trade gave rise to marketplaces in towns as well as
villages. Handicrafts were produced in greater amounts than before in order to meet
the trade demands. In the Mughal period, the chief urban centers were Agra, Delhi,
Thatta, Lahore, Multan and Srinagar in northern region. In the western part, trade
centers included Ahmedabad, Khambat, Surat and Ujjain. The booming trade centres
in the eastern region were Patna, Chitgaon, Dhaka, Hooghly and Murshidabad.
Foreign Trade
India had trade relations with the outside world from the ancient times. During the
Mughal period, both the internal and the external trade were in progress. As the bulk
of the population lived in the villages, and the bulk of their needs for goods and
services were satisfied through production, the network of reciprocal obligation
exchanges accounted for a relatively small proportion of the economic activity. Yet
the exchange of goods was found at virtually every level and sphere of economic life.
The accounts of the foreign travellers and other contemporary literary sources throw
light on the great volume of inland trade in Mughal India. Each village had a tiny
market. Besides, the annual and seasonal fairs attracted a large number of people and
traders from the neighbouring towns and villages, and a brisk trade was carried on.
Self-Instructional
178 Material
The merchants also went about in Kafilas or Karwans, which afforded greatest security Economic Aspects
of the Period
and protection.
According to the descriptions given by the foreign travellers, a number of
important towns and big cities existed along the main highways and rivers. In the
markets of these towns and cities, goods of necessity, comfort and luxury were available NOTES
in abundance. The intra-local trade of the towns and the cities was necessarily more
complex and varied than that of the countryside. To quote Tavernier, ‘It is the custom
in India, when they build a public edifice’ they surround it with a large market place’.
As a result, major towns had several markets, one of which was the chief or great
bazaar. For example, at Surat, Hughli, Delhi, Goa, Agra, Banaras, Lahore and at
Multan, there were very big markets.
The Sarrafs (shroff) specialized in changing money, keeping deposits or lending
money, or transmitting it from the one part of the country to the other by the means of
Hundi. The Hundi was a letter of credit payable after a certain period. The use of
Hundis made it easier to move goods or to transmit money from one part of the
country to another. The Hundis were cashed at a discount, which sometimes included
insurance so that the cost of goods lost or destroyed in the transit could be recovered.
During the Mughal period, our foreign trade also flourished. India had external
trade with Central Asia, Burma, China, Persia, Sri Lanka, England, Portugal, France
and Holland. The foreign trade was carried both by the land and the sea routes. From
Central Asia and Afghanistan, as noted by the French traveller Burnier (AD 1656-
1658), India imported large quantities of dried and fresh fruits. Babur refers to a brisk
trade between India and Kabul. Horses, silk, velvet, decorative goods, guns and gun
powder, slaves, etc., were imported in the country. For the army use and other purpose,
horses from Iraq and Arab countries were imported in big number. Scents, China
pottery, African slaves and wine were also imported from the other countries. The
state used to charge customs on the imported goods. India used to export many goods
to the different countries. Indian exports included cloth, indigo, spices, sugar, rugs,
medicinal herbs and fruits. India developed trade relations with many European
companies during this period. Mooreland in his book ‘India at the death of Akbar’,
calculates the Indian shipping to different European countries as being 6000 tonnes,
African as 1000 tonnes, to Red Sea as 10,000 tonnes and to Persia a little less. Through
Hundis, the Indian merchants could easily ship goods to the courtiers of West Asia as
well, where there were Indian banking houses.
The balance of the trade on the whole was in India’s favour. Merchants from all
countries frequented Indian ports, and paid gold and silver in exchange for the goods.
Self-Instructional
Material 179
Economic Aspects Commerce
of the Period
Like trade, commerce also expanded in India during the Mughal period. The use of
Hundis not only made it easier to move goods from one part of the country to another
NOTES but also from India to the other countries, especially West Asia as there were Indian
banking houses. English and Dutch traders who came to Gujarat during the 17th
century, found the India financial system to be highly developed, and the Indian
merchants to be active and alert. Not only roads, but the major rivers of the country
were used for the exchange of goods in the Mughal period. The Mughal emperors
could well built one of the finest coin currencies in the contemporary world, a tri-
metallic currency of great uniformity and purity with the silver rupee as the basic
coin. The basic coin, the rupaya (rupee) weighed 178 grains troy in which the alloy
was never allowed to rise above 4 per cent. The Mughals issued their coin from a
large number of mints throughout their empire. The mints worked on the basis of free
coinage. Theoretically, the value of a coin should have equalled its weight in bullion
plus the minting charges and seignior age. In large transactions, coinage was
supplemented to a considerable extent by credit money.
In brief, we can say that the trade and commerce expanded in India during the Mughal
period. The historians and scholars have given the following reasons or factors for the
progress of the trade and commerce during the period:
(i) The political integration of the country: Dr Satish Chandra says, ‘Perhaps
the most important factor was the political integration of the country under the
Mughal rule and the establishment of conditions of law and order over extensive
areas.’ From Akbar onwards and up to Aurangzeb, all the Mughal emperors
tried to give India a political unity. They issued the same coins and weight, and
equal tax system was levied throughout the country. Definitely, this led to an
increase to the internal trade of the country.
(ii) Cash revenue system: The Mughal emperors gave peasants the freedom to
pay the land revenue in cash or kind. But most of the emperors preferred the
mode of cash payment. No doubt, the payment of land revenue in cash helped
a lot in the growth of trade and commerce.
(iii) Goods administration: Most of the Mughal emperors were efficient
administrators. They made their best efforts to maintain law and order for the
public. The Mughals paid attention to the roads and sarais, which made
communication and movement easier. The Mughal minted silver rupees of
high purity, which became a standard coin in the country and abroad and thus
helped the Indian trade.
(iv) Cash salaries to officials and employees: During Mughal period, nobles,
mansabdars, soldiers, officials and other officials used to spend lavishly. This
also increased the internal as well as the external trade.
(v) Growth of new cities: During the Mughal period, some new towns and cities
were developed. Not only this, some of the old cities also rapidly extended.
Prominent towns and cities of the Mughal period were Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur
Sikri, Patna, Dhaka, Lahore, Multan, Peshawar, Surat, Goa, etc. According to
Dr Satish Chandra, ‘The demand for all types of luxury goods by nobles led to
the expansion of handicrafts production and to the growth of towns’. A study of
Agra shows that it doubled in area during the 17th century. According to Ralph
Fitch who came to India during Akbar’s reign, Agra and Fatehpur Sikri were
Self-Instructional
180 Material
each larger than London. Montserrat says that Lahore was second to none of Economic Aspects
of the Period
the cities in Europe or Asia. Similarly, Burnier says that Delhi was not much
less than Paris.
(vi) Advent of Europeans: Another factor which helped Indian’s trade and
commerce was the arrival of the Europeans. No doubt, the Portuguese came NOTES
before the Mughals but during the Mughal period their trade activities increased
considerably. The Dutch and the English traders arrived in India towards the
beginning of the 17th century. The Indian traders welcomed these foreign traders
to break the Portuguese monopoly of the sea trade, and in due course of time,
helped to establish a direct link between the Indian and the European markets.
Indian textiles became a large import of England by the last quarter of the 17th
century.
7.5 SUMMARY
 The economy during the Mughal rule was largely supported by agriculture.
Apart from agriculture, handicrafts, silk weaving and trade also formed an
integral part of the economy in the Mughal kingdom. Check Your Progress
 Improved transport and communication facilities helped the development of 5. Fill in the blanks:
economy during the reign of Mughal royal leaders. There was tremendous (a) Long distance
demand for cash crops like silk and cotton as because the textile industry was trade was
flourishing during the Mughal period. supported by
improved
 The artistic lifestyle of the Mughal rulers also encouraged art and architecture, conditions of the
handicrafts and trade in the country. During that era, the merchants and traders
were powerful classes. Trade—both inside the country and outside—grew systems.
tremendously. (b) was
the major
 Urbanization and fixed markets also helped in expanding the economy in Mughal commodity of
Empire. Initially, the weekly market concept was popular. Eventually, several trade and
trade centres were formed in prosperous cities with the growth of the economy. commerce along
the western
 Majority of the people earned their livelihood through agriculture. Different coast.
types of food and cash crops were cultivated. Agriculture in Mughal India (c) The Mughal
remained the most important source of economy. emperors could
build one of the
 Wheat was cultivated mostly in the northern and central regions of India. Further, finest coin
millets were also cultivated in wheat dominant areas and other drier districts. currencies in the
Apart from the food crops, the development of a number of cash crops also contemporary
world, a
formed an integral part of agriculture.
 Agriculture for the duration of the Mughal period also included vegetables and currency of great
fruits. They were mostly cultivated in the cities. During the Mughal rule, Indian uniformity and
purity.
economy was considered as the second largest in the world. In the 16th century,
(d) The Dutch and
the net domestic production of India was estimated to be around 24.5 per cent the English
of the total world economy. traders arrived
 Industry in India had been developing even before the Mughal rulers came in in India towards
the beginning of
but by the Mughal era, it had diversified to a great extent. A substantial number the
of people were involved in industry and produced a large number of goods in century.
considerable volumes. The large volumes helped in promoting international
trade.
Self-Instructional
Material 181
Economic Aspects  Besides textile, another important industry was the shipbuilding industry, despite
of the Period
the fact that India had fewer ports than many other countries.
 The state liberally gave grants to merchants and industries. The state also set
up royal Karkhanas (workshops) to work according to the needs of the Sultan
NOTES and his family.
 Trade in Mughal India was diversified and moderately developed. The vast
assortment and volume of products that were man-made in industries catered
to both large domestic as well as worldwide demands. Trade in Mughal India
involved huge numbers of people.
 The Mughal period was considered as the age of relative peace and in this
period trade and business flourished enormously. The growing foreign trade
led towards the establishment of marketplaces in towns and also in villages.
 According to the description of the foreign travellers, a number of important
towns and big cities existed along the main highways and rivers. In the markets
of these towns and cities, goods of necessity, comfort and luxury were available
in abundance.
 During the Mughal period, our foreign trade also flourished. India had external
trade with Central Asia, Burma, China, Persia, Sri Lanka, England, Portugal,
France and Holland. The foreign trade was carried out both by the land and the
sea routes.
7.6 KEY TERMS

 Sati: an ancient Indian tradition of the immolation of a widow on her husband’s
funeral pyre
 Hundi: These were legal financial instruments that evolved on the Indian sub-
continent. These were used in trade and credit transactions; they were used as
remittance instruments for the purpose of transfer of funds from one place to
another

1. (a) False; (b) True; (c) False
2. (a) Agra, Gujarat; (b) Ajmer; (c) Portuguese; (d) Wheat
3. Textiles and metal work were the two significant Mughal industries.
4. It was believed that Bengal alone produces more cloth than all of India and
Europe put together.
5. (a) Transport; (b) Pepper; (c) Tri-metallic; (d) 17th
Self-Instructional
182 Material
Economic Aspects
7.8 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES of the Period
NOTES
1. Discuss the economic condition of the people under the Mughals.
2. Discuss the social condition of the people under the Mughals.
3. Describe the foreign trade that flourished under Mughal rule.
1. Highlight the measures implemented by the Mughal Emperors for the
development of trade and commerce.
2. Describe the industries that existed in the Mughal period.
7.9 FURTHER READING

1982.
New Delhi, 1966.
New Delhi, 1992.
New Delhi, 1917.

 The importance of agriculture in the Mughal times
 The growth of industries in Mughal period
 The internal and European trade carried out during Mughal era
Self-Instructional
Material 183
Socio-Religious
Movements
UNIT 8 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS
MOVEMENTS NOTES
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Unit Objectives
8.2 Sufis: Orders, Beliefs and Practices
8.3 Bhakti Movement: Chaitanya and Shankaradeva
8.4 Sikh Movement: Guru Nanak
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Terms
8.9 Further Reading
8.0 INTRODUCTION
The previous unit discussed the socio-economic conditions of the Mughal Empire.
You learned that the central feature of the agrarian system under the Mughals was the
alienation of the peasant from his surplus produce in the form of land revenue which
was the main source of the state’s income. Three classes of people existed during the
Mughal Period—the upper class who led a luxurious life, the middle class and the
lower class. You also learned that the Period saw improvements in education as well
as literature, especially Persian and Hindi. Both internal and international trade
developed due to better roads and other amenities, especially during the time of
Aurangzeb.
This unit discusses the spread of Sufism in India, the development of the Bhakti
movement and the Sikh movement, including the role of Guru Nanak.
8.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

 Describe the order, beliefs and practices of the Sufis
 Discuss the Bhakti movement, focusing o the main proponents
 Trace the Sikh movement, highlighting the role of Guru Nanak
8.2 SUFIS: ORDERS, BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

Sufism is defined as the inner mystical dimension of Islam and whoever adheres to
the principles of Sufism is called a Sufi.
Sufism, more often than not, is referred to as a way of life, and encompasses
mysticism within it. Being a Sufi is all about being a true human being, free from all
bondages and possessing a clear conscience. Sufism is based on comprehending how
to be a complete person; to exist in total synchronization with the environment, after
surrendering to the will of God and to amalgamate one’s distinctiveness with that of Self-Instructional
Material 185
Socio-Religious God. Sufism is consequently a matter of conduct. It concerns personal conduct and
Movements
can be achieved with practice. It is difficult to put ‘Sufism’ in plain words. It needs to
be understood.
Questions regarding the exact period and the place of its origin remain
NOTES unanswered till date. Scholars also differ in their opinion regarding the origin of the
word ‘sufi’; The majority of them agree that the word was derived from ‘Suf’ which
is the Arabic term for wool. They base their theory on the fact that the early Sufis
wore coarse woollen garments as an act of austerity, and hence the name ‘Sufis’. The
minor group holds the view that sufi is derived from ‘safh’ which means cleanliness
or purity as the Sufis laid great stress on the wholesomeness of mind, body and
behaviour.
Close to the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries, most Muslim rulers lead a
luxurious life; courtesy the vast empires formed as a result of annexation and plundering
the wealth of the defeated kingdoms. This heightened the need of a more sober way
of life based on values and not just the desire for materialistic contentment. It was
believed that Sufism had originated in the midst of Muslims near Basra in modern
Iraq, and mostly all traditional Sufi schools owe their existence to the Prophet
Muhammad via his cousin and son-in-law Imam Ali Ibn Abi Talib. In the midst of
this, the Naqshbandi Order is a notable exception to this rule, as it traces its origin to
Caliph Abu Bakr. The spread of Sufism, or to be more precise, Sufism as a movement
took place between1200 and1500 CE. In fact, this period is acknowledged as the
conventional phase of Sufism. The Sufi movement was propagated from Baghdad’s
major Shia areas like Khorasa, Iraq, then Persia, the Indian, African subcontinents
and Muslim Spain.
Philosophy of Sufism
The fundamental nature of Sufism is the search and achievement of unconditional
non-existence, a condition that needs no affirmation other than the Almighty. The
notion of a cherished spiritual union of the soul with the Divine Entity is essential to
being a Sufi. When a person becomes a Sufi, they are in a way, spiritually activated
and their soul grows in harmony with God. A Sufi evolves ultimately (as per the Sufi
ideal) into an absolute through his own understanding and spiritual growth.
Sufis embrace that God has created man in his own image and although man is
God’s greatest creation who has been blessed with individuality, awareness and sense
of bliss, man is far from perfect. Since God is said to have create man in His own
image, man is definitely capable of achieving that same perfection but this perfection
only comes after tremendous and unerring spiritual efforts, dedication to the pursuit
and a lifetime of devotion. But God Himself is perfect, and so, the desire to accomplish
perfection is mirrored in human beings.
Man has passed through various stages of evolution to reach the evolved state
of a human being. This evolution is reflected in his capacity to be spiritually advanced.
All good and bad characteristics of the universe can be seen reflected in a human
being’s nature. A person is born with these characteristic qualities of the universe, but
in equilibrium. It is later that the good or the evil in each man comes forth. While no
human being is perfect, each one has been blessed with the ability to discern between
good and bad and to transform the bad into good in oneself. God has given man all
that is required to make spiritual progress—mind, wisdom, conscience, and so on,
and His Divine energy, which is called ‘Mercy’.
Self-Instructional
186 Material
By God’s grace, each man has been given the power to distinguish between the Socio-Religious
Movements
correct and the wrong path. Some human beings ignore their sense of the right and
are lead into sin such as worldly materialism, substance abuse, violence and so on.
This shows an inherent imbalance in one’s nature and forgetting of one’s original
goal—union with the Divine through spiritual progress. At any point of time, a misled NOTES
individual may use his or her discretion to come back to the right path through true
and honest repentance and prayer for forgiveness. The real meaning of Sufism lies in
following the right path and achieving perfection.
Leaders of the Sufi Movement
In the 13th century the major leaders of the Sufi movement were four friends popularly
referred to as ‘Chaar Yaar’— Baba Sheikh Farid Shakarganj of Pakpattan Jalaluddin
Bukhari of Uch Bahawalpur (AD1196– 1294) Bahauddin Zakaria of Multan
(AD1170–1267) and Lal Shahbaz Qalandar of Sehwan (AD1177–1274). The Sufi
who left a permanent mark both on India and on the times gone by of Sufism was
Abul Hasan Ali Ibn Usman al-Hujwiri, acknowledged as Daata Ganj Bakhsh, who
came to Lahore in AD 1035. The religion of the Chistis, founded by Khawaja Abdal
Chisti was introduced in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti.
Teachings of Sufism
The key tenet of Sufism is Wahdat-al-Wujud, or the ‘oneness of being’. This is a
direct derivation from the Shahada in Islam religion which can be loosely translated
as not only ‘there is no God but God’, but also as ‘there is no reality except Reality’.
One of the names of God, indeed, is al-Haqq, which means ‘Reality’ or ‘Truth’. The
Sufis believe that the relative has no reality other than in the Absolute, and the finite
has no reality other than in the Infinite. In Islam, man’s access to the Absolute and the
Infinite is considered to be the Holy Quran, which is God’s word to his followers, and
also the Prophet’s word, who, in this human world, is in God’s own image.
The basic philosophy of Sufism is that a human being can reach god only after
the ego is fully extinguished because ego has no place in God’s presence. However,
this is not to say that the eternal essence of the soul has to be extinguished. In fact,
what a human being must let go of is the chaos of the mind, the earthly passions and
longings, which tend to limit one’s consciousness to merely temporary appearances.
When a person succeeds in lifting the veil of selfishness from the Soul hidden from
view, it is only then that true Reality becomes visible and God can be felt with His all-
embracing Presence.
As per Sufi tenets, God resides not in the brain, but in the heart. Also, the heart
is the seat, not of sentiments, but of the Intellect or Spirit (ar-Ruh), which can go deep
to find Reality and surpass mental notions. Man’s consciousness is said to be located
in a dream-like state of forgetfulness acknowledged as Ghafla. Therefore, man must
be brought back to or reminded of the Truth that he has forgotten. The practice of
‘Dhikr’ which the Sufi must practice in a large variety of ways accomplishes this. In
essence, Dhikr includes the concepts of recollection, mindfulness, contemplation and
invocation.
The philosophy is not restricted to Islam and can in fact be considered a kind of
universal faith which professes liberal teaching and great tolerance as shown by the
conduct of most Sufis. The Sufi expression is not restricted to just the mental
dimensions, but can also be expressed through poetry and the visual arts. It has found
Self-Instructional
Material 187
Socio-Religious immense popularity because it conveys its message not just to the highly intellectual
Movements
or learned individuals or Islam believers, but also to the common man.
History of Sufism
NOTES History of Sufism reveals that it has followed a long period of evolution since the time
of its inception. In fact, Sufism was in existence even before the time of Prophet
Muhammad, despite the fact it gained recognition and popularity as a dogma only
after the coming of the Prophet.
According to Qushayri (988 AD) and some other scholars like Shahabuddin
Suhrawardi, the term ‘Sufi’ was first used at the end of second century Hijri i.e. in the
early ninth century AD. The term Sufi did not find a mention either in the Sihah-i-
Sittah compiled in the 9th and 10th century AD or in the Arabic dictionary, the Qamus
compiled in the early 15th century AD.
In its early days, Islam was a religion that professed reconciliation and harmony
with people in a gentle way rather than by using coercion. However, the undutiful
rule of the Umayyad immediately following the first four caliphs created such political
and social conditions that many Muslims chose asceticism and a secluded life which
they felt would bring them peace of the soul. Close to the end of the 1st century Hijri,
a number of Muslims moved off the lifestyle of seclusion and ascetics towards
contemplation, visions and ecstasy. While a life lived in austere conditions and poverty
had been previously considered necessary for gaining access to heaven, such a life
was now considered to be an expression of devotion to God. Besides this, slowly the
focus on material wealth was replaced by the lack of desire for possession. In other
words, complete detachment from all worldly possessions. However, most Muslims
were conservative in their beliefs and customs. Indeed, they did not understand the
difference between spirituality and religion and were entirely devoted to the teachings
of the Holy Quran and other Muslim traditions.
Immediately after the period following the times of the Prophet Mohammed,
the Sufis used to spend their lives in fasting and living according to Sharia (the Islamic
code of conduct). This means that they gave up earthly pleasures, such as pursuit of
wealth, fame, feasts and women. Instead, they liked to be alone and hermit-like, away
from the society—anonymous, hungry and celibate. They ate very little and put on
only the most basic clothing. Their main concerns were the punishments and rewards
reserved for the non-believers and the believers, respectively, in the after-life.
The caliphs in early times were owners of large tracts of land, were very wealthy
and played significant roles politically. As a result, many ancient centers of learning
and especially the traditional schools of mystical learning fell under their monopoly.
By that time, Buddhism had taken firm roots in Central Asia, which was ruled by
Muslims, along with northwest India. Sufis were considerably influence by these
external factors, in terms of the practices. They took up and developed a number of
practices (seemingly different from the ritual prayers) to magnify their spiritual visions
and to reach the state of ecstasy.
This progression of Sufi thinking was deeply affected by many things such as
the appearance of Mutazilis—a rationalist group within Islam, Batinis—an esoteric
group, Bisheriyas—an antinomian group, Christological sects like the Gnostics and
Manicheans and the mystical groups like the Hermetics and Neo-Platonists. Sufi
mystics are reported to have visited Christian monasteries, to study their devotional
literature and discuss spiritual aspects with them.
Self-Instructional
188 Material
A number of Sufis profess that their teachings existed even before Islam. They Socio-Religious
Movements
state that these were handed down from ancient times through various saints and
prophets in the form of knowledge conveyed from heart to heart.
By the time the 8th century drew to a close, Sufism had grown to a large degree
as a non-traditional method of realizing the Truth. A few early great Sufis were Hasan NOTES
of Basra, Wasil Ibn Ata, Abdullah Ibn Maymun, Ibrahim Ibn Adham, Rabia of Basra,
Maruful Karkhi, Khabit, Abu Sulaiman Darani, Ahmad Ibn Harith al Muhasibi, Dhul
Nun Misri, Abu Yazid Bistami, Hussain Mansoor Hallaj, Abu Said, Omar Khayyam,
Sanai, Ibn Arabi, Maulana Rumi and Hafiz. The period from AD 8 –9 marked the
emergence and growth of theosophical and Gnostic movements, besides Sufism. In
this same period, the works of Greek philosophers such as Plato, Pythagoras and
Aristotle were translated and studied. This era saw a rationalistic movement, which
led Sufism to take a new form and inculcate the attributes of theosophy, Gnosticism
and Pantheism.
A well-known personality, Dhul Nun Misri was a learned individual, for whom
it was common to experience states of ecstasy. For him, devotional music was equal
to a divine influence, which could bring one closer to God. He is considered by Jami
in Nafhat-ul-Uns to be the first to preach the doctrine of Sufism. Another learned
man, Abu Yazid al Bistami was one of the greatest Sufi Masters of the 9th century,
who was the first to talk about the concept of ‘Fana,’ i.e., obliteration or merger of
one’s own identity entirely with God. The pantheistic traits of Sufism can be credited
to Bayazid. So, it is in the 9th century that the Sufis are believed to have realized that
spiritual progress is not possible by simply following Sharia. While Sharia is
recommended and indeed necessary for Muslims, it is not sufficient. After this, they
started taking up various spiritual practices beyond Sharia, known as Tariqat (the
path). They believed that following Shariat and Tariqat was necessary to attain the
Haqiqat (the Truth).
The Sufi saints were mystics who came from Persia in the 11th century AD.
They believed that there is only one God and all people are his children. They too, like
the Bhakti saints, believed in equality and love for the fellow being and discarded
feasts, fasts and rituals. They also emphasized that one can come near God through
love and devotion. A form of devotional music (qawwali) emerged. They mixed freely
with the Hindus, and preached religious tolerance. The Sufis were organized into
twelve orders or Silsilahs.
Muin-ud-din Chisti
Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chisti was a Sufi saint who came to India in AD 1192. After
living in Lahore and Delhi for some time, he shifted to Ajmer. His fame spread far
and wide. He died in AD 1235. His dargah at Ajmer is a place of pilgrimage for
thousands who come every year from all over the country and beyond.
Baba Farid
Baba Shaikh Farid was one of the founding fathers of Chisti Sufi order. He became a
disciple of Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, who was a disciple of Sheikh Muin-
uddin Chisti. He preached in Haryana and Punjab. He insisted that the only way to
love God was through the love of his people. Some of his verses are included in the
Adi Granth and his followers included both Hindus and Muslims.
Self-Instructional
Material 189
Socio-Religious Nizamuddin Auliya and Salim Chisti
Movements
Hazrat Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Nasiruddin Chirag of Delhi and Salim Chisti
of Sikri were the other Sufi saints of fame. They preached that Ishwar and Allah are
NOTES the two different names of the same Superior Being. Nizamuddin Auliya lived in
Delhi during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and preached religious tolerance and love
for humanity.
In the later centuries, Sufism was also greatly influenced by the broadmindedness
of the Kashmiris, a composite of Hindu–Muslim culture, in particular in the 15th
century. It was for the period of this time that Sufism came to be influenced by other
religious beliefs as well. The ideal of life was considered to purify the soul, have love,
regard and trust in the humanity and to achieve a perfect harmony of co-existence.
There appeared a close resemblance between the lifestyles of Sufis and Hindu saints
as well as Buddhist monks.
It is consequently evident from the ongoing discussions on Sufism that the
Sufis have been in existence since ancient times and Sufism is much older than Islam.
The advent of Islam, with the proclamation of Prophet Muhammad of the unity of the
Supreme Being, i.e. there is one God, had the greatest influence on the Sufis of post-
Islamic period.
Principles of Sufism
Principles of Sufism were tabulated by Abdul Khaliq al Ghujdawani one of the greatest
Sufi saints of the Naqshbandi order. These principles essentially comprise the various
basic requirements and objectives of Sufism and the best way to practice the same.
To the list of principles that he compiled, three more were added later by Muhammad
Bahauddin Shah Naqshband.
The basic principles of Sufism were propounded by Abdul Khaliq al
Ghujdawani, who was one of the greatest Sufi Masters of the Naqshbandi Order of
Sufis. Till about the 6th century Hijri, the Sufis practised loud Dhikr (Jikr, Japa or
remembrance), i.e. they used to recite the name of the Almighty loudly. It was Shaikh
Gujdawani who introduced and propounded the system of silent Dhikr. He was the
first one in the Sufi orders to use silent Dhikr and was later considered the master of
silent Dhikr. He coined the following phrases to which three more principles were
added later by Muhammad Bahauddin Shah Naqshband after whom the order acquired
its name.
In his book Faslul Kitab, Shaikh Muhammad Parsa, a friend and biographer of
Shah Naqshband, said that the method of Shaikh Khwaja Abdul Khaliq al Ghujdawani
in Dhikr and the teachings enunciated in his Eight Principles were embraced and
hailed by all the forty Tariqats (Sufi Orders) as the way of Truth and loyalty.
The principles of Sufism laid down by him are as follows:
 Hosh dar Dam (Conscious Breathing): This tenet says that the real seeker is
always aware that he does not take even one breath which does not have God’s
thoughts in it. With every breath, he must try to remain in God’s presence.
Each breath that is taken with consciousness of God is life and each breath
taken recklessly is to be considered a loss. However, even a seeker may falter
and breathe recklessly. When that happens, the seeker must ask for god’s
forgiveness for that breath and God will purify it and prepare them for the real
Self-Instructional
190 Material
God, who is everywhere. With each breath one should make sure that the/she Socio-Religious
Movements
is not committing a sin or doing a wrong to someone.
 Nazar bar Kadam: A seeker should take every step with deliberation and
consciousness that he or she is not doing anything which may be against spiritual
progress towards God or may drag him/her down. The tenet also means that NOTES
the seeker should not look about idly as this may fill their mind with needless
images that make the mind vulnerable to corruption. The seeker should look
down at their feet while walking because the purer their mind is after becoming
a Sufi, the more likely it is to be corrupted. The simile one can consider is that
of a sport on an otherwise clean white sheet, which would be more noticeable
than a spot on a dirty sheet. While the first glance may be innocent and harmless,
the second glance would mean interest and deliberate intention. Therefore,
every step forward should be taken with Him in mind. Just like it is said that
one’s goal should always be in one’s focus.
 Safar dar Watan (Journey Homeward): This tenet asks the seeker to move
from the creation (the world) to the Creator (God). In other words, it means to
shift focus from worldly desires and passions and human weaknesses to move
towards acquiring godly traits. The Naqshbandi Sufi Order has divided this
journey into two phases—first, where the seeker desires and searches for the
Master (external journey), and second where the Master blesses and graces
the seeker (internal journey). In the second phase, the seeker’s heart becomes
pure and qualifies the seeker for Divine grace.
 Khilawat dar Anjuman (Solitude in the Crowd): Khilawat refers to
seclusion, which should be external as well as internal. External seclusion means
that the seeker should stay away from people and spend time on his own,
contemplating God. This will help to gain control over the senses and lead to
internal seclusion ultimately. In the state of internal seclusion, a seeker should
constantly focus on God, even while walking amongst a crowd or doing anything
else. This fixed state is one that Sufis must adopt so that they are forever with
the Almighty, undisturbed by worldly goings-on.
 Yad Kard (Essential Remembrance): ‘Yad’ means remembrance and ‘Kard’
means essence of remembrance. To keep oneself continuously engaged in
reciting the ‘Japa’ (the internal practice as directed by the Master) and in such
a manner that the seeker starts feeling the presence of the Master or the Almighty
in his heart is the Essential Remembrance.
 Baj Gasht (Returning): The literal meaning of ‘Baj Gasht’ is to return back
to the origin. In its true sense, however, it refers to developments for the period
of internal practice when the seeker may come across different experiences
such as sighting of light, activation of the mystique centres, acquiring miraculous
powers, and so on. However, these experiences may often result in the downfall
of the seeker as they may arouse the ego.
Consequently, the great masters of this order have recommended the seekers
to keep on praying to the Almighty at regular intervals affirming that He alone
is the objective of the seeker. The seeker should beg the Almighty for his love
and knowledge and to give him strength in whatever condition he finds himself.
 Nigah Dasht (Attentiveness): The seeker of God should always keep an eye
on his internal condition so that no doubt or ill ever arises despite the fact that
Self-Instructional
Material 191
Socio-Religious he constantly keeps on remembering the Almighty. If ever such a doubt arises,
Movements
one should immediately clear the doubt as otherwise it will become difficult to
do so later. Sufism is to protect one‘s heart from bad thoughts and from worldly
inclinations.
NOTES  Yad Dasht (Recollection): This term refers to continuous remembrance.
Through continual practice, a seeker becomes so adept in the remembrance of
God that it becomes effortless for him and not a conscious exercise. The
following are the three principles supplemented by Muhammad Bahauddin
Shah Naqshband.
 Wakoof Zamani (Awareness of Time): It is the duty of the seeker to ensure
that he or she spends all the time in the contemplation of God. This will also
lead him or her on the path to spirituality. Besides this, the seeker must be
aware of the wrongdoings and unfit actions and ask God’s forgiveness for the
same.
Check Your Progress  Wakoof Adadi (Awareness of Numbers): There can be two meanings of the
term. As per one meaning, a seeker should while holding the breath take the
with the name of God, reinforcing His Presence in the heart. The other meaning seems
appropriate word. to be that there is only one God and He alone should be remembered.
(a)  Wakoof Kulbi (Awareness of the Heart): As per this tenet, one eye of the
considered seeker should be forever trained on his Kulb (heart) so that his attention is
devotional music
to be a divine always focused on Divine Presence and is not distracted from this ultimate
influence, which goal.
could help one
attain the God.
(b) The Sufis 8.3 BHAKTI MOVEMENT: CHAITANYA AND
considered that SHANKARADEVA
following Shariat
and Tariqat is
essential to reach The Bhakti movement was a reform movement within Hinduism. ‘Bhakti’ means
the _. personal devotion to God. It stressed the union of the individual with God.
(c) Sufism as a Shankaracharya, who preached the advaita philosophy, was one of the most prominent
movement was religious teachers and revivalists of his time (8th century AD). His philosophy
prominent
between_ _. advocated that knowledge was necessary for worship.
(d) Sufis embrace Shankaracharya established four maths at Badrinath, Puri, Dwarka and Sringeri.
that is Ramanuja and Madhava were the great philosophers who flourished during the Cholas.
God’s greatest
and highest form
Unlike Shankaracharya, they preached devotion to God through love and not through
of creation. knowledge. Ramanuja condemned the caste system and believed in equality of all
(e) Sufism was men.
introduced in Many saints and devotional preachers led the Bhakti movement in different
India by .
parts of the country. In South, the sixty-three Nayanars or Shaivite devotees of Lord
(f) Safar dar Watan
means that the
Shiva organized and led the movement. They believed in the fact that true knowledge
seeker must can be achieved only through selfless devotion and worship of the Supreme Power.
move from the The Bhakti movement of the Vaishnavaites and that of the Shaivaites were simultaneous
world of creation and started almost together.
to the .
(g) The literal Characteristics of Bhakti Movement
meaning of ‘Baj
Gasht’ is to . The Bhakti Movement which originated in south India gained momentum during the
latter half of the Indian medieval period between AD 800–1700 and over the period
Self-Instructional
192 Material
of time it gradually spread to North India. The basic principle which the movement Socio-Religious
Movements
instilled in the people of India was absolute devotion to God.
A devotee could worship God by love and devotion. One characteristic of the
Bhakti movement was that they downplayed the need to worship idols or to perform
elaborate rituals for seeking His grace. Another feature on which the Bhakti saints NOTES
laid stress was the equality of all castes. There was no distinction of high or low
castes as far as the devotion to God was concerned. Moreover the propounders of the
Bhakti movement favoured Hindu–Muslim unity. According to these saints, all men,
irrespective of their religion are equal in the eyes of God.
The saints preached in the language of the common people. They did not use
Sanskrit, which was the language of the cultured few. These saints laid stress on
purity of heart and practice of virtues like truth, honesty, kindness and charity. According
to these saints, only a virtuous man could realize God. These saints considered God
as omnipresent and omnipotent. Even a householder could realize God by love and
devotion. Some saints regarded God as formless or Nirguna at the same time as
others considered him as having different forms or Saguna.
Many rites and rituals associated with the worship of God like Kirtan at a
Hindu Temple, Qawaali at a Dargah (by Muslims), and singing of Gurbani at a
Gurdwara are all derived from the Bhakti movement.
Factors that helped the development of the Bhakti movement
There were a number of factors, which contributed to the rise, and growth of the
Bhakti movement during the period of the medieval period.
(i) Destruction and desecration of Hindu temples by the Muslim invaders. They
destroyed idols of Hindu gods and goddesses. The Hindus lost faith in the
dependability of their religious rites and, consequently, chose the path of love
and devotion.
(ii) Persecution of the Hindus by the Muslim rulers, who tried to convert them to
Islam and imposed jaziya if they were not prepared to become followers of
Islam.
(iii) Ill-treatment of the lower classes in the Hindu society by the upper castes. The
people of the lower castes had to suffer injustice and cruelties.
Preachers of the Bhakti Movement
There were numerous socio-religious reformers who went about preaching the Bhakti
movement.
Ramanuja
The first great exponent of Bhakti was Ramanuja. He lived in the 11th century. He
asked his followers to worship Vishnu. He did not believe in Adi Sankara’s Advaita
doctrine according to which the universal soul and the individual soul are one.
According to Ramanuja, the individual souls exhale from him, but are not essentially
one with the Supreme Reality.
Ramananda
Ramananda propounded the Bakhti Movement in North India in the 14th century. He
entirely discarded the theory of caste system by birth. He preached the worship of
Self-Instructional
Material 193
Socio-Religious Rama and Sita. Persons of all castes became his disciples. Among his chief disciples
Movements
there was a barber, a chamar (leather worker) and a weaver. He preached in Hindi,
which was the language of the common man in northern India.
NOTES Vallabhacharya
Vallabhacharya was a Tailang Brahmin. He preached the worship of Vishnu in the
form of Krishna. He was born in AD1479 in the Telugu country. He visited Mathura,
Vrindavan and many other sacred places and finally settled at Varanasi.
Chaitanya
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, a Bhakti saint from Bengal, rejected the caste system and
preached the importance of devotion for the attainment of God. He was a devotee of
Lord Krishna and a Vaishnavite. He went about singing and dancing to the beating of
the drum, accompanied by a large number of followers, both Hindus and Muslims.
He did not care for rituals or caste distinctions. He travelled widely throughout Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa. He helped the old and the needy. People sing his hymns even today.
Kabir
Kabir probably lived in the 15th century, and was a disciple of Ramananda. He was a
weaver by trade. His dohe are sung all over the country even today. Kabir promoted
brotherhood among the people and was against discrimination based on caste or
religion. He preached that, ‘God is one; some call him Ram and some call him Rahim;
he is not found in any temple or mosque but dwells in the heart of man.’ Kabir tried to
bridge the gap between Hinduism and Islam and people of both the religions were his
followers. The followers of Kabir were called Kabirpanthi.
Mira Bai
Mira Bai was a Rajput princess who was married into the ruling family of Mewar.
She was a passionate devotee of Lord Krishna. Her songs or hymns are famous and
sung all over India even today. Mira made no caste distinction and her doors were
open to people of all castes.
Sant Jnaneshwar
The greatest saint of Maharashtra was Jnaneshwar, who preached in the 13th century.
He wrote the Bhagavad Gita in Marathi. He worshipped Vishnu and spread his message
of love throughout western India.
Shankaradev
When the Bhakti movement was sweeping over all of India, Shankardev was its
messenger for Assam. He is responsible for adding culture to the Assamese society
through songs, musical instruments, dances, literature, festivals, monasteries, ethical
movement and concept of non-violence. Shankaradev is considered the most-
remembered and most influential religious leader in Assam, who singlehandedly ignited
a sense of consciousness through his philosophy and saintly ways. His most well-
known disciple was Madhavdev, who later was pivotal in laying the foundation for a
spiritual order.
The unique strength of Shankardev was that he introduced Vaishnav ideals into
a mixed society of assorted ethnic and cultural races, which were previously notorious
for such practices as tantrism, animism, sorcery and human and animal sacrifice.
Self-Instructional Shankardev, through his teachings, opened up the Assamese society to the rest of the
194 Material
world. In the words of Bani Kanta Kakati, ‘the land was infested with itinerant teachers Socio-Religious
Movements
of the Vamacara tantric schools with the insistence on the philosophy of sex and the
palate. Tantric brand of sakta Hindu faith came to be overloaded by occult primitive
practices and thereby was degenerated’.
The philosophy of Shankardev is based on the Bhakti cult propounded by the NOTES
Bhagavat Puraan. It propounds the concept of complete surrender to the will of God,
as stated in the Gita. Shankardev propounded the eka-sarana-nama, a liberal ideology
acceptable to all, which prescribes the worship of one and only reality in the person of
Narayana who according to Shankardev, represents the saguna aspect of the absolute
reality. The Vaishnav saint forbade the worship of any deity other than Vishnu-Krishna-
Narayana. He thus succeeded in establishing his motto of monotheism in place of the
prevailing polytheism and animism.
Namdeva
Namdeva, another saint from Maharashtra, was first a tailor, a bandit and later a
Bhakti saint. He composed in Marathi, travelled far and wide and held discussions
with the Sufi saints. He had a large number of followers belonging to all castes.
Guru Nanak, the first guru (divine teacher) of the Sikhs (disciples), was born
at Talawandi in west Punjab in AD 1469. He preached that there is one God, who is
the creator of the Universe, that God is truth. Guru Nanak, like the saints of his time,
refuted the authority of the Brahmins and useless rites and rituals. He was against the
caste system, which separated human beings from each other. In order to remove
caste distinction and bring them closer to each other, he insisted that his followers Check Your Progress
must dine from a common kitchen or langar.
2. State whether true
Nanak saw no distinction between Islam and Hinduism and tried to bring the or false.
followers of the two religions closer to each other. The teachings of Guru Nanak are
(a) The Bhakti
written in the form of verses in the book Adi Granth. He died in AD 1539. Movement
His chosen successor, Guru Angad, gave the community a greater cohesion gained
momentum
and a sense of identity. He had recorded the sayings of Guru Nanak in a specially during the latter
devised script called Gurumukhi, meaning from the Guru’s mouth. The third guru half of the Indian
found in Akbar a great patron. During his time more people converted to this faith. medieval period
Sikhism believed in community eating. It did not believe in the purdah system or between AD
800–1700.
caste distinctions. Akbar’s religious tolerance and generosity saw the fourth guru,
Ram Das, the beneficiary of a piece of land on which now stands the sacred Golden (b) The Bhakti
Movement gave
Temple which was completed by Ram Das’ son Arjan, the fifth guru. He named the importance to
city Amritsar (Pool of Immortal Nectar) as there stands the tank filled with sacred idol worship.
water. Arjan also compiled the Granth Sahib, the sacred book for the Sikhs, and had 3. Fill in the blanks
it kept safely in the Golden Temple. with the
appropriate word.
Guru Nanak combined the Sufi and Bhakti ideas and had both Muslims and
Hindus as followers. God, according to him, was nirankara (without form), akal (a) One of the first
great exponents
(eternal) and alakh (one who could not be known). He used both Hindu and Muslim of Bhakti
names for God, i.e., Allah, Ram, Khuda, Govinda. was_ _.
(b)
propounded the
ACTIVITY Bhakti
Movement in
North India in
Prepare a list of prominent Sufi saints and Hindu religious leaders of the the 14th century.
Mughal period.
Self-Instructional
Material 195
Socio-Religious
Movements 8.4 SIKH MOVEMENT: GURU NANAK
Guru Nanak was born into a Bedi Hindu Kshatriya family in Talwandi (today known
NOTES as Nankana Sahib, near Lahore, Pakistan) on 15 April 1469. His father, Mehta Kalyan
Das Bedi was the patwari (accountant) for the village of Talwandi.
Guru Nanak’s mother was Tripta Devi and Bibi Nanaki was his elder sister.
Nanki was married to Jai Ram, who was the steward (modi) to Daulat Khan Lodi, the
eventual governor of Lahore. Guru Nanak was attached to his older sister and followed
her to Sultanpur to live with her. Guru Nanak also found work with Daulat Khan,
when he was around 16 years old.
Guru Nanak was an intelligent child. He was different from others. Since childhood,
he had a deeply contemplative mind and all efforts to engage him in worldly pursuits
had failed. At age seven, his father enrolled him at the village school. As a child Guru
Nanak surprised his teacher by describing the implied symbolism of the first letter of
the alphabet, resembling the mathematical version of one, as denoting the unity or
oneness of God. Guru Nanak was a contemporary of following three Lodhi dynasty
rulers:
 Babar Lodhi (1451–1489)
 Sikandar Lodhi (1489–1517)
 Ibrahim Lodhi (1517–1526)
Nanak got great satisfaction in serving the poor and needy. An important story of his
childhood tells us that once his father gave him some money to start a business in the
neighbouring town. On the way, Nanak saw some sadhus (hermits or sages) who had
not eaten for many days. Nanak purchased food for them with the money given by his
father and they had a good meal. When Nanak’s father asked him what business
venture he started with the money, he replied that he made a ‘most profitable bargain’.
On noticing that Nanak was not interested in business his father sent him to Sultanpur
Lodhi, a town in Kapurthala district of Punjab. Here, Nanak was employed as a
storekeeper by the local ruler. This duty was discharged by Nanak with great integrity.
It was during his stay at Sultanpur Lodhi that Nanak got his enlightenment.
According to popular traditions, one morning when Nanak went for a dip in the river
Beas flowing nearby, he was absorbed in the thoughts of God and was ushered into
the divine presence. Blessed by the Almighty, Nanak came out of the river to preach
the holy name of the God. The first words that Nanak uttered after his enlightenment
were ‘there is no Hindu and there is no Musalman’. At a time when the Hindus and
the Muslims were engaged in sectarian conflicts, these words heralded Nanak’s new
mission of reconciliation of the two.
Basic Elements of Sikhism
In this section, you will study basic concepts of Sikhism.
Concept of Ishwar
The basic belief of Sikhism is that God exists as a real entity and not just as an idea or
a design. The Gurus have described God in numerous ways in their hymns that are
included in the Guru Granth Sahib. These hymns emphasize on the unity of the deity.
Self-Instructional
196 Material
The best definition that any Sikh can give to the concept of God in Sikhism is Socio-Religious
Movements
by quoting the Mulmantra–the fundamental creed of Sikhism, which occurs at the
beginning of Sri Guru Granth Sahib. It is mentioned in the first verse of the Guru
Granth Sahib as follows:
There exists but one God, who is called The True, The Creator, Free from fear NOTES
and hate, Immortal, Not begotten, Self-Existent, Great and Compassionate.
Sikhism is a monotheistic religion and it urges its followers to practice strict
monotheism. It believes in only one supreme God who, in the unmanifest form, is
called Ek Omkara. In the manifest form, God is called Omkara and he has the following
several attributes:
 Kartar (The Creator)
 Akal (The Eternal)
 Sattanama (The Holy Name)
 Sahib (The Lord)
 Parvardigar (The Cherisher)
 Rahim (The Merciful)
 Karim (The Benevolent)
He is also called as Wahe Guru–the one true God. Sikhism also does not believe in
Avataravada, i.e., the doctrine of incarnation. It says that the Almighty God does not
incarnate Himself in various Avataras. Sikhism is strongly against idol worship.
Sikhism assumes that God is Karta Purakh, the maker being. He created the
whole spatial universe not from some pre-existing forcible elements, but from his
own self. So, the universe is his emission. It is not a maya or illusion but it is real. As
Guru Arjan Singh said, ‘True is He and true is His creation because all have exhaled
from God himself.’ But God is not identical with the universe. Rather, the universe is
contained within him. Sikhism also believes that God is Akal Murat (eternal being)
and Nirbhay (fearless). Thus, in Sikhism, God has been described in three different
aspects, i.e., God in Himself, God’s relation to creation and God’s relation to man.
God by himself is nirguna (without attributes). He is timeless, formless and boundless.
Whenever it suits Him, he becomes saguna (with attributes) and sees himself in
conception.
God’s relation with man is unique as the latter is his most precious creation. He is the
only species which has the ability to think and understand. It has been said by Guru
Arjan that once the soul has been born as a human being, its endeavour should be to
unite with God. For this, the human being should have a craving for the Lord. Sikhism
assigns the following characteristics to God:
 Worship and meditation are only meant for God.
 He is the creator, upholder and also the destroyer.
 God is kind.
 God is wise.
 With His grace, he comes to stay in our mind and body.
 He is the ultimate protector of all living things.
 Only God’s will can ensure that poverty, pain and disease are eradicated.
 God is everywhere.
Self-Instructional
Material 197
Socio-Religious Concept of Bhakti
Movements
Hinduism has been the religion of India for ages. The Vedas demonstrate this point.
With the advent of Buddhism and Jainism, Hinduism became slightly sidelined as
NOTES people began exploring these other two religions. However, by the 7th century AD,
Hinduism had regained its lost glory and had become the most important religious
faith of the country.
The Bhakti movement in Medieval India is chiefly responsible for the many
rites and rituals that are linked with the reverence of God by Hindus, Muslims and
Sikhs. The word Bhakti has been derived from the term Bhakta, which means to
serve, revere, adore, love and honour. In the religious context, Bhakti describes a
fervent devotion to God and it is defined as ‘that particular affection for God which is
mothered by the knowledge of the attributes of the adorable one.’
The Bhakti movement spread into numerous movements all over North and
South India. In North India, the movement cannot be distinguished from the Sufi
movement of the Shia Muslims of Chishti fame. The first Punjabi Sufi saint who
emerged from the sufi saints belonging to the Chishti order was Baba Sheikh Farid
Shakarganj. He paved the way for Punjabi patriotism and even brought peace among
the Hindus and Muslims.
In North India, the Bhakti cult basically consisted of Vaisnavas. Rather than
concentrating on Vishnu, it chose to concentrate on Vishnu’s human embodiments –
Rama and Krishna, the two incarnations of Vishnu who were central to the two epics
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Those who followed the Bhakti movement, for
them, Rama and Krishna were the direct objects of devotion. In the twelfth and
thirteenth century, the followers of the movement admitted saints such as Bhagat
Namdev and Kabir. These saints insisted on the devotional singing of praises of the
Lord through their own compositions.
Since the Bhakti movement started before Guru Nanak many historians have
said that Sikhism was nothing more than a Bhakti movement of Punjab. It is completely
wrong and is against the basic Sikh virtues of equality of humans and worship of one
God. The ultimate Guru of a Sikh is the Guru Granth Sahib, which includes only
about 10 per cent of the verses of the Bhakti saints.
As a famous Sikh author says, ‘Sikhism undoubtedly accepted some of the
aspects of the Bhakti movement and admitted some of its practices into its ordained
set. It did lay down spiritual love as the way to the deity, but the deity to be worshipped
was neither Shiva nor Vishnu. Further, it could not be any of the incarnations of Shiva
or Vishnu or any other God of the Hindu pantheon. It was the one and only God, the
Lord of the Universe who was at once transcendent (Nirguna) and immanent (Sarguna).
Renunciation of the world as a spiritual pursuit thus stood rejected and celibacy was
also no more countenanced under Sikhism. Instead, full participation in life in a spirit
of detachment was prescribed.’
Sikhism lays huge stress on equality between male and female, good work
ethic and leading a righteous married life. Sikhism enunciated thus ‘of all the religious
rules and observances, grihasthya (the homestead) is supreme. It is from here that
everything else is blessed.’
Concept of Shabad
Shabad means hymn. In Sikhism, a shabad is a sacred song that is selected from
Self-Instructional
Sikhism’s scripture Guru Granth Sahib. Shabad is connected with surti, which has to
198 Material
be attuned to the melody of shabad to realize God. In this process, it becomes the Socio-Religious
Movements
Guru and surti, absorbed in its melody, is its follower. For achieving union of surti
with shabad, one has to continuously remember God and try to mould one’s life to
truthful living. It is not a simple affair.
The shabads or hymns of Guru Granth Sahib are known as Gurbani or the NOTES
Guru’s word, and are written in the Gurmukhi script and composed in raag (musical
score). The main focus of any Sikh worship service is kirtan (singing of the sacred
shabads of Gurbani). Shabads may be sung by kirtanis (individual singers) or ragis
(professional singers well versed in Gurbani) accompanied by sangat (members of
the Sikh congregation).
Concept of Guru
Almost all the great religions of the world highlight the need of a preceptor or Guru or
holy man for the achievement of salvation. The Vedas list the qualities of a religious
guide. Even Guru Nanak has highlighted that bliss can be attained only through a
Guru. Sikhism does not identify any chosen prophets. Guru Nanak Sahib did not
insist on a human or physical Guru. Rather, his Guru was God Himself.
The importance of the Guru in Sikhism can hardly be overemphasized. What is
important in Sikhism is not the person but the word. It is said in Sikhism, ‘The word
is the Guru. The Guru is the word. If the devotee follows what the word says, surely
the Guru will save him.’ This is the reason why Guru Gobind Singh installed the
Granth Sahib as the Guru of all times. He had observed that Sikhs do not need any
man as their Guru as the word is now with them. Guru Arjan Sahib had said, ‘Without
a Guru, liberation cannot be won. The Guru is my boat, which will ferry me across
the rough ocean of existence.’
Guru Ramdas Sahib had said, ‘The Guru is the Sikh and the Sikh who practices
the Guru’s word is equal to the Guru.’ Guru Gobind Singh Sahib had said, ‘I live and
have my being in the Khalsa.’ The Guru lives in the form of the Panth (Group) and
resides in the Sangat (Collective). All the Gurus are identical with Guru Nanak. Guru
Gobind Singh passed on the corporal succession to the Panth, which is regarded as
the embodiment of the Guru. The Panth represents the Guru and is progressing well
with the passage of time. It is a dynamic and corporate personality with authority to
make decisions that are binding on the Sikhs. Thus, we see that there is a two-fold
concept of the Guru–one permanent and the other progressive. The word is the
embodiment of eternal and changeless truth, while the Panth is the progressive,
collective personality of the Guru among the Sikhs.
Guru Granth Sahib is the living embodiment of the ten Gurus of the Sikhs. It is
the living flame of the name, which lights the lamp of the disciple. There is no place
for a living Guru in the Sikh religion because Gurbani is Guru and Guru is Gurbani.
This is the permanent Guru concept of Sikhism. When a Sikh is in doubt about any
principle of Sikhism, he refers the matter to the Panth for a decision or clarification.
This is the progressive Guru concept of Sikhism.
Sikhism in India
Founded in India, Sikhism has had a profound impact on Indian society. It had a
calming influence on the warring Hindus and Muslims through its message of unity
of God and brotherhood of mankind. Sikhism managed to dent the strong hold of the
caste system in Indian society by strongly condemning it. As visualized by Guru
Self-Instructional
Material 199
Socio-Religious Nanak, Sikhism actually turned into a religion that played the role of a reconciler
Movements
between Hinduism and Islam. It drew from both the religions and their followers and
achieved some kind of a synthesis. It preached equality of all religions and included
several hymns of the Hindu Bhaktis or Bhaktas and Muslim saints in the Granth
NOTES Sahib.
The Sikh Gurus gave a positive direction to the Indian society by emphasizing
upon transcendental humanism and other spiritual values. Realizing that Indian society
was bereft of love and understanding at that point in time (fifteenth and sixteenth
century), the Sikh Gurus preached the philosophy of love and compassion of the God.
Sikhs in India have been peace-loving people and have been very industrious.
They are hard working and have migrated to other countries in search of a better
livelihood. However, things took an ugly turn in the 1980s and 1990s when militant
and aggressive Sikh groups tried to create a new country of Khalistan from out of the
existing State of Punjab. Terrorist acts resulted in many killings and the Hindus in
Punjab were unlawfully targeted. Many Hindus were murdered in cold blood.
Things neared normalcy towards the mid-1990s but the fair name of Sikhism
was tarnished by the acts of the militant Sikhs. However, Sikhism continues to evoke
love and respect from Hindus and Muslims because of the universal brotherhood
preached by it. Sikhism symbolizes the great plurality of modern India as it happily
co-exists with so many other religious faiths.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks
with appropriate
words.
(a) The chief belief

of Sikhism is
faith in Wahe
Guru. 8.5 SUMMARY
(b) is one
of the youngest In this unit, you have learnt that:
religions in the
world.  The most important attributes that have contributed to the wide acceptance of
State whether the Sufism is their philosophy of love for humanity, purity of mind and perfection
following are in conduct.
true or false.
 History of Sufism reveals that it has followed a long period of evolution since
(a) Nanak derived
great satisfaction
the time of its inception. In fact, Sufism had existed even before the time of
in serving the Prophet Muhammad.
poor and needy.
 According to Sufism, since God Himself is perfect, the desire to accomplish
(b) Sikhism lays perfection is reflected overwhelmingly in the human beings.
emphasis on
equality between  The central doctrine of Sufism is Wahdat-al-Wujud, or the ‘oneness of being’.
male and female.
 The Bhakti Movement which originated some time in AD 800 – 1700 brought
Self-Instructional about many social reforms in the people of India.
200 Material
 The movement propounded seeking God with complete devotion and did not Socio-Religious
Movements
favour idol worship. It also proclaimed that in the eyes of the Almighty, there
are no high or low castes. The Movement helped strengthen Hindu– Muslim
relations among the people. The chief belief of Sikhism is faith in Wahe Guru.
The Sikhs call their God as Wahe Guru, which means that God is great. NOTES
 Sikhism is one of the youngest of all religions in the world. Its history goes
back to the year 1469 AD.
 The basic belief of Sikhism is that God exists as a real entity and not just as an
idea or a design.
 Sikhism lays huge emphasis on equality between male and female, good work
ethics and leading a righteous married life.
 The Sikh Gurus gave a positive direction to the Indian society by emphasizing
upon transcendental humanism and other spiritual values.
8.6 KEY TERMS

 Sufism: Defined as the inner mystical dimension of Islam and whoever adheres
to the principles of Sufism is called a Sufi
 Dhikr: The practice of reciting the name of the Almighty loudly
 Nayanmars: The sixty-three saintly devotees of Shiva are known as Nayanmars
(Nayanars)
 Khalsa: A group of baptized Sikhs
 Panth: The entire Sikh community
 Pantheon: All the Gods of a particular religion
 Sangat: The collective body of Sikhs, who are members of a congregation

1. (a) Dhul Nun Misri; (b) Haqiqat; (c) AD 1200 –1500; (d) Man; (e) Khwaja
Muinuddin Chisti; (f) World of Creator; (g) Return to the origin
2. (a) True; (b) False
3. (a) Ramanuja; (b) Ramananda
4. (a) Wahe Guru; (b) Sikhism
5. (a) True; (b) True
1. What is Sufism? Add a note on the philosophy of Sufism.
2. Who was Guru Nanak? What message did he give to humanism?
3. Discuss the origin of the Bhakti Movement in India.
4. Discuss the concepts of God, Bhakti and Guru in Sikhism.
Self-Instructional
Material 201
Socio-Religious Long-Answer Questions
Movements
1. Analyse the teachings of Sufism.
2. Discuss the emergence of Sufism in India.
NOTES 3. Analyse the various principles of Sufism.
4. Analyse the teachings of the various propounders of the Bhakti Movement and
the socio-cultural reforms that occurred in India.
5. Write briefly about the impact that Sikhism had on India.
8.9 FURTHER READING

Hussain, Hamid; Sufism and Bhakti Movement, Manak Publications, New Delhi,
2007.
Sharma, Krishna; Bhakti and the Bhakti Movement, Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers, New Delhi, 2002.
Hasnain, N.; Indian Society and Culture: Continuity and Change, Jawahar Publishers
and Distributors, New Delhi, 2004.
Naidu, A. and Murty, K.; Indian Society: Structure and Change, Kitab Mahal, Cuttack,
1989.
 The order, beliefs and practices of the Sufis

 The Bhakti movement, focusing o the main proponents
 The Sikh movement, highlighting the role of Guru Nanak
Self-Instructional
202 Material
Social and Cultural Life
UNIT 9 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

Structure
NOTES
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Unit Objectives
9.2 Classification of Society
9.2.1 Position of Women
9.3 Development of Literature
9.4 Art, Architecture and Painting
9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Terms
9.9 Further Reading
9.0 INTRODUCTION
The emperor was supreme in the society of the Mughal times and under him was a
feudal system. The emperor had a matchless status and ruled as the final authority in
every way. After him came the rank of nobility, which included the zamindars and the
chieftains. The only way to be a part of the aristocratic class was through the clan or
family links.
The Mughals promoted art and architecture in every way and as a result, both
flourished. Another reason for this development was that new ideas had been
successfully adopted from the Sultanate and the insecurity of the Sultanate period
was not there to disrupt the growth of culture. With the backing of the authoritative
Mughal rulers, remarkable works in art and architecture were begun in all regions of
the kingdom. Besides architecture, painting was a well-liked and accepted expression
of art in those times. Due to this reason, a Mughal school of painting developed,
which was distinct from all other styles of painting.
However, after Jahangir passed away, Mughal art declined gradually because
Shah Jahan was not much fond of art and did not have any knowledge regarding art.
After him, even Aurangzeb was not a patron of art, and as a result the Mughal painters
moved on to other autonomous states in Rajasthan and other countries where they
could work with artistic freedom as they wanted. As far as monuments are concerned,
all Mughal kings had a fine eye, except Aurangzeb who felt that great buildings were
only indulgences and did not believe in spending state money on their construction
and maintenance.
In this unit, you will learn about the classification of society in Mughal times,
and trace the development of literature, art and architecture in the Mughal era.
9.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

 Explain the classification of society in Mughal times
 Discuss the position of women in society
Self-Instructional
Material 203
Social and Cultural Life  Trace the development of literature in the Mughal era
 Identify the development in art, architecture and literature in the Mughal period
NOTES 9.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIETY
Common Men
During the Mughal period, majority of the society belonged to the class of the
commoners. Among the common men in Mughal times could be included the peasants,
labourers, artisans, etc. The people of this class led a comparatively hard life. The
food of the people of this class was very ordinary. The normal food of the commoners
was boiled rice, chapatti, pulses, saag and some other vegetables with salt, although
the most universal and popular was Khichari, which was prepared in an ordinary
way, and was taken without ghee and butter. The diet of an ordinary Muslim was
simple like that of Hindu. This normal meal consisted of wheat bread, fried bread and
chicken. The people of this class could not afford good and costly clothes. Their
clothing was generally insufficient, and they could not afford to use woollen garments.
Babur was struck by the scanty clothes worn by the common people. He observed
that ‘peasants and people of the low standing go about naked’. He described the
langota or decency cloth worn by men and the Sari worn by women. His impression
has been corroborated by later travellers. Ralph Fitch, who came to India towards the
end of the 16th century, says that ‘at Banaras, the people go naked save a little cloth
bound about their middle’.
Writing about the people of the common class between Lahore and Agra, Sal
Bank says, ‘The plebeian is so poor that a great part of them go naked’. Abul Fazal,
the court historian of Akbar, writes that men and women of Bengal for the most part
go naked wearing only a cloth about their loins, and this appears to have been true for
a bulk of India’s teeming millions. De Laet wrote that ‘the labourers had insufficient
clothing to keep themselves warm and cosy during winter’. However, Fitch observed,
‘In the winter which is our May, the men wear quilted gowns of cotton, and quilted
caps’. But their accounts do not appear to be completely true.
Because the accounts of many contemporary historians prove that the Indians
used clothes in an abundant skepticism. In fact, the remarks of the foreign travellers
need to be treated with some skepticism. Coming from a colder climate and not
familiar with the climate and traditions of India, the impression of nakedness which
they gained was natural. The overall impression remains one of insufficient clothing
rather than nakedness. According to Padshahanama of Lahauri, the people used lungis
(loincloth) in private. When and where the climate was cold, the people covered
themselves more fully. Generally, the Hindu of this class wore dhoti and kurta, and
the women wore sari, blouse along with some inner garments. The usual dress of an
average Muslim appears to have been a payjamah (ijar), an ordinary shirt, and a cap
on his shaven head. The women of this community used to wear salwar, shirt or long
kurta along with burkha.
As far as the housing and furniture was concerned, little needs to be said. Most
of the people of this class used to live in houses made of mud. They had hardly any
furniture except cots and bamboo mats, and earthen utensils, which were made by
the local potter. Copper and bell, metal plates, and utensils were expensive, and were
generally not used by commoners. The poor people of the village often came to cities
Self-Instructional
204 Material
in search of jobs and worked there as porters, domestic servants and artisans. This Social and Cultural Life
was partly due to the natural growth of the population, and partly due to their
abandoning their cultivation due to the famine or other unfavourable circumstances,
such as over-assessment. As far as the cities and the towns were concerned, the largest
class consisted of the poor artisans, the servants and slaves, the soldiers, petty NOTES
shopkeepers, etc.
The salary of the lowest grade of servant, according to European travellers,
was less than 2 per month. The bulk of the means and foot soldiers began at less than
2 per month. But because the costs of the things were less, these people did not have
to suffer much, in spite of the fact that their pay was very low.
The Middle Classes
According to historians like Mooreland, in this age, middle class or the intelligentsia
was almost non-existent. This is partly true because even at that time there were
Vakils, Hakims, Vaidyas, and scholarly Pandits and Ulemas throughout the country,
though their number was very low as compared to the population of the country.
According to the well-known historian, Dr Satish Chandra, ‘The middle class in
medieval India consisted mainly of merchants, professional classes, such as Vaidyas
and Hakims, and officials’. The people of this class lived a frugal life, free from
luxury. The merchants lived simple and temperate lives. As Bernier observed, they
would always try to conceal their wealth and deliberately lived in a state of studied
indigence because they were afraid lest they should be robbed of their wealth by the
provincial governors who were at once covetous and corrupt. In fact, there was a high
degree of professionalism among the Indian merchants. Some specialized in wholesale
trade and others in retail trade, the former being called Seth or Bohra and the latter
Beoparis or Banik.
In south India, the Chettis formed the trading community. There was a special
class, banjaras, who specialized in the ‘carrying’ trade. The banjaras used to move
from place to place, overladen with salt, ghee, food grains, haldi, etc. The majority of
the Pandits and the Ulemas were dependent on charity and were servants of the states.
Therefore, this class could not undertake the intellectual leadership of the society and
used to think of augmenting comforts by making the upper classes happy.
In religious matters, the Pandits and the Ulemas had great effect on ordinary
people but they did not have the capacity to provide moral leadership to the country
and free them from any social evils. The middle class people were often depressed
because they wanted to live like the people of high class in a luxurious manner, but
because of their lesser income, they could not do so. There was a lot of use of wine in
this class. They also gave great attention towards cosmetics, etc.; their standard was
not as high as that of nobility but their financial condition was better. The middle
classes managed to have their meals thrice daily. On the occasions of marriage and
festivity, they indulged in extravagances beyond their means.
Higher Classes
In this division came the people of three categories. Firstly, in this class came the
Emperor, very high officials, Mansabdars and Zamindars. Second came the provincial
rulers— Mansabdars and other nobles. Thirdly, the Gazirdars or the land-owners,
etc., were also the part of the high class.
The ruling class used to enjoy the highest standard in the society, both socially
and economically; the Mughal nobility formed a privileged class. Theoretically, the Self-Instructional
Material 205
Social and Cultural Life door of the Mughal nobility was open to everyone. In practice, persons belonging to
the aristocratic families, whether they were Indian or foreigners, had a decided
advantage. To begin with, the bulk of the Mughal nobles were drawn from the homeland
of the Mughal, Turan, and from its neighbouring areas, Tajakistan, Khursana, Iran,
NOTES etc. The Mughal rulers never followed a narrow racialist policy, recruiting their nobles.
Along with the Mughals, highest nobles were appointed from the Afghans, the
Hindustani Muslims, the Rajputs and other Hindus also. The nobles tried to live up to
the standard of the Emperor, and had the same vices and virtues.
Mughal court habits were carried to the Rajputana by the Rajput Rajas. The
nobles of this period lived in a great style and most of the European travellers testify
that their standard of living was much higher than that of the European monarchs.
The Mughal nobles received extremely high salaries but their expenses were also
very high. Each noble maintained a large train of servants and attendants and a large
stable of horses, elephants and transport of all types. Many of them maintained a
large harem of women, which was considered normal for a man of a status during
Mughal period. They used to spend lavishly on clothes, food and ornaments. Their
life was luxurious. Because of their spendthrift nature and not saving enough money,
many nobles used to be in debt at the time of their deaths. Some nobles used to invest
in trade. Some purchased land, bought gardens and got markets constructed, and
some people from this class made fruits of new kinds popular. Many nobles extended
patronage to musicians, poets, scholars and painters. They also encouraged many
artisans.
From the writing of Abul Fazal and other contemporary scholars, it is clear that
the personal ownership of land was very old in India. The right of the ownership in
land depended mainly upon succession. But new rights of ownership were being
created all the time. The tradition was that anyone who first brought land under
cultivation was considered its owner. In addition to owning the lands they cultivated,
a considerable section of Zamindars had the hereditary right of collecting the land
revenue from a number of villages. They used to get a share of the land revenue. The
Zamindars had their own armed forces and they generally lived in forts or garhis,
which was both a place of refuge and a status symbol. In the whole of India, Zamindars
were called by different names like Sri Deshmukh, Patil, Naik, etc.
In addition to the Zamindars, there was a large class of religious leaders and
scholars also whom the Emperor granted land due to their qualities and services to
the Mughal empire. Such grants were given for their maintenance and were called
milk or Madad-i-Massh. Although these grants were to be renewed by every ruler,
they often became hereditary in practice. We have little idea of the living standard of
this particular section of high class. But this can be said definitely that their living
standard was far better than the people of middle and lower classes.
Family Life during the Mughal Period
Majority of the people lived in a joint family. There was no place for private property
within the joint family but all members had a right to spend from the joint income of
the family. This family system on the one hand kept the people under the feeling of
mutual cooperation, while on the other hand, it hindered the development of the feeling
of self-dependence and the cultivation of individual personality traits. In a joint family,
generally all the members were supposed to follow the orders of the oldest male
member. The system of joint family was popular among the Hindus as well as among
the Muslims during the Mughal period. The well known historian K.M. Ahsraf writes
Self-Instructional
206 Material
about the joint family of the medieval period. ‘In rural countries the family is the Social and Cultural Life
major institution of domestic life; it ranks even above the church and the state. The
Indians in this respect are still a family community.’
Caste System NOTES
Even during the Mughal period, the caste system and the feeling of inequality in the
Hindu society remained rooted. The Hindu society was divided into many castes and
sub-castes. The feeling of untouchability and inequality was more prevalent among
the Hindu people of the rural India than the urban one. The descriptions of some
historians testify the existence of the caste system. As Mooreland points out in his
book ‘India at the death of Akbar’ that the Hindu caste system existed in full vigour,
as it does today, though the English documents of the period do not as a rule differentiate
between the various types of castes and classes.
Just as they refer to all the Hindus under the generic title of ‘Gentus’, i.e.,
Gentities, so they apply the term ‘Moor’ to all classes of the Mohammadans. The
Mohammadans of India at this date were roughly divided into those of the north-
western region and those of the coast. Though the Hindus did not like to mix up with
the Muslims in the beginning and hesitated to take their foods, later on both the
communities started participating in each other’s festivals.
As a result of the integration of the two cultures, a new culture had arisen,
which later on came to be known as the Indo-Muslim culture. Many Hindus and Sufi
saints raised their voice against the caste system and discrimination among the human
beings on the basis of caste. There is no doubt that they could not eliminate altogether
this evil from Indian society but it cannot be said their efforts were altogether useless.
To quite an extent, there was a feeling of unity among the Mughals, Pathans, Turks,
Rajputs, Jats and other Hindu sects. Now Akbar’s secular state has taken place of the
Sultanate period’s religion predominating state. The concept of sulahkul of Akbar
consolidated the feeling of co-operation, mutual understanding and goodwill between
the people of different caste and communities.
Food and Drink
The daily food of the Hindus and the Muslims was essentially the same except that
meat was a popular dish of the Muslims. The dishes in Mughal age included different
varieties and their quality depended upon the socio-economic status of different classes
amongst the Hindus and the Muslims. People of higher strata used high quality wheat,
rice, vegetables, fruits, sweets, etc. Most of the nobles, Zamindars and members of
the royal family used to purchase dry and imported fruits. As Jahangir has written in
his book Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, ‘During that period, foreign fruits were easily available
in the market’. Ice, scents, rose water, meat and wine, etc., were occasionally used
even by the common people in those days.
The Mughal emperors, particularly Akbar, took keen interest in the bakery and
had bought the best material for his kitchen. The food of the upper class was also very
costly. Puri and luchis were quite popular among the people of this class. Hindus in
general being vegetarians, confined themselves to pulses, curd, butter, oil and milk,
and its several preparations. Abul Fazal gives a detailed list of various vegetables,
meat and sweet dishes in the Ain-e-Akbari. The favourite dishes of the upper class
Muslims were meat, fish, keema-pulao, dum biryani, halwa, etc. The common people,
both Hindus and Muslim, could ill-afford the expenditure on rich and dainty dishes,
Self-Instructional
Material 207
Social and Cultural Life and contented themselves with simple food. Khichri was the most popular dish of this
class.
The Gujaratis preferred rice and curd. Rice formed the chief food of the people
of the South. The middle classes managed to have their meals thrice daily.
NOTES
The utensils used in the Hindu kitchens were all made of bronze or brass while
those of the Muslims were of copper or earthen ware. The Mughal emperors used
silver or gold utensils and were very fond of precious China and glassware. Wine,
opium, bhaang and tobacco were the most common intoxicants abused in the Mughal
period. Tea and coffee were not taken as beverages in those days but as intoxicants.
Babur and Jahangir were renowned drinkers. Humayun was fonder of opium more
than alcohol. Akbar and Shah Jahan never passed the limit of decency whenever they
took wine but Aurangzeb totally abstained from wine. Some superior kinds of wine
were also imported from foreign countries like Portugal and Iran. Betel leaf was in
common use among all the classes of the Indians.
Means of Amusement
The Mughal period has been called the age of joy and pleasure on the account of the
organizing of the different kinds of games, sports, fairs, festivals, and other various
sources of recreation and amusement. People used to have recreation through several
types of sports, such as archery and Polo, hunting, catching fish, wrestling, boxing,
kiting, animal race, animal fighting, walking and touring, boating and swimming,
horse riding, etc. Apart from this, there were many festivals for amusement. The
Hindu festivals were like that of present day, like Diwali, Holi, Raksha Bandhan,
Bhaiya Duj, Durga Puja, Basant Panchami, Ram Navami, Krishna Janmashtami,
Shivratri, etc. The Muslims had Shab-e-Barat, Eid ul-Fitr, Id-ul-Zuha, Barah Wafat,
etc. Among royal festivals were Aab-i-Peshan, Meena Bazar, birthday celebration,
etc.
Some indoor games were used as the means of recreation. The important and
popular indoor games of the Mughal period were chess, playing cards, chopar, chandal
mandal and dice roll gambling. In those days, theatrical performances were also a
source of recreation for the people. Smooth faced boys were dressed up as women to
take part in the drama. The theatre, dance and music had their prescribed hours. We
also find that poetic recitations were frequently organized. Gulbadan Begum writes
that ‘renounced poets were called upon and guests were invited’.
Gardening was also a very notable means of recreation for the royal individuals
and nobles. Babur laid out symmetrical gardens and fitted them with fountains.
Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb visited Kashmir to spend their summer and to
enjoy the beauty of Kashmir. During the Mughal period, we find that fairs were held
at numerous seats of Hindu pilgrimage. It also appears that there were many local
fairs in every province held in the memory of some reverends. Most important Hindu
fairs were held at Prayag, Haridwar, Gaya, Ayodhaya, Mathura, Puri, Dwarka, Ujjain,
Kanchipuram and Rameshwaram.
Dress, Ornaments and Cosmetics
According to M.A. Ansari, ‘dress is the mirror of the civilization’. Indian dress,
throughout the ages had been determined mainly by the climate conditions as well as
by the changing requirements of the socio-religious customs and the manners of our
country. There is no doubt that the foreign influence also played an important part in
its evolution. The Mughal emperors were very much interested in new fashions and
Self-Instructional
208 Material
variety in dresses. Humayun invented several new brands of dresses, particularly the Social and Cultural Life
one called ulbagcha. It was a vast waist coast open in front and hanging down of the
waist over the Qabaor Coat. Akbar employed skilled tailors to improve the style of
costumes in his wardrobe. The Ain-i-Akbari describes eleven types of coats. The
most important of them was the Takan Chiyah Peshwai coat with a round skirt tied on NOTES
the right side, open in front and tied in the back, and Shah Ajidah, the royal fur coat.
Shah Jahan was fond of fashionable dresses which were profusely adorned with costly
pearls, diamonds and rubies. Aurangzeb was, however, a man of modern taste and
habits, and he, undoubtedly, made an attempt in simplicity in matters of dressing.
The people of the upper class spent lavishly on their dresses, and the wealthy
Muslims wore both salwar and breeches or tight trousers. Over their shirts they wore
narrow waist coats. The rich also carried coloured woollen shawls over their shoulders.
The dress of the common people differed almost radically from that of the aristocracy.
The common people generally went quite naked except for a piece of cloth round
their waist which reached their knees. Babur writes in his memoirs, ‘The Hindus
wore one thing called langota, decent cloth which hangs to span below the navel’.
The remarks of the foreign travellers and some of the scholars need to be treated
with caution. Coming from a colder climate and not familiar with the climate and
traditions of India, the impression of nakedness which they gained was natural. The
overall impression remains one of the insufficiency of clothing rather than their
nakedness. It should be remembered that in those days cloth was comparatively more
expensive than it is now, in comparison to food. Nakedness extended to shoes. Nikitan
observes that the people of the Deccan went bare-foot. However, the contemporary
English traveller Ralph Fitch, speaking of Patna says, ‘Here the women are so bedecked
with silver and copper that it is strange to see, they use no shoes by reason of the rings
of silver and copper they wear in their toes’. In those days, most of the Brahmins used
wooden slippers in summer. The middle class people used red leather shoes
embroidered with gold, silver or silver flowers.
During the Mughal period, women were very anxious to adorn themselves
with a variety of bulky ornaments. Abul Fazal enumerates 37 types of ornaments in
his list given in Ain-i-Akbari. According to him, chaulk, mang, kot-bildzr, sekra and
binduli were used for adorning the head and the forehead. Ears were adorned with
bali, more-bhanwar, peepal patti, karan phool, etc. Natch and besar were used to
adorn the nose. Necklaces of gold, pearl and other costly stones were used to adorn
the neck. Rings were worn in toes and fingers, Bichua, ghungru and payal were also
worn by women on their feet. As for men, the Muslims were usually against ornaments.
Some of them, however, wore amulets. The Hindus on the other hand, adorned
themselves with either ear and finger rings. All the Mughal emperors except Aurangzeb
adorned themselves with all possible types of jewellery, especially during important
festivals and events.
Many things were used as cosmetics by the men and women. Wasma and
khizab for hair dyeing were prepared from indigo and other ingredients. Soaps, powders
and creams had their substitutes in ghazul myrobalans, ubtan, (paste) and pounded
sandal-wood. According to Ain-i-Akbari, different types of perfumes were used by
the royal families and the nobles. Nur Jahan’s mother prepared a new perfume from
roses and named it Itr-i-Jahangiri. It is evident that women in general were more
particular about their toilet than men. Abul Fazal describes in the Ain-e-Akbari the 16
items of a woman’s toilet which includes bathing, anointing, braiding the hair, decking
the crown of her head with jewels, eating pan, garlands of flowers and decorating
herself with various ornaments.
Self-Instructional
Material 209
Social and Cultural Life 9.2.1 Position of Women
The best way to understand the spirit of a civilization, and to appreciate and realize its
excellence and limitations is to study the history of its womenfolk, the development
NOTES and change in their status, and their position from time to time. The position of the
Indian women during the Mughal period registered a further decline. Child marriage,
polygamy, Sati and Pardha continued, and personal respect for the sex went down.
Even a liberal emperor like Akbar had to issue strict order that if a young woman was
found running about the streets and markets of the town, and while doing so did not
veil herself or allowed herself to be unveiled, she was to go to the quarters of the
prostitutes and take up the profession.
Barbosa, an early 16th century traveller, has referred to the strict observation
of the Pardha by the women of Bengal. Eunuchs were freely employed as a means of
communication between the male and female members of the royal family. Hindu
ladies could move out of doors with little or no restrictions. Unlike Muslim women,
they did not cover themselves from head to foot. The birth of a daughter was considered
inauspicious. A Rajput was often heard to say ‘accursed be the day, when a woman
child is born to me’. A wife who unfortunately happened to give birth to girls in
succession was despised and even sometimes divorced. Generally, polygamy was
prevalent among the Muslims whereas Hindus practiced monogamy. Among the
Hindus, the daughters were married at a very early age. Akbar tried to stop the evil of
early marriage but he did not succeed.
According to Abul Fazl, Akbar issued instructions that a boy of less than 21
years and a girl of less than 16 years could not be married. Among the Hindus, widow
remarriage was prohibited, except among the lower caste people. The custom of Sati
was prevalent. Even betrothed girls had to commit Sati on the funeral pyres of their
would-be husbands. Those widows who would not burn themselves with the dead
body of their husbands were harshly treated by the society. They were not allowed to
wear ornaments or to braid their long hair. But the position of Muslim women was
better in this aspect. Muslim women could remarry.
So far as rights over property were concerned, the position of Muslim women
was much better as compared to their Hindu counterparts. They had equal share in
their father’s property. Generally, no attention was paid towards the education of
women in the lower and middle classes. Only the women of high classes got education;
that is why many ladies of a high class did remarkable works in the field of literature,
politics, etc. For example, Humayun’s sister Gulbadan Begum wrote, Humayunama
and translated Tuzk-i-Bauri in Persian. Nur Jahan played a very active role in the
Mughal court. Meera Bai became a popular poetess of that time. Similarly, Chand
Bibi of Ahmednagar and Tara Bai of Maratha state played very active roles in politics.
About Tara Bai, the well known historian J.N. Sarkar rightly observed, ‘Her
administrative genius and strength of character saved the nation in that awful crisis’.
Thus, we reach the conclusion that women were not given equal opportunities in all
fields; or they could have played an important role in the society.
Social Customs and Faiths
Among the Hindus, many important family and social customs began with the birth
of a child and continued throughout life among them. These six were birth celebration,
naming ceremony, Sagai or engagement, marriage ceremony, sacred thread wearing,
and Mundan ceremony. Some Hindus used to celebrate the first day of school going
Self-Instructional
210 Material
of the child by distributing sweets and gifts. The Muslims also celebrated the birth of Social and Cultural Life
a child with a ceremony called Aquiqah. Naming ceremony was also celebrated among
them, which was called Bismillah. Other important customs among the Muslims
were circumcision and the school going ceremony.
NOTES
9.3 DEVELOPMENT OF LITERATURE
During the Mughal period, education was given special emphasis, especially by Akbar.
Akbar, himself a scholar in Turkish and Persian, emphasized the need for the right
education. A reformed coordination of instruction took place in the Mughal times.
Primary school curriculum comprised learning. Thus, under the guidance of his finance
minister, Fathullah Shirazi, a systematized educational set-up was implemented.
Accordingly, special sections of the Holy Quran were read out and explained to the
students. The curriculum emphasized the practice of reading and writing the alphabet
and other lessons on wooden boards.
In the secondary institutions, the art of administration, arithmetic, algebra,
sciences, accounts, economics, history, law, morals, literature and philosophy were
taught. The aim of education was to bring out the latent faculties of the students, to
inculcate authority, to mould character, prepare for life and equip them for the various
professions. Religious conviction was at the root of all studies. Teachers were held in
high esteem. Universities were of the residential type. Monitorial system was in vogue,
education was free and scholarships were granted. Most of the Islamic schools were
attached to mosques and were called Maktabs. There were Hindu institutions also,
called pathshalas, especially during Akbar’s reign. Some of the prominent centres of
learning during the Mughal Era were Delhi, Lahore, Allahabad, Ahmedabad, Multan,
Sialkot, Lucknow, Ajmer and Murshidabad. Scholars from Central Asia and the East
served in these institutions. While the students received free education, the scholars
were well rewarded from the treasury.
Literature during the Mughal period witnessed tremendous development as
there was a return of a stable and prosperous empire. Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi and
Urdu languages saw tremendous creative activity as did many vernacular languages.
The emperors extended their patronage profusely to this activity. For the duration of
the Mughal period Urdu developed more in the Deccan than in Hindustan where its
expansion began only during the reign of Aurangzeb. The social content of the literature
was inadequate. Themes are over and over again taken from outside India. Such
literature was a necessary outcome of medieval feudalism and aristocratic life. Major
art works of the era point to the huge influence of the Muslims in the growth and
development of the historical writing and prose narration.
Literature in the Mughal period developed during Akbar’s reign. Different
branches of literature such as translations, histories, letters and verse developed during
the Mughal Era especially during Akbar’s reign. The return of a stable government
also helped in the development of literature. Since Persian was the language of the
Mughal Court, most works of art were in Persian. The literature of the Mughal Period Check Your Progress
has a special place in world history as they are the main source of information about 1. What was the
the life and times of the people of that era. Besides Akbar, Shah Jahan was also a normal food of the
commoners during
great patron of arts. As mentioned in an earlier unit, Shah Jahan’s reign was referred the Mughal period?
to as the Golden Period. Some of the most famous works of art of this period are 2. What is Aquiqah?
listed below:
Self-Instructional
Material 211
Ta’rikh-Ialfi Mulla Daud
Ain-i-Akbari, Akbarnamah Abul Fazal
Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh Badauni
NOTES Tabaqat-i-akbari Nizam-ud-din Ahmad
Ma’asir-i-Rohini Abdul Baqi
The most accomplished writer was Abul Fazl. He was a poet, an essayist, a critic and
a historian. Abul Fazl wrote the Akbarnamah which is in three volumes and talks in
detail about the Mughal Emperors and their reign. Poetry was at its zenith during the
Mughal reign. Babur and Humayun were poets and this tradition was continued by
Akbar. Abul Fazl, Abdur Rahim, Abdul Fateh, Ghizali, Mohammad Husain Naziri
and Sayyid Jamaluddin Urfi of Shiraj were the prominent poets of that period.
Jahangir possessed an excellent literary taste. His autobiography is second only
to that of Babur as far as content and style is concerned. His court was adorned by
literary gems like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan, Mutamid Khan, Niamatullah and Abdul
Check Your Progress
Haqq Dihlawi. Some historical works like the Ma‘asir-i-Jahangiri, Padshah-namah
3. State whether true by Abdul Hamid Lahori, Shah-jahannamah by Inayat Khan and Amal-i-Salih by
or false.
Muhammad Salih Shah were composed during this period. Two distinct schools of
(a) In the schools writers had come into existence during this period, the Indo-Persian school and the
special sections purely Persian discipline. Abul Fazl was an exceptional representative of the Indo-
of the Quran
were read out
Persian discipline. Abdul Hamid Lahauri, Md. Waris, Chandra Bhan and Md. Salih
and the were the representatives of this school. This school absorbed Indian ideas. The poets
meanings wrote ghazals, Qasida, masnavi and poems of adulation. Gilani, Kalim, Qudsi, Rafi,
interpreted. Munir, Haziq, Khiyali and Mahir were the some of the popular poets. There were
(b) The curriculum prose writings of other types for occurrence dictionaries, medicinal books, astronomy,
emphasized the
practice of
mathematics and translations from Sanskrit.
reading and Records from the pages of history say that Aurangzeb in the earlier days of his
writing the
alphabet.
reign wrote many poems and other works of art. But he gave up this amusement in
accordance with Islamic injunctions. Works of art during Aurangzeb’s reign were
(c) Vernacular
languages were composed in secret and kept away from the public. Some of the famous works from
neglected during this period were Alamgirnamah by Mirza Muhammad Kazim, Muntakhab-ul-Lubab
the Era. of Khafi Khan, Khulasat-ut-Tawa-rikh of Sujan Rai Khatri and Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri
4. Fill in the blanks of Ishwar Das.
with the
appropriate word. Provincial languages developed in leaps and bounds during the Mughal Period.
This age may be called the classical age of Hindustani literature. Hindi owed its
(a) The Hindu
students lived in
greatest development to a number of saints and poets. This period saw some of the
residential greatest Hindi and Persian writers such as Tulsidas, Kabir, Surdas, Sundar Das,
schools Chintamani, Kavindra Acharya, Keshava Das, Matiram, Bhushan, Bihari, Deva,
called . Padmakar, Alam, and Ghananand, among others. Religion, heroism, human love and
(b) was praise of the king were some of the themes explored by these writers.
at the root of all
studies.
(c) ACTIVITY
developed more
in the Deccan
than in Compare the features of the modern-day residential schools to those that
Hindustan.
were prevalent in the Mughal period. Are there any similarities?
Self-Instructional
212 Material
9.4 ART, ARCHITECTURE AND PAINTING
Mughal art and structural design refers to the Indo-Islamic-Persian approach that
flourished during the reign of the Mughals who ruled India between AD 1526 and NOTES
1857. The characteristic feature of the Mughal architecture is the symmetry and designs
in their building/monuments and tombs. Prior to the Mughal dynasty which started
with Babur, the Delhi Sultanate (AD 1192–1398) laid down the foundation of Mughal
art in India. The Qutub Minar which was erected by Qutub-ud-din-Aibak in AD1193
remains a prominent characteristic of Delhi’s skyline.
The earliest Islamic monuments in India were time and again built over the
Jain and Hindu monuments which were plundered and destroyed by the Muslim
invaders. The Adhai-Din-Ka Jhopra of Ajmer and the Qutab Minar, both dating back
to the 12th century were built over the ruins of a Jain monastery/ temple. The Adhai-
Din-Ka Jhopra of Ajmer was a centre of Sanskrit learning patronized by the rulers of
the Chauhan period.
Later, with the passage of time, the Mughal architecture was introduced in
Bengal too. The Sultans who were predecessors to the Mughals had constructed
several mosques in the regions of the old capitals of Pandua and Gaur during the
period between the 14th and 15th centuries. The Adina Mosque of Pandua and the
Eklahi mosque were also built on the vandalized remains of Hindu temples, apparent
from the intricate carvings on their structures. The art work on the Adina Mosque
shares a striking resemblance with the Kakatiya ruins of Warangal in Andhra Pradesh.
In the central Gangetic Plain, the Sharqis who ruled from Jaunpur during the
14th and 15th century patronized the construction of mosques with fine jaali work
which influenced the monuments built by Sher Shah Suri. In Gujarat too, the mosques
rested on fine intricate carvings of ancient Jain and Hindu temples, evident from the
display of Hindu motifs like the Chakra, the Kalpa-Lata or Kalpa-Vriksha, the Purna
Kalash, the lotus symbol, and the lamp of acquaintance on their mosques.
Fig. 9.1 Jaali Work at Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi

Self-Instructional
Material 213
Social and Cultural Life Works of Mughal structural design have been seen in Chanderi, Hissar and
Jhansi as well.
It was Akbar who initiated the erection of monuments on Indian soil, with a
burial chamber in honour of his father Humayun in AD 1560. Built under the
NOTES supervision of Persian originator Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, this wonderful structure with
an elaborate agreement of octagonal chambers flanked by cupolas, kiosks and minarets
amidst rectangular shaped lawns remains a landmark gravestone in Delhi.
After Akbar consolidated his kingdom, he established his capital at Agra. This
led to the construction of many imposing buildings that used red sandstone as the
principal building material and white sandstone was used for the inlay work on the
exteriors. The interiors were lavishly adorned with paintings. In AD1573, Akbar moved
Check Your his capital to Fatehpur Sikri to commemorate the birth of his son, Jahangir and to
Progress honour Sheikh Salim of the Chisti order, where he built a new capital city which
5. State whether true showcased typical Mughal architecture. The reign of Jahangir saw the transition from
or false. sandstone to marble in the construction of the few monuments that he had built.
(a) The Delhi Later, his son Shah Jahan used white marble extensively in his monuments, especially
Sultanate laid the Taj Mahal.
the foundation of
Mughal art in Development of Architecture under the Mughals
India.
(b) The Adhai-Din- Babur is credited with not only establishing the Mughal Empire in India, but also
Ka Jhompra of heralding in an era that saw the introduction and development of a plethora of
Ajmer was a architectural styles in India. Though much of the time during his short period of reign
centre of
Sanskrit learning (five years) in India was spent in annexing kingdoms, Babur left behind him some of
patronized by the most marvelous Mughal structures in India. These include the Babri Masjid at
the rulers of the Ayodhya, Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and Jami Masjid at Sambhal, near Delhi. Even
Lodi period. though most of them were destroyed over the centuries, some of them such as the
with the Babri Masjid have withstood the vagaries of nature and time.
appropriate word. The history of Mughal architecture actually begins with Akbar. It is a blend of
(a) The art work on Persian and Hindu styles. Most of Akbar’s buildings are made in red sandstone and
the Adina one of the earliest buildings built by him was the tomb of Humayun in Delhi. In AD
Mosque shares a
striking 1565 Akbar started the construction of the massive Agra Fort, but his most magnificent
resemblance construction was the new capital at Fatehpur Sikri. Built in AD1571, it took fifteen
with the years to complete a ceremonial capital including elaborate palaces, formal courtyards,
of Warangal in reflecting pools, tombs and a mosque. Unfortunately, this massive city had to be
Andhra Pradesh.
abandoned because besides other reasons, it lacked adequate water supply. It consisted
(b) The who
ruled from
of a number of fine buildings like the Jami Mosque, the Tomb of Salim Chisti (its
Jaunpur during chambers are surrounded by a corridor with a lace-work marble screen) and the Buland
the 14th and Darwaza, constructed to commemorate his Gujarat conquest.
15th century
patronized the
construction of
mosques with
fine jaali work.
(c) The reign of
saw
the transition
from sandstone
to marble in the
construction of
monuments.
Self-Instructional
214 Material
Jodha Bai’s Palace and the Panch Mahal are also unique. The construction of Social and Cultural Life
Akbar’s tomb at Sikandra, near Agra, was started by Akbar but completed by his son
Jahangir. Jahangir constructed the tomb of Itmadud- Daulah (father of Nur Jahan) in
white marble. He was fond of gardens and laid two beautiful gardens in Kashmir—
the Nishat Bagh and the Shalimar Bagh. NOTES
Fig. 9.2 Shalimar Gardens at Kashmir
The reign of Shah Jahan is known in history as the Golden Era of Mughal architecture.
As peace and prosperity prevailed throughout the Empire, he devoted himself to
architecture.
Mughal art reached its nadir during the reign of Shah Jahan, who is known for
his passion for architecture. He almost re-built the Agra Fort, adding marble to the
existing sandstone structure, and went on to build his new capital in Shahjahanabad
or the Red Fort, the Pearl Mosque and the Taj Mahal among numerous other
monuments. Lapidary and fine pietra dura were new trends set by Shah Jahan.
He built the Taj Mahal at Agra as a mausoleum for his beloved wife Mumtaz
Mahal. Shah Jahan also constructed the Moti Masjid in Agra Fort and the Jama Masjid
in Delhi. After the death of his beloved wife Mumtaz, Shah Jahan shifted the capital
to Delhi and started the construction of a new city called Shahjahanabad. He built the
Jami Masjid at Agra in honour of his daughter Jahanara. He also built the Red Fort,
which has many beautiful buildings like the Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Aam, and the
celebrated Peacock Throne, which was made of gold and studded with precious stones.
This throne was carried away by Nadir Shah, a Persian invader, in AD 1739. Shah
Jahan also gave liberal aid to artists. He also built a number of palaces and gardens in
places like Lahore, Kashmir and Kabul.
Jahanara, daughter of Shah Jahan, was also a generous patron of structural
design and showed an eclectic taste in building spacious gardens, mosques, madrasas
and serais. At Delhi, she built the prominent Begum Ka Bagh and Begum Serai. She
also built her own tomb near the shrine of the dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin.
Self-Instructional
Material 215
NOTES
Fig. 9.3: Jama Masjid at Delhi
Aurangzeb’s contributions to architecture are few in comparison to his predecessors.

He constructed the Moti Masjid in the Red Fort at Delhi and a tomb for his queen at
Aurangabad.
The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its glory during this period. It has
often been described as the Age of Magnificence. There was peace and prosperity
throughout the Empire. Rulers devoted themselves to the construction of majestic
buildings, using marble and red sandstone. There was great pomp and show and the
splendour of the court dazzled European travellers like Francis Bernier.
Aurangazeb’s daughters Zeb-un-nissa and Zinat-unnisa Begum also contributed
in a small way in carrying forward the Mughal legacy of patronizing art and architecture.
Zinat-unnisa Begum built the Zinat-ul-Masjid at Daryaganj in Old Delhi in AD1711,
while Zeb-un-nissa built her own garden and tomb at Nawankot near Lahore. Qudsiya
Begum, the wife of a later Mughal ruler, Ahmad Shah, built the Sunheri Masjid in
AD 1751 opposite the west gate of the Red Fort. The last Mughal Emperor Bahadur
Shah Zafar’s favourite wife Zinat Mahal built the Zinat Mahal in the Lal Kuan bazaar
in Delhi. The only monument worth mentioning built in the post-Aurangazeb time in
Delhi was the Safdar Jung’s Tomb built by Mirza Mansoor Khan in AD 1753.
Mughal Architecture under Aurangzeb
Mughal architecture during Aurangzeb stood apart from that of both his predecessors
and successors in that the Empire had the largest area under the Mughal reign, which
extended to even parts of south India. Moreover, Aurangzeb ruled over India for a
considerable period of time, the first twenty years of which he devoted to expanding
the Empire. During the second part of his reign, he adopted the policy of Islamization,
which saw the transformation of many of the Hindu and Jain structures of his period.
Contemplating his contribution in the field of architecture, one becomes aware
that except a few monuments, especially tombs, there was hardly any buildings that
were constructed by Aurangzeb. But, he went about his Islamization policy, whereby
he partially or completely destructed the Hindu and Jain temples and built mosques
over the ruins.
Historians have explained elaborately the repair works undertaken by
Aurangzeb; some even credit him with repairing the most number of mosques of not
Self-Instructional
216 Material
only the Mughal Period, but also those mosques built by the Tughlaq, Lodi and Deccani Social and Cultural Life
sultans as well.
Aurabgzeb projected a weak mirror image of his predecessors. Early during
Aurangzeb’s reign, the harmonious balance of the Shah Jahan-period architecture is
thoroughly rejected in favour of an increased sense of spatial tension with an emphasis NOTES
on height. Stucco and other less-expensive materials emulating the marble and inlaid
stone of earlier periods cover built surfaces. Immediately after Aurangzeb’s accession,
the use of forms and motifs such as the baluster column and the bangala canopy,
earlier reserved for the ruler alone, are found on non-imperially patronaged monuments.
Shortly after his accession, Aurangzeb is known to have ordered a small marble
chapel, today acknowledged as the Moti or Pearl Masjid, to be constructed inside the
Shahjahanabad fort (the present-day Red Fort). Shah Jahan had built no mosque inside
this fort, using instead the large Jami masjid nearby for congregational prayers.
Aurangzeb, however, wanted a mosque close to his private quarters. Five years
under construction, his exquisite mosque was completed in 1662-63, at considerable
personal expense. It is enclosed by red sandstone walls, which vary in thickness to
Check Your Progress
compensate for the mosque’s angle, necessary to orient the building toward Mecca,
and at the same time to align it with the other palace buildings. Entered on the east, 7. State whether true
or false.
the compound of the Moti Masjid consists of a courtyard with a deep-set pool and the
mosque building itself. (a) Kabuli Bagh at
Panipat and Jami
Development of Painting under the Mughals Masjid at
Sambhal, near
The Mughal Period also saw development in the field of painting. The art of miniature Delhi were built
painting continued. As the use of paper became common, painters started illustrating by Akbar.
books with pictures. Portrait painting became popular as painters started making (b) Jahangir
constructed the
portraits of kings and members of the royal family and the nobility. tomb of
The Mughal rulers were great patrons of painting. One of Akbar’s most Itmadud- Daulah
significant contributions was the creation of the Mughal school of painting. He set up in white marble.
a group of about 100 artists, mostly Hindu, who worked under the guidance of the with the
two Persian masters brought to India by Humayun. At the time of Akbar’s death in appropriate word.
AD 1605, his library contained some 24,000 illustrated manuscripts.
(a) laid two
Two of the greatest Persian painters, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad, beautiful
flourished during the rule of Humayun. When Humayun was forced to exile to Persia gardens in
Kashmir—the
at the court of Shah Tahmasp Sajavi, he was impressed by the art of miniature painting Nishat and the
and resolved to take Persian artists back to India. This is how the two Persian masters Shalimar Bagh.
Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad were brought to India and became founders of the (b) Shah Jahan
new school of Mughal miniature painting. Another renowned painter was Daswant. almost re-built
Some of the finest paintings are found in the Akbarnama. the Agra Fort,
adding to
Portraits, buildings, birds and animals, landscapes are vivid and life-like. Mansur the existing
was a painter of renown at his court. Jahangir was himself a good painter and a sandstone
structure.
connoisseur of painting who could recognize the work of different artists at a glance.
(c) The only
Under him painting received great impetus. However, under Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb monument worth
painting began to decline. Artists migrated to other regions. Rajasthan, Kangra and mentioning built
the Deccan became the centres of art. The Rajput style of miniature painting got its in the post-
inspiration from the miniature style painting of the Persians. These paintings made Aurangazeb time
in Delhi was the
beautiful covers for books. Portraits of kings were also painted. Scenes from the .
court, Hindu mythology, life of Lord Krishna, birds and animals were the themes of
the paintings.
Self-Instructional
Material 217
NOTES
Fig. 9.4: Paintings from the Mughal Era
Paintings during Jahangir’s Time

Jahangir was an immense patron of painting and showed a keen interest in it while he
was still young. He patronized numerous great painters of the time; some of the
painters who were appreciated by him included Mansoor, Abul Hasan, Daswant and
Basawan. He congratulated himself for the keen eye he had for paintings and was of
the impression that he could identify the works of all great painters of his time. He
also stated that if there was a picture containing numerous portraits drawn by artists
who were poles apart stylistically, he was able to recognize each from the stroke of
the brushes. Once, British Ambassador Thomas Roe arrived in the court of Jahangir
and the royal leader asked him to recognize the original European painting placed
alongside five copies of it prepared by Indian artists. This completely foxed the
Ambassador much to the delight of the royal leader highlighting the artistic merit of
the Indian painters. Mughal or miniature paintings may perhaps be described as a
variety of Islamic paintings practised in India during 16th and 17th century.
Jahangir, an Admirer
Jahangir was a big aficionado of European art and craft. He reigned from AD 1605 –
1627. The Dutch, British and Portuguese who were trying to establish trade relations
with Indian Mughals, after learning about Jahangir’s interest in paintings, gifted
numerous works of art to him. Mughal artists copied those paintings and adopted
various versions. During the reign of Jahangir a different style emerged—the Mughal
approach with fine European influence. Prominent Mughal artists like Abul Hasan
combined two techniques—the Mughal and the European—and produced numerous
admirable works, most of which were romantic in nature.
Ability of Jahangirs’ Painters
Jahangir’s painters were able to produce identical copies of work in his collection. In
the art of portrait miniature, Jahangir’s paintings occupy a distinct place. His passion
for nature was unrestricted, as he was a keen observer of flowers, grass, plants, animals
and birds. Moreover, he shared his fondness for music, poetry and travelling with his
ancestors, more than even his grandfather, Babur. He had an artistic and aesthetic
background and had been in contact with art throughout his life. The theme of most of
Self-Instructional
218 Material
his works was dominated by court scenes, and local flora and fauna, especially that of Social and Cultural Life
his kingdom.
The Imperial Albums
The imposing albums show paintings that depict Jahangir’s interest in Sufis, Muslim NOTES
rulers, princes, and visiting ascetics. His great affection for his pets— cheetah, carrier
pigeons and the royal stud elephant was famous. He shifted the Imperial Library to
Lahore from Agra. Lahore became the centre of artistic activity. When visited Lahore
found his palace decorated with many paintings. His master artists painted good-
looking, refined and high quality art and Mughal miniatures reached its highest peak.
His wife Nur Jahan had strong personality with complete control over her husband.
Outstanding to her influence female portraits began to appear. Under Jahangir the
fusion of style— India, Persian and European gave force and individuality to Mughal
painting.
Development of Music under the Mughals
The Mughals cherished music. Babur is said to have composed songs. Akbar was a
lover of music. His court was ornamented by well-known musicians like Tansen of
Gwalior and Baz Bahadur of Malwa. Shah Jahan was fond of vocal and instrumental
music. The two great Hindu musicians of his time were Jagannath and Janardhan
Bhatta. Nevertheless Aurangzeb who was a puritan dismissed singing from his court.
On the other hand, ironically, the largest numbers of books on classical music were
written during his rule.
The form of music that was predominant in India during the Mughal period
was the Dhrupad music. Dhrupad music was the result of an extended interaction
between two cultures — the Hindu Indian and the Muslim Perso-Turkish cultures—
over a long period of time. In the pre-medieval era, India was an essentially Hindu
region with a religion and culture codified most completely in the extremely
sophisticated Sanskrit language.
Music was an important part of a cultural network that included dance and
drama as well, but because there was no notation of actual musical performances —
only of the theoretical melodic and rhythmic structures called ragas and talas — we
have no idea of what the music actually was. We do know, however, that music was
integral to temple life and ritual, and that professional singers and dancers were usually
involved in some sort of devotional activity related to the Hindu deities. Music was
also a part of courtly life as well, but since in this context — as in most traditional
societies —there was no distinction to be made between the sacred and the secular,
and music was simply one part of a unified cultural-social-religious continuum.
With the coming of the Mughal emperors, who though Muslims, were very
much attracted to the artistic and philosophical aspects of Hindu culture. The art of
music in the North was brought from the Hindu temples into a Muslim courtly setting,
with the result that the emphasis shifted from a devotional context to a more virtuoso
performance style, with connoisseurship being an important part of the system of
imperial patronage. This interaction reached its zenith in the court of the Mughal
Emperor Akbar the Great under whose patronage the arts as practised by both Hindu
and Muslim artists flourished; for example, the singer Tansen was considered one of
the nine jewels of his court, though many other musicians as well are listed in
contemporary texts as part of the imperial retinue.
Self-Instructional
Material 219
Social and Cultural Life Because the practice of Dhrupad music — and indeed of most Hindustani
music — is propagated through the oral tradition, we cannot be certain that
contemporary Dhrupad is the same is that of the Mughal era. But certain indicators—
particularly in the identification of the composers of Dhrupad lyrics as stated in the
NOTES composition itself—ensure that even with whatever changes have occurred over the
centuries, the Dhrupad tradition at least represents a continuum with the music practised
during the Mughal era.
9.5 SUMMARY
 During the Mughal period, majority of the society belonged to the class of the
Check Your Progress commoners. Among the common men in Mughal times could be included the
9. State whether true peasants, labourers, artisans, etc. The people of this class led a comparatively
or false. hard life.
(a) The use of paper  According to historians like Mooreland, in this age, middle class or the
became popular intelligentsia was almost non-existent. This is partly true because even at that
during the
Mughal Period.
time there were Vakils, Hakims, Vaidyas and scholarly Pandits and Ulemas
throughout the country, though their number was very low as compared to the
(b) During the times
of Shah Jahan population of the country.
and Aurangzeb  The best way to understand the spirit of a civilization and to appreciate and
painting began
to decline. realize its excellence and limitations is to study the history of its womenfolk,
(c) The miniature
the development and change in their status and position from time to time.
style of painting  The daily food of the Hindus and the Muslims was essentially the same except
was developed
from the
that meat was a popular dish of the Muslims.
Afghans.  The Mughal period has been called the age of joy and pleasure on the account
10. Fill in the blanks of the organizations of the different kinds of games, sports, fairs, festivals, and
with the
appropriate word. other various sources of recreation and amusement.
(a) One of the  During the Mughal period, education was given special emphasis, especially
popular forms of by Akbar. The Mughal period promoted the residential type of schools; while
painting the Muslim students pursued education in makbats, their Hindu brothers grew
developed
during the
up in pathsalas.
Mughal Era was  Scholars from other countries were invited to teach at the educational institutions,
the
which were funded by endowments. Students received free education. Subjects
painting.
such as science, maths, astronomy, algebra, accounts, economics, history and
(b) The theme of
most of law were taught.
works was  A stable and prosperous economy during the Mughal period provided the climate
dominated by
court scenes, and
suitable for the growth of literature, especially Persian. Since it was the court
local flora and language and hence the most number of works of literature were in Persian.
fauna.  The Mughal rulers were visionaries who reflected in the all-round development
(c) The form of of various arts, crafts, music, building and structural design.
music that was
predominant in  The characteristic feature of the Mughal architecture is the symmetry and designs
India during the in their building/monuments and tombs.
Mughal period
was the .  The earliest Islamic monuments in India were time and again built over the
Jain and Hindu monuments which were plundered and destroyed by the Muslim
invaders.
Self-Instructional
220 Material
 Humayun’s tomb erected by Akbar in Delhi in AD 1560 marked the construction Social and Cultural Life
of monuments on Indian soil.
 The buildings till the time of Akbar used red sandstone as the construction
material. The reign of Jahangir saw the transition to marble, while Shah Jahan
used white marble for the Taj Mahal. NOTES
 Mughal architecture was at its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, while it
started its decline during Aurangzeb’s time.
 The Mughal Period also saw the development of painting. The paper became
more popular during this period; thus portrait painting grew to new heights
with the kings and Begums as the favourite subject of painting.
 Jahangir showed immense interest in painting and had a good eye to recognize
and differentiate the works of popular artists of his time. He patronized art and
was himself good at painting.
 Most works of Jahangir depicted nature and the flora and fauna of the
surrounding places.
 Dhrupad was the form of music that was predominant in India during the Mughal
period and can be best described as the result of interaction of two cultures –
the Hindu culture and the Perso-Turkish culture.
9.6 KEY TERMS

 Jaali work: A jaali is the term for a perforated stone or latticed screen, usually
with an ornamental pattern constructed through the use of calligraphy and
geometry. Early work was performed by carving into stone, while the later
more elegant used by the Mughals employed the technique of inlay, using marble
and semi-precious stones
 Peacock throne: The throne of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, was reportedly
one of the most splendorous thrones ever made. It was ascended by silver
steps and stood on golden feet set with jewels; and it was backed by
representations of two open peacocks’ tails, gilded, enamelled, and inset with
diamonds, rubies, and other stones. Persians in AD 1739 stole the throne from
India
 Dhrupad: The form of music that was predominant in India during the Mughal
period was the Dhrupad music. Dhrupad music was the result of an extended
interaction between two cultures — the Hindu Indian and theMuslim Perso-
Turkish cultures

1. The normal food of the commoners was boiled rice, chapatti, pulses, sag and
some other vegetables with the salt; although the most universal and popular
was Khichri, which was prepared in an ordinary way, and was taken without
ghee and butter.
2. The Muslim ceremony celebration at the time of the birth of a child is called
Aquiqah.
Self-Instructional
Material 221
Social and Cultural Life 3. (a) True; (b) True; (c) False
4. (a) Pathsalas, (b) Religious conviction; (c) Urdu
5. (a) True; (b) False
NOTES 6. (a) Kakatiya ruins; (b) Sharqis; (c) Jahangir
7. (a) False; (b) True
8. (a) Jahangir; (b) marble; (c) Safdar Jung’s Tomb
10. (a) Portrait; (b) Jahangir’s; (c) Dhrupad.
1. Explain the condition of women in the Mughal times.
2. Describe the Mughal style of architecture.
3. Analyse the development of music under the Mughals.
4. Discuss the progress of education under the Mughals.
5. Discuss the contribution of Jahangir in the development of art.
1. Trace the development of art under the Mughals.
2. Discuss the contribution of Aurangzeb in developing Mughal architecture.
3. Write about the development of painting under the Mughals.
4. Analyse the development of Persian and Hindi literature during the Mughals.
5. Discuss in detail the social condition of people during Mughal era.
9.9 FURTHER READING

1982.
New Delhi, 1966.
9.10 LEARNING OUCOMES

 The classification of society in Mughal times
 The position of women in society
 The development of literature in the Mughal era
Self-Instructional
222 Material
Administration of
UNIT 10 ADMINISTRATION OF Various Empires
VARIOUS EMPIRES
NOTES
Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Unit Objectives
10.2 Sher Shah Suri’s Administrative Reforms
10.3 Mughal Administration, Land Revenue System and Mansabdari
10.4 Maratha Administration
10.5 Summary
10.6 Key Terms
10.9 Further Reading
10.0 INTRODUCTION
Though Sher Shah had only the small period of five years to rule but within this short
span of time he brought such important changes in the administrative system that he
is considered as one of the best administrators. In fact, he managed his administration
keeping before him a model idea. The early death of Sher Shah (AD 1545), and later,
the Second Battle of Panipat (AD 1557), assured Mughal dominance. Their
administration, known as the mansbadri system, was in essence a military one.
Similar to these great rulers, Shivaji is also famous in Indian history not only as
a brave and daring person, a successful general and the founder of an empire, but also
as a great administrator and a ruler who had the best interests of his subjects at heart.
In this unit, you will learn about the administrative reforms and systems of
Sher Shah Suri, the Mughal kings and Shivaji, the Maratha ruler.
10.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

 Explain Sher Shah Suri’s administrative reforms
 Describe the features of Mughal administration, land revenue system and
mansabdari
 Discuss the main points of Maratha administration
10.2 SHER SHAH SURI’S ADMINISTRATIVE

REFORMS
As you know, Sher Shah Suri managed his administration keeping before him a model
idea. Leaving aside any religious discrimination, he gave equal opportunity to all his
subjects to lead a comfortable life. According to him, the major aim of the state was
public welfare.
Self-Instructional
Material 223
Administration of He tried to make the frontiers of the country so strong and powerful that
Various Empires
Humayun or any other power would not be able to bring about any instability in the
country. He brought about many reforms and gave safety to the people against antisocial
elements.
NOTES Acknowledging his administrative efficiency, English historian Keive wrote
that none of the rulers, not even the English Government evinced so much wisdom as
this Pathan Chief. The main features of his administrative system can be studied
under the following heads:
Central administration
Though Sher Shah tried to follow the Afghan tradition for running central
administration, yet he tried to bring the office of the Sultan nearer to the Turkish ideal
rather than the Afghan. To some extent, he continued the central administration present
from the time of the Delhi Sultanate and established a despotic rule similar to that of
Balban or Allauddin, but not before getting it endorsed by a committee of the Afghan
chiefs. Thus, his despotism had a democratic base.
Looking at the outer structure of his administration, Dr. Qanungo remarked
that Sher Shah Suri did not found any new administrative system but gave a new
shape to the existing institutions. All the power of the state was centred in his hands.
He was the highest official in the fields of administration, army, judiciary and law.
There were four main ministers in his Central Government, viz., Diwan-i-Wizarat
(kept control over the income and expenditure of the state), Diwan-i-Ariz (looked
after military responsibilities), Diwan-i-Rasalat (looked after foreign affairs), and
Diwan-i-Qaza (head of judicial department).
Sher Shah himself was so hard working and able that besides determining the
general policy of all the departments, he also supervised over their everyday activities.
During his reign he did not let any person or Amir emerge as an important figure. This
might have been due to the fact that because of the importance given to any one
individual, other Amirs would grow jealous of him and their dissatisfaction would
lead them to organize revolts etc. against the ruler. Removing corruption, he offered
a clean administration to the people.
Provincial administration
The outline of the provincial administration under Sher Shah is somewhat dim.
According to Dr. Qanungo, ‘There were no provinces during Sher Shah’s time and
the empire was divided in Sarkars.’As against this, Dr. P. Saran holds that there were
12 provinces in Sher Shah’s empire, each ruled by a military Governor. According to
some historians, provinces did exist before Akbar’s time but their shape and
administrative system was not uniform. Even during Sher Shah’s time there were
many provinces or Subas which were called Iqtas.
Modern historians hold that during Sher Shah’s time there was a definite
provincial organization. According to them, Sher Shah brought about two new
experiments in the provincial administration but they were not so successful as to be
implemented in other provinces. His first experiment was in Bengal in AD 1541.
When Khizr Khan after becoming its governor started behaving like a Sultan, Sher
Shah got him imprisoned and after subdividing Bengal into many parts, appointed
separate officials for each. An official was appointed so as to maintain peace and
order in the province. Because they were appointed by the centre and their sphere of
Self-Instructional work was different, the possibility of any revolt was minimized.
226 Material
Probably this system was implemented in Malwa, Punjab, Rajputana, etc. His Administration of
Various Empires
other experiment was the appointment of deputy governors. He appointed two sub-
deputy governors under Haibat Khan of Punjab. During his time, this scheme was
probably implemented in Multan, Baluchistan, Sirhind, etc. During his time, the
provincial governor was probably called Hakim or Faujdar or Amin. But their rights NOTES
were not the same. The governor of Punjab, Haibat Khan was probably the most
powerful. He had 30,000 soldiers under him, whereas less powerful governors had
just about 5000 soldiers under them. Sher Shah kept a strict control over the provincial
governors and from time to time supervised their military and administrative activities.
Administration of a Sirkar
Sher Shah Suri organized the local administration at the district, paragana and village
level. The highest unit of the local administration was the district or the sirkar.
According to Dr. Ishwari Prasad, ‘Sher Shah had sub-divided his empire into 47
parts, each comprising of many paraganas. This part or unit was called a sirkar.’
Each sirkar had two major officials—Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran or Chief Shiqdar and
Munsif-i-Monsifan or Chief Munsif, responsible respectively for the maintenance of
peace and order in the sirkar and supervising the officials of the paraganas and
dispensing mobile justice. Sher Shah brought about some important changes in the
administration of the sirkar. First, he established a satisfactory judicial system. Second,
he ordered the officials to always look for the convenience of the people. Third, he
made the Chief Shikdar and the Chief Munsif respectively the highest but separate
officials in the fields of army and finance. This minimized the possibility of revolt.
Fourth, he kept with himself the right of appointing and dismissing the officials of the
sirkar which strengthened the control of the centre over these units.
Administration of Paragana
Each sirkar or district was subdivided into many paraganas. Here, Shiqdar and Munsif
were responsible for the maintenance of peace and order and the collection of revenues
respectively. Besides these, there was one treasurer and two Karkuns or Munsims—
one to keep the land records in Hindi and the other in Persian. The treasurer or Fotdar
kept the cash of the paragana. The Munsif was responsible for the collection of the
revenue of the whole paragana and also its land measurement.
Village administration
The smallest unit of the empire was the village. In every village there was a Mukhiya
or Muqaddam. The chief of village collected the revenue from the farmers and sent it
to the treasurer of the paragana. Muqadam was responsible for maintaining peace
and order in the village along with collecting the revenue. He arranged for night
watchmen. If a theft was committed in his area, he had either to catch hold of the thief
or suffer the punishment himself.
According to the contemporary historian Abbas, ‘Because of this arrangement,
the events of theft or ‘dacoity’ in the empire were totally nullified and even if an old
women travelled from one end of the empire to the other tossing gold, nobody dared
to interfere with her.’
If any traveller or merchant died on the way the local people gave the information
to the government officials and till the reaching of any instruction from the government,
they kept watch themselves. This statement might be an exaggeration but it makes it
clear that during Sher Shah’s time, priority was given to the maintenance of peace Self-Instructional
Material 225
Administration of and order throughout the empire. He dealt very strictly with thieves, dacoits and with
Various Empires
those landlords who refused either to pay the revenue or refuse to obey the government’s
instructions.
NOTES Revenue administration

During Sher Shah’s time there were seven main sources of state income—land revenue,
khams, custom, Jaziya, nazrana, royal currency and sales tax. In his time, one-third
of the produce was taken as the land revenue. The peasants paid in cash or in kind
though the state preferred the cash payment. He effected many reforms in the sphere
of land revenue administration. He evolved a system of land revenue rates called Rai,
wherein there were separate rates of land revenue, different parts of the empire for
different kind of produce. For payment in cash, a list was prepared according to the
prices, prevalent in the area.
Besides the land revenue administration, he also imposed duties on the import
and export of raw materials and finished products. A ruler like Sher Shah also did not
abolish a tax like Jazia. This tax was levied on the non-Muslims and was an important
source of governmental income. Nazrana or gifts were obtained almost from all
tributary rulers, Zamindars, government officials etc. Royal mint was also a good
source of the royal income. Salt tax also yielded considerable income to the state.
Sometimes, unclaimed property also was an important source of income for the
government.
Land revenue administration
Sher Shah paid great attention towards land revenue system and land administration.
Sher Shah was well acquainted with every level of land revenue system having
managed for many years the Jagir of Sahasram of his father Hassan and then having
worked as a guardian of Jalal Khan, the ruler of Bihar.
After becoming the emperor, he set the whole land revenue system right with
the help of a few able administrators. A glance at the different aspects of his
administration shows clearly that he managed the land revenue system with greatest
ability and interest. Praising his land revenue administration Dr. Ishwari Prasad writes,
‘He tried to fix the land revenue in accordance with the income of the people.’
Military system
Sher Shah kept a strong army for defense of his vast empire. He knew very well the
importance of the local army. According to the contemporary writer Abbas Sherwani,
‘There were about 150000 infantry, 25000 cavalry, 5000 elephants and artillery in his
army.’ Sher Shah put an end to the practice of supplying a fixed number of soldiers to
the state by the chieftains and started direct recruitment of the soldiers and fixed their
pay according to their ability. The salary was paid in cash. Promotion was given to
soldiers and officials on the basis of their ability and working capacity. The descriptive
role of each soldier was recorded. His horse was also branded so that it could not be
replaced by a horse of inferior quality.
Probably, these practices were adopted by Sher Shah following the example of
Allauddin Khilji, who had first adopted these practices as part of his military reforms.
He constructed many cantonments in different parts of his empire and kept a strong
army contingent in each of them. In addition to a big artillery, Sher Shah made
arrangements for supplying good quality guns to his soldiers. He maintained a strict
Self-Instructional discipline in his army. He also constructed a new fort near Peshawar.
226 Material
Judicial system Administration of
Various Empires
Sher Shah laid great emphasis on the dispensation of justice. He used to say, ‘Doing
justice is the greatest religious work which should be adopted alike by the state of
Kafirs or Momins.’ He never pardoned any criminal whether he was his close relative, NOTES
big chief or any powerful person.
He established law courts in the whole of his empire. At the centre the Emperor
himself was the highest judge and next to him was the Qazi-ul-Qazt, who was the
highest official of the judicial department. Besides big cities, in provinces and their
capitals also Qazis dispensed justice. In the village the work of the dispensation of
justice was undertaken by the Muqaddam or Mukhiya. The civil cases were heard by
the Munsif, Amirs and Munsifi-Munsifan. In fact, during Sher Shah’s time not many
changes were effected in the judicial system but he inspired all the officials to dispense
justice impartially and fearlessly and did so himself as well.
Police arrangements
Sher Shah Suri made separate police arrangements. Before him, this function was
also discharged by the army. Because of the police arrangements, it became easier to
trace the criminals. In the sarkars the Chief Shiqdar, in the paragana the Shiqdar and
in the villages Muqaddams used to perform police duties and hand over the criminals
to the law courts. Abbas Sherwani wrote, ‘during the time of Sher Shah, travellers
were free from the worry of keeping a check over their belongings. Even in the desert
region they had no fear. They could camp freely in a locality or in the deserted regions.
They could leave their belongings in the open place also. Cattle could be left to graze
freely and the owners slept carefree as if they were in their own homes.’
Espionage system
Sher Shah had spread a net of trusted and expert spies who kept on giving him
information about the activities of the whole empire. Therefore, nobody dared to
revolt against the emperor or shirk his duty. The daily report of the prices of
commodities in the market used to reach the emperor. Messengers and spies were
appointed in all the major cities and they had the orders to send any urgent message to
the emperor at once.
Currency
Sher Shah brought about many reforms in the currency system and got pure gold,
silver and copper coins minted in the place of debased and mixed metal coins. His
silver rupee was so authentic that even after centuries it continued to be used as a
standard currency. Historian V.A. Smith wrote correctly, ‘This rupee was the basis of
the British currency system.’ On the coins, the name of the emperor was inscribed in
Devnagari as well as Persian scripts. The coins of Sher Shah were pure, beautiful and
standard. He also issued small copper coins so that people may not have any difficulty
in everyday transactions.
Public welfare activities of Sher Shah
For the benefit of the peasants, Sher Shah Suri carried on many land reforms such as
getting the land measured and fixing of the prices, keeping in view the cultivate of
land, its productivity, the crops grown and the local prices prevalent.
Self-Instructional
Material 227
Administration of The cultivators were given the option of paying the revenue in cash or in kind.
Various Empires
He encouraged the Ryotwari system in place of the Zamindari system. For the benefit
of trading community, he affected currency reforms. He showed special interest in
the construction of roads, sarais, public kitchens, etc. He issued standard weights
NOTES and ordered the officials to behave courteously with the traders.
He is said to have constructed about 1700 sarais some of which still exist.
Apart from constructing good roads for the travellers, he also planted many trees on
both sides of the roads. He gave patronage to the artists and litterateurs. For the
welfare of the poorest of the capital, he made arrangements for charitable langar. It is
Check Your Progress said that about 500 Tolas of gold was spent every day on this langar.
1. State whether the In essence, Sher Shah was the first great and able ruler of later medieval India.
following V. A. Smith has justly written, ‘If Sher Shah remained alive for some more time and
statements are true if his successors had been as able as he was, the Mughals might not have reappeared
or false.
on the stage of India.’
(a) There were four
main ministers Sher Shah Suri’s Land Revenue System
in Sher Shah’s
central Sher Shah paid great attention towards the land revenue system and the land
government. administration. Sher Shah was well acquainted with every level of the land revenue
(b) Sher Shah system having managed for many years the Jagir of Sahasram of his father Hassan
implemented the and then having worked as guardian of Jalal Khan, the ruler of Bihar.
provincial
administration After becoming the emperor he set the whole land revenue system right with
first in Bengal. the help of a few able administrators. A glance at the different aspects of his
(c) Each paragana administration shows clearly that he managed the land revenue system with greatest
was divided into
many sirkars. ability and interest. Praising his land revenue administration Dr. Ishwari Prasad writes,
(d) Sher Shah
‘He tried to fix the land revenue in accordance with the income of the people.’ The
started the main features of his land revenue administration can be studied under the following
practice of direct heads:
recruitment of
soldiers.  Measurement of Land: Sher Shah Suri got the entire land of his empire
2. Fill in the blanks measured in order to ascertain the total cultivable land of his empire. During
with appropriate his time Patwari kept the whole account of the cultivable land of every village.
words.
He used the Sikandari Gaz for the measurement of land. During his time one
(a) The Bigha measured 60 × 60 yards.
looked after the
foreign affairs  Classification of land, fixing of revenue and lists of rates: He got the entire
during Sher cultivable land divided into three categories—good, middling and bad. He got
Shah’s reign. the produce of all the three categories ascertained. After measuring the produce
(b) Each sirkar had of each category of land, he decided to take one-third of the produce of each
two officials
and
category as land revenue. During his time, the amount of the produce was not
. estimated or divided into fields or granaries. A common system of rates was
(c) The smallest started which was called the Rai according to which the share of the state
unit of the differed on different kinds of crops. After that the price of the produce was
empire was fixed in different areas according to the market prices prevalent there. Thus,
.
the revenue list of the produce per Bigha was prepared and one copy of it was
(d) During Sher given to the concerned state officials. Thus, after serving the crop, the cultivator
Shah’s reign
of the knew how much he had to pay as the land revenue.
produce was  Option to pay the revenue in cash or in kind: Sher Shah had given the
taken as the land
revenue. freedom to the cultivators to pay the land revenue in cash or in kind, though he
preferred the payment in cash.
Self-Instructional
228 Material
 Patta and Kabuliat: Sher Shah started the practice of issuing Patta to every Administration of
Various Empires
cultivator. On it was written the area of the cultivated land, kind of crop, land
revenue payable by the cultivator, and he was informed of it. On the other
hand, the government got the signature of the peasants on the Kabuliat whereby
they gave written consent about acknowledging the conditions of the state with NOTES
regard to the land revenue administration.
 Eradication of middlemen: Sher Shah attached a greater importance to the
Ryotwari system so that there could be a direct relationship between the peasant
and the government. Undoubtedly, the Zamindari system was not ended
completely during his time, but there was a definite decline in it. He fixed a
handsome emolument for the members of the measuring party so that they did
not trouble the cultivators.
 Instructions to the officials for good behaviour: Sher Shah instructed all
his officials to behave properly with the peasants. They were strictly instructed
not to take any bribe from them. According to the contemporary historian Abbas
Sherwani, ‘Sher Shah knew that there was no other office most lucrative than
that of the Amin so he appointed new Amins every two years so that greatest
number of Afghans should be able to take advantage of this post.’ This statement
of Sherwani leads to three conclusions. First, Sher Shah could not end bribery
completely. Second, he tried to lessen the evil of bribery as far as he could by
transferring the Amins repeatedly because at last they were put to some difficulty
by going to new places. Third, in order to please the Afghans, he seems to have
given his silent consent unknowingly to the practice of bribery.
 Liberality in assessment of revenue but strictness in collection: Sher Shah
was liberal at the time of the assessment of revenue and issued similar
instructions to his officials as well but he did not like the idea of sparing the
collection. Therefore, he instructed the time of land revenue collection. During
natural calamities, he often pardoned the land revenue of the peasants.
 Famine tax: To cope with natural calamities, two and a half ser of food grains
per Bigha was charged extra from the cultivator. It was kept reserved for the
time of famine.
To conclude, Sher Shah cared greatly for the welfare of the peasants. Keeping in view
the welfare of the peasants, he fixed one-third of the produce at state’s share which
was not very high. In fact, he did it because of the prevailing circumstances. At that
time the cultivable land was available in plenty and there was a great danger of the
cultivators leaving the land and going away if the state was oppressive. Probably, this
factor placed a restriction on the emperor. On the basis of the description of Abbas
Sherwani, it can be said that this factor counted with Sher Shah. He is said to have
stated that the peasants were innocent, they bowed before the officials and if he
perpetuated atrocities on them they would leave the land and go away. The country
would be ruined and deserted and it would take a long time to make it prosperous
again.
According to the famous historian Qanungo, ‘The land revenue arrangement
of Sher Shah was a valuable heritage for the Mughals. He tried to levy the land
revenue in accordance with the income of the peasants. The British adopted this very
system.’ But Sher Shah did not devote much attention towards irrigation. He did not
completely abolish the Zamindari system probably to keep the Afghan chiefs satisfied.
In spite of these defects, it will have to be conceded that his land revenue administration
was good and was undertaken keeping in mind the interest of the cultivators.
Self-Instructional
Material 229
Administration of
Various Empires ACTIVITY
Do you see traces of Sher Shah’s methods in the administration of modern

NOTES India? Using the Internet for research, provide a detailed answer.
10.3 MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION, LAND REVENUE

Check Your Progress
AND MANSABDARI
3. State whether the
following
In Mughal administration, every official was expected to enroll in the army. Each
statements are true officer held a mansab—an office of rank as well as of profit—and was obliged to
or false. supply the Emperor with a number of troops. He was also required to maintain a
(a) During Sher given quota of horses, elephants and carriages. He was paid either in cash or gifted
Shah’s reign, the with a jagir—a tract of land which he did not own, but collected tax on it equivalent
Patwari kept a to his salary. The jagir was transferable from one Mansabdar to another; the office
record of all
itself was not hereditary. The Mansabdars were directly recruited by the Emperor
cultivable land
in the empire. and were subject to his rule. The Emperor himself was an absolute ruler. Under him,
(b) Sher Shah had there were several departments of the administration headed by the appointed officials
given the such as the Imperial Household (Khan-i-Saman), the Exchequer (Diwan), Military
freedom to the Pay and Accounts (Mir Bakshi), the Judiciary (Qazi), Religious Endowments (Sadr-
cultivators to
pay the land
us-Sudur), and Censorship of Public Morals (Muhtasib). The village administration
revenue either in remained as it was traditionally under the headman and his subordinate watchman. In
kind or in cash. the cities, the police duties were given to the Kotwals, and at the district level there
(c) To cope with was the Faujdar. The judges followed the Quranic percepts, its previous interpretations
food shortage (fatwa), and the ordinances of the Emperor (qanun). Justice was speedy and impartial,
during famine,
as it was meted out equally to all, including the officials.
Sher Shah
charged an
additional five Salient Features
seers of food
grains from each (a) Import of foreign element in administration: The Mughals imported certain
cultivator. foreign elements into their administrative system. They came to India from
4. Fill in the blanks Central Asia where they had their own system of administration. In India, they
with appropriate modified the same according to the Indian traditions and setting. Thus, the
words.
Mughal administration presented a combination of India and extra-India
(a) For the welfare elements. More correctly, it was a Perso-Arabic system in the Indian setting.
of the poor in his
capital, Sher (b) Administration based on the military system: In its formal configuration,
Shah made the Mughal government was based on the military system. For instance, it was
arrangements for mandatory for government officers to enroll in the army. He was given a mansab
.
as the nominal commander of a certain number of horsemen, and that determined
(b) Sher Shah used his status and pay. They were also paid by the bakshis or the military paymasters.
the
for (c) Despotic: Being military in nature, the Mughal administrative system was
the measurement based on centralized despotism. The king had unlimited powers and his word
of land. was the law.
(c) Sher Shah
started the (d) Mixture of religion and politics: A strong blend of religion and politics existed
practice of in the system. The king was expected to rule according to the Islamic traditions
issuing to and obey the commands of the Ulemas. Resultantly, as Jadunath Sarkar
every cultivator.
observes, ‘a difference existed in the attitude of the emperor towards his Muslim
and Hindu subjects. For the Muslims, he undertook socialistic functions but
Self-Instructional
230 Material
towards his non-Muslim subjects, he followed the policy of minimum Administration of
Various Empires
interference and thus confined himself to discharging the police and revenue
functions’.
(e) Paper government: The Mughal government, except in the actual conduct of
campaigns, was a kagazi raj, i.e., paper government. Because of the large NOTES
territory, slow means of transport and communications and no political initiative
left to the people, there was a multiplication of the official correspondence and
the growth of massive records.
(f) Police duties and revenue collection as the major function: As regards the
aims of the state, it contented itself with police duties and revenue collection.
The state did not take any initiative in social progress or the economic welfare
of the common man. Areas like education, health and promotion of art were
largely left to private initiative. Except for Akbar, the policy of benevolent
intervention and paternal guidance was not pursued by the Mughal emperors.
(g) State as an entrepreneur: The concept of the state as an entrepreneur and the
system of public corporations were firmly entrenched. The state maintained
many karkhanas (factories) of its own in the principal cities of the Empire and
produced several commodities.
(h) Administration of justice and maintenance of peace: A striking feature
characterized the Mughal administration’s attitude towards law and order. While
the administration of justice and maintenance of peace are considered as essential
functions of the modern state, during the Mughal era, however, it was left to
the initiative of the local administration. Policing in the vast rural areas was
done by the local chaukidars who were maintained by the villagers themselves.
No doubt, the faujdar acted as the agent of the government, but the area under
him was so large that he could not supervise all the villages.
(i) ‘Parochial’ self-government: Though the administration was decentralized
into the provincial and the local administrations, it would be more correct to
say that the villages and small towns of the Mughal Empire enjoyed ‘parochial’
self-government rather than local autonomy. They had no political freedom as
such and were in reality, only payers of taxes.
The Emperor
In the Mughal system of governance, the emperor enjoyed real sovereignty which
was indivisible and inalienable. Within this realm, he stood supreme as the symbol of
unity and preserver of peace. He actively performed all major functions of the
government. He was the head of the civil and military administrations, responsible
for the appointment and removal of all high officials. No farmans could be issued
without his seal. The exchequer was also not outside the royal authority and the king
determined the expenditure and sources of revenue. He was in no formal way
responsible or accountable to the people.
But, it may be said to the credit of the most Mughal emperors that they did not
abuse the powers vested in them. Actually, they covered their despotism with a thick
veil of paternalistic benevolence. There are accounts of the king touring the country
extensively to keep a finger on the pulse of the administration.
Consequently, the idea of a fixed capital did not possess much attraction for
them. They carried their capital with them. It is wrong to think of the emperor’s life as
Self-Instructional
Material 231
Administration of one of ‘elysian ease’. Akbar, for instance, dealt with all the administrative work in an
Various Empires
open darbar called Diwan-i-Aam.
The King’s Council
NOTES Although the emperors had a few important officers to assist them, they, in no way,
bore any resemblance to the modern-day council of ministers. These officials invariably
included the Wazir and the Diwan, and the rest of the strength of the officials was
determined exclusively by the emperor. These officials were mere delegates of the
royal polity. Their primary function was to advise the sovereign but this advice was
not binding. He heard them but did not always act according to them. They provided
no checks on the royal will and, in no sense, were they his colleagues. Sarkar observes
that they deserved to be called ‘secretaries rather than ministers.’ They could never
influence his policy except by gentle persuasion and veiled warning. Little wonder,
they never resigned if he rejected their counsels.
Central Ministers and their Duties
1. Wakil or Prime Minister

The literal meaning of the term Wakil is representative. He was the representative of
the state. The minister is called Wakil who could enjoy all the rights of the emperor on
his behalf. This office continued in vogue in Akbar’s, Jahangir’s and Shah Jahan’s
reign. During their time, the Prime Minister was called Wakil or (Wakil-i-Mutalak).
Some later emperors reviewed the office of Wakil, e.g., Jahandar Shah appointed
Asad Khan as the Wakil-i-Mutalak and appointed his very son Zulfiqar Khan as Wazir.
During Akbar’s time, till the fall of Bairam Khan, this office was very important
because this office was in charge of the finance as well the civic administration. After
the fall of Bairam Khan, Akbar let his new Wakil Munim Khan remain as the political
prime or the chief adviser, and taking away the financial power from him, created a
separate office of Wazir or chief Diwan, who became the head of the finance
department. After Bairam Khan, the most powerful Wakil was Asaf Khan who was
given a mansab of 9000 Jats and 9000 Sawars by Shah Jahan. Thus, the place of
Wakil became higher than that of the Diwan.
Rights and duties of Wakil
Wakil generally had these rights and duties:
(i) To advise the emperor about the appointment and dismissal of subedars,
faujdars and Diwan.
(ii) He advised the emperor on matters related to allocation of jagirs.
(iii) Every evening he presented all the papers, etc., before the emperor.
(iv) He used to have custody of the royal stamp.
(v) He had the right to acquire one copy of all the information coming from the
provinces. A copy of all the papers of the Diwan used to come to him.
(vi) His stamp and signatures were needed on all the appointment letters. He had
the right to have a band and move about in a palanquin.
2. The Wazir or Diwan
The Wazir or Diwan was the head of the revenue department. In case of non-
appointment or the absence of wakil, all his tasks used to be performed by the wazir.
Self-Instructional
232 Material
The office of the wazir got revenue papers, and returned dispatches from the provinces Administration of
Various Empires
and the armies in the field. On many ceremonial occasions, he acted as the
representative of the emperor. All orders of payments had to be signed by him and all
the payments were made only through his department.
Under the directions of the emperor, he himself passed orders. All questions NOTES
concerning the revenue were settled by him and he consulted the emperor only in
important cases. He had two assistants known as the Diwan-i-Aam or the Diwan of
salaries and the Diwan-i-Khas or the Diwan of the crown land. After the death of
Aurangzeb, the wazir became virtually the ruler of the state.
Rights and duties of wazir
(i) All the employees concerned with the raising of the revenue used to be under
him, and either he used to advise the emperor in their appointment or sometimes
himself made the appointment.
(ii) He used to acquire the description of the income and expenditures from the
provincial diwan. He distributed the income from the empire amongst various
departments, and kept an account of the entire income and expenditure of the
empire.
(iii) He presented the account of land revenue and imports and exports, among
other things.
3. Mir Bakshi
The mir bakshi was the chief military adviser. He worked as the inspector general of
the mansabdars inculcating a high standard of military strength. When the review
was complete, he issued a certificate which listed the mansabdars serving in the
various capacities at the capital or outside, their ranks, the salaries including special
awards, the way in which they drew their salaries, a complete record of their services
as well as the result of the annual reviews of their troops and horses. He assigned the
mansabdars present at the imperial camp of the capital to guard duty, though the list
so prepared had to be sent to the diwan for the final sanction. As the chief of the state,
he drew up the plans of campaigns of the various armies in consultation with the
commanders and also with the emperor. He took part in all military expeditions and
advised the emperor regarding reinforcements or when the smouldering jealousies of
the rival commanders in an expedition rendered the recall or transfer of one of them
necessary. Some of the other roles of a mir bakshi included the following:
 Advised the emperor to give away awards following a successful campaign
and to increment the number of horses.
 Being the nerve centre of administration he sent out messages to news writers.
The provincial bakshi was the news writer-in-chief for his province. His reports
formed the pulse of the whole empire.
 At the capital, he had several departmental heads under him. The superintendents
of the artillery, elephants and war boats were placed immediately under him.
 His position was sometimes eclipsed on account of the presence of the emperor
at the head of an expedition. Even then, the mir bakshi accompanied the emperor
on the battlefield and served as one of his chief advisers.
4. Khan-i-Saman or High Steward
The khan-i-saman was a very important officer in the Mughal times, as he was the
head of the emperor’s household department, and accompanied him during all his Self-Instructional
Material 233
Administration of journeys and campaigns. All the personal servants of the emperor were under his
Various Empires
control. He also supervised the emperor’s daily expenditure, food, tents, stories, etc.
He enjoyed a great power and influence, and there are examples of the wazirs being
appointed from among the khan-i-samans. He used to keep a list of the requirements
NOTES of the emperor and the harems. He was to meet the requirements, and in order to do
so, procured things from places where they were available. Most of the ordinary
requirements were met by the imperial factories or karkhanas. The khan-i-saman
was in charge of all the state-owned factories and state industries. He was to see that
the court was properly furnished and decorated according to the tastes and instructions
of the emperor.
He was to keep a ready stock of the ‘robes of honour’ or Khutaba, as at any
time, the emperor may need one. He was also to make all purchases of the royal
princes and princesses. He was also to arrange the royal parties on certain auspicious
occasions.
5. Sadr-us-Sudur
The sadr-us-sudur was the chief sadar of the Empire. He was also called by the
names of the sadr-i-khul and sadr-i-jahan. Sadr-us-sudur was the connecting link
between the emperor and the people. He was the guardian of the Islamic Law and the
spokesman of the Ulema. According to Ibn Hasan, the function of the chief sadar
seems ‘to have been limited to the use of his power for the award of the state of
stipends and jagirs to the Ulema and the needy’. It was his duty to look into and
decide the cases related to grants. He was the Almoner of the Emperor. He distributed
the money for charitable purposes. There was a sadar in every province. While sending
the provincial sadars to their charges, the chief sadar acquainted them with the names
of those who held rent-free lands. Each sadar was to obey the chief sadar and carry
out his orders.
6. Muhatashib
The muhatashib was appointed by the emperor to inspect the morals of the people.
He used to perform both the religious and the secular duties. As a secular official, he
ensured that the traders and grocers charged the right price for their commodities.
Beside these roles, he also had to oversee the general cleanliness of the city. Thus, he
inspected the markets and other places regularly. Moreover, he ensured that the people
followed the principles of Islam as propounded by the Prophet. It was his duty to
mete out punishments to those Muslims who had given up namaz and roza. During
Aurangzeb’s reign he had to oversee the desecration and demolition of newly built
temples.
7. Qazi-ul-Quzat
The qazi-ul-quzat was the highest judicial officer next to the emperor. He was
responsible for the proper and an efficient administration of justice. The provincial
qazis were appointed by him. In every province, district and city, there were qazis
who decided the outcome of the cases. The duty of the chief qazi was to hear appeals
from their courts and supervise their conduct.
8. Other ministers and officers
Besides these ministers, mentioned above there were two other important ministers:
Self-Instructional
234 Material
(i) Daroga-i-Dak-Chauki – He was the superintendent of intelligence and posts. Administration of
Various Empires
He became a departmental head during the later days of the Mughals. He was
in charge of the posts of news writers, spies and news carriers who were posted
throughout the Empire. They were to report regularly about the important
happenings in their jurisdictions. There were provincial superintendents who NOTES
worked under the orders of the royal Daroga of Dak Chowki and sent weekly
abstracts of news to the capital.
(ii) Mir-i-Atish – He was the superintendent of the artillery. He was originally a
subordinate of the mir bakshi; but as artillery came to play a very important
role in wars, the head of this department rose to the position of the minister.
Under the later Mughals, the mir-i-atish had to make arrangements for the
defence of the imperial palace-fort and sometimes even to reside inside it. He,
therefore, came in touch with the emperor and rose to be an important minister.
The complete range of weapons in the artillery, from the battering canon to the
smaller units, was under his charge.
The other important officers of the Central government were: Mir Barr (superintendent
of the forests) Qur Begi (lord standard bearer), Mushrif (chief admiral and the officer
of harbours), Mir Arz (officer who presented petitions to the emperor), Mir Bahri
(revenue secretary), Mustaufi (auditor-general), Khawan Sadar (superintendent of
the royal kitchen), Akht Begi (superintendent of royal stud), Nazir-i-Buyutad
(superintendent of the imperial workshops) and Awarjah Newis (Superintendent of
the daily expenditure at courts).
Chief Departments of Administration
The chief departments of the Mughal administration were:
(i) Exchequer and revenue: The revenue department was headed by the Diwan
or Wazir.
(ii) Imperial household: The Department of Imperial Household was headed by
the Khan-i-Sama. All the personal servants of the emperor were under this
officer’s control and he also supervised the emperor’s daily expenditure, food,
stores, etc. He enjoyed the trust of the emperor and there are examples of
wazirs being appointed from among the Khan-i-Samas.
(iii) Military pay and accounts office: The military pay and accounts office were
under the Mir Bakshi. He was the paymaster of the central government. Since
all the civil officers were part of the military, their salary also was released by
the MirBakshi. He assisted the king in the appointment of mansabdars. His
other duties included the recruitment of the army, the maintenance of the troops,
determining the strength of troops, assisting the king in the conduct of foreign
relations, leading the army or a section of it and accompanying the king on
tours.
(iv) Canon law, both civil and criminal: The department of law had the Qazi as
its head. He was responsible for the administration of law in the land and,
besides, was the chief judge in criminal suits which he tried according to the
Muslim law.
(v) Religious endowments and charity: The Sadar was the head of the department
of religious affairs. He was the guardian of the Islamic law and the spokesman
of the Ulema. He made religious grants and it was his duty to see that such
Self-Instructional
Material 235
Administration of grants were applied to the right purpose. He was also a judge in some types of
Various Empires
civil cases.
(vi) Censorship of public morals: The Department of Censorship of Public Morals,
under the Muhtasib, was the censor of public morals. It regulated the behaviour
NOTES of the people, curbed immortality and punished those who indulged in anti-
religious acts.
(vii) The artillery: It was headed by the Mir Atish or Daroga-i-Topkhana.
(viii) Intelligence and posts: It was headed by the Daroga of Dak Chouki.
Personnel Administration
The personnel in the departments mentioned earlier formed the Mughal bureaucracy.
They were a heterogeneous group comprising Persians, Afghans, Mughals and a few
Hindus. As already mentioned, the personnel administration under the Mughals was
military in origin. All civil servants were enrolled in the army as mansabdars. They
were given this designation because each one of them held a mansab or official
appointment of rank and profit and was bound, theoretically, to supply a prescribed
number of troops for the military service of the state. Under the Mughals, the word
mansab was applied only to the higher rank of officials and, although it had a military
connotation, it was a myth because no military obligations were always incumbent on
a mansabdar. It became merely symbolic that the mansabdar (the holder of the mansab)
performed military duties. The mansabdars also formed the official nobility of the
country and this system was thus a combination of the army, the peerage and the civil
administration – all rolled into one.
The appointment of all mansabdars was entirely in the king’s hands. He granted
mansabs or ranks to them and dismissed them at his free will. The orders of
appointment were issued by the High Diwan. The king remained the source of all
administrative authority and, by his powers of appointment and removal; he kept all-
embracing control over the administrative machinery.
Provincial Administration
It was Akbar who organized the provincial administration of the country and put it on
a sound footing. He divided the empire into twelve divisions, later on increased to
fifteen, calling each a subah. The administrative system in the provinces of the Mughal
Empire was an exact miniature replica of the Central government.
The officer-in-charge of the subah was the subedar, also known as the nazim,
in certain provinces. There was no regulation fixing the tenure of this office. The
subedar was responsible for the general supervision, economic prosperity, law and
order and defence of the province. Besides being responsible for the general
administration, he also supervised the administration of justice, helped the diwan in
collecting revenue, maintained the provincial forts and recommended appointments
and promotions to important positions in the province. The provincial diwan was
second in line, but interestingly, not subordinate to the subedar.
Rather, he was the latter’s rival in the province. He too was directly appointed
by the emperor on the recommendation of the high diwan. He acted directly on the
orders of the high diwan, and was in constant correspondence with him. We see here
a violation of the principle of the unity of command. By placing the diwan on an equal
footing with the subedar, the Mughals created two parallel and mutually independent
Self-Instructional organizations in the province. They jealously watched each other’s activities and
236 Material
reported to the emperor. Though they were supposed to work in close collaboration, Administration of
Various Empires
the records prove that the two quarrelled violently, leading to frequent transfers of
one or the other.
Local Administration NOTES
During the Mughal administration, each subah was divided into a number of units
called the sarkars. Each sarkar was subdivided into parganas or mahals. At this
level, people came in direct touch with officials. Below the parganas, there were
villages called mawdah or dih. In the Mughal terminology, a village included the land
surrounding it and, therefore, the boundary of each mawdah was clearly demarcated.
In a mawdah, there were smaller hamlets called naglah.
Under Shahjahan, his wazir created another unit called the chakla between
sarkar and pargana which included a number of parganas. The sarkar however
continued to exist.
A brief mention of the officers at the sarkar may be made. The faujdar was the
executive and the military head of a sarkar and, since he was the direct representative
of the Mughal government at the local level, he too was appointed by the central
government. The faujdar had military, police, judicial and executive authority rolled
into one. He had a small army at his disposal to suppress the rebellious zamindars.
Besides, he also helped the amir in revenue collection. The amir was responsible for
the working of the entire revenue department of the subdivision and functioned under
the direct control of the provincial diwan.
Pargana administration
As noted above, each sarkar was divided into parganas. The shiqdar was the executive
head of a pargana and responsible for the maintenance of law and order as well as
criminal justice. He conducted census operations and helped the amir in the collection
of land revenue. Below him was the qanungo, who dealt primarily with the survey,
assessment and collection of the revenue. The quanungo was the head of the patwaris
of a pargana.
Village administration
Village administration, during the Mughal period, was in the hands of the village
Panchayat. The organization of the village life and the observation of the accepted
codes of conduct were maintained through the village Panchayat which acted as a
social development agency, catering to the welfare of the people. It was also a judicial
agency for disposing of cases involving disputes among the villagers. However, an
appeal against the decision of the panchayats could be taken to the higher authorities
of the government.
Revenue Administration
The revenue administration under the Mughal rule was under the wazir. The
nomenclature of the diwan and the wazir was used interchangeably by the various
Mughal emperors. For instance, Akbar preferred the designation of diwan while
Jahangir reversed it to wazir. All diwans were however not wazirs and we read of no
Hindu diwan being given the high title of wazir. In both the cases, the diwan or wazir
was the alter ego of the emperor. However, Akbar did not like the idea of the diwan
becoming all powerful and he kept rotating this office amongst his ministers.
Self-Instructional
Material 237
Administration of When the king was incompetent, a pleasure-seeker or a minor, the wazir assumed
Various Empires
the charge of the army also. During Akbar’s time, he had Diwan-i-Tan (diwan of
salaries) and the Diwana-i-Khalsa (diwan of crown lands) to assist him. By the end
of Jahangir’s era, the number of such assistants of the emperor went up to four. Thus,
NOTES besides the earlier two, there were mushriff (chief accountant) and mustanfi (chief
auditor) who collectively acted as controllers of financial affairs.
Check Your Progress
The wazir’s office received all the revenue papers and returned despatches
5. State whether true from the provinces and field armies. All orders for the payment except for the small
or false.
sums had to be signed by the diwan and the actual payments were made through his
(a) The Mughal department only. All questions regarding the collection of revenue were decided by
Dynasty did not
bring any major the diwan who functioned under the control or guidance of the emperor.
changes in
administration in Judicial and Social Reforms
India.
(b) Except
The king and his vakil or the prime minister was primarily responsible for this task.
Aurangzeb, no At the provincial level, there was the faujdar whose duties have been described above.
other Mughal Below him was the kotwal who appointed a headman for each mohalla (ward) to
Emperor look after the reports about the law and order situation.
attempted to
carry his However, Sarkar points out that the state almost neglected the law and order
administration
on the principles situation in the villages except when there was a violent crime. The policing of the
of Islam. vast rural areas was left to the locality. It was done by the local chaukidars who were
(c) Babur started servants of the village community and were maintained by the villagers themselves.
the practices like They were not considered officers paid or supervised by the state.
Jharokha
Darshan and It is noteworthy that, instead of the Mughal government undertaking the
Tula Dan. responsibility for rural peace and security, it made the villagers responsible for the
(d) During the reign safety of their own property and that of the travellers in the neighbouring roads. Akbar
of Akbar there introduced various reforms in the administration of justice. Earlier to his period, all
were only four cases in the Mughal Empire were decided according to the Islamic law. But now, for
ministers,
namely Wakil, the first time, Hindu law was administered in deciding the cases where the parties
Diwan or Wazir, involved were Hindus, but Islamic law continued to function where the parties involved
Mir Bakhsi and were Muslims. The king was the highest court of appeal. Capital punishment was
Sadr-us-Sadur.
6. Fill in the blanks given only in extreme cases and that too by the emperor alone.
with the
appropriate word. Social Reforms
(a) Babur, the Akbar had the welfare of his people always in his mind. He had taken several measures
founder of the
Mughal Empire to improve the general condition of his subjects. In AD1563, the Pilgrim Tax, which
assumed the title was a great burden on the Hindus, was abolished. In AD1564, Jaziya, a tax which
of . was imposed on non-Muslims, was also abolished. Akbar tried to stop the practice of
(b) The or the Sati. Child marriage was discouraged and female-infanticide was forbidden. Widow-
nobles were the marriage was encouraged.
pillars of the
Mughal From the above account it is quite clear that Akbar was a great administrator
administrative
system.
and the administrative machinery that he set up continued to function throughout the
Mughal period.
(c) The emperors
accepted two Mansabdari System
primary duties
for themselves
and .
The Mansabdari system during the Mughal administration is discussed under the
following heads:
(d) The
looked after the
income and
Akbar and the Mansabdari System
expenditure of
the state. Akbar could not have been able to expand his empire and maintain his hold over it
without a strong army. For this purpose, it was necessary for him to organize the
Self-Instructional
238 Material
nobility as well as his army. To realize both these objectives, Akbar organized his Administration of
Various Empires
army on the basis of the Mansabdari system in place of the Jagirdari system. He saw
that the Jagirdars did not keep the horses or the horsemen or the soldiers in the
required number and the prescribed breed of horses. On the contrary, they spent the
government money on their own pleasure making. Mansab is a Persian word. It means NOTES
an office or a status or an Ohada.
The person whom the Emperor gave a mansab was known as the Mansabdar.
Akbar gave some mansab or the ohada (status) to each of his military and civil official.
The lowest rank was ten, and the highest was 5000 for the nobles; towards the end of
the reign, it was raised to 7000.
According to Badayuni, we can say that towards the end of his reign, Akbar
increased the highest rank to 12,000. Princes of the blood received higher mansab.
During the period of Akbar, Raja Man Singh, Mirza Aziz Koka and one or two other
top ranking officials were promoted to the rank of 7000. Thereafter, the mansab of
8000 and above were meant for the royal family.
Meaning of Zat and Sawar
The ranks of Mansabdars were divided into two groups – Zat and Sawar. The word
Zat means personal. It fixed the personal status of a person, and also the salary due to
him. The Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawars) a person was
required to maintain. Regarding the actual horsemen maintained by the Mansabdar,
there was no definite view. This matter had been further complicated by the Zat and
Sawar distinction introduced by Akbar in AD 1603-1604 on which the historians hold
divergent views. According to Blachmann, Zat indicated the number of troops which
a Mansabdar was expected to maintain, while the Sawar meant the actual number of
horsemen that he maintained. On the other hand, Irvin holds that the Zat indicated the
actual number of a cavalry, while the Sawar was an honour, and represented like the
Zat, the actual number indicated by it. This view does not hold much water. Dr R.P.
Tripathi holds still another view. He says that Sawar was simply an additional honour
and it entitled the Mansabdars to some extra allowance. For the Sawar rank, he was
not required to maintain any additional troops at all. C.S.K. Rao says that the Zat rank
indicated infantry while Sawar indicated cavalry to be maintained by the Mansabdar.
But Abdul Aziz says that it is impossible that the Mughals could have such a large
number of infantry. He is of the opinion that zat rank imposed an obligation to maintain
a fixed number of elephants, horses, beasts of burden and carts but no horse men of
cavalry, whereas Sawar represented the actual number of cavalry under a mansabdar.
Both Abdul Aziz and Prof. S.R. Sharma hold that the sawar distinction
determined whether a particular Mansabdar of the Zat rank belonged to the first or
the second or the third class in that particular mansab. A person who was required to
maintain as many sawars as his zat rank was placed in the first category of that rank;
if he maintained half or more, then in the second category, and if he maintained less
than half, then in the third category. Thus, a rate of 2 for every sawar was added to the
zat salary. No one could have a higher quota of sawars than his zat rank. Although
modifications were made from time to time, this remained the basic structure as long
as the Empire was held together.
Main Characteristics of Mansabdari System
Mansab was granted to the military as well as the civil officials

Mansab was granted not only to the military officials, but also to all Mughal officers
in the revenue and judicial services. Even the scholars of the court were the holders of
Self-Instructional
Material 239
Administration of mansabs. It is, therefore, that Irvin says, mansabdari meant nothing ‘beyond the fact
Various Empires
that the holder of mansab was the employee of the state’. R.P. Khosla in a way reiterates
the same when he remarks, ‘In the Mughal state the army, the peerage and the civil
administration were all rolled into one’.
NOTES
Categories or grades of Mansabdars
In AD 1573-1574, the mansabdars were classified into 33 grades ranking from
commanders of ten to those of 12,000. Those who held command of ten to 400 were
called mansabdars. Higher up, those who held the command of 500–2500 were styled
as amirs, while the holders of 3000 and upward were known as Amir-i-Azam or
Umra. The highest graded commanders from 8000–12,000 were reserved for the
princes of the royal blood. A common official could not hold a mansab beyond 7000.
Appointment of the Mansabdars
The emperor used to appoint the mansabdars personally and they could retain the
mansab so long as he desired. Generally, a mansab of 8000 was given to the members
of royal family.
Pay and allowances of the Mansabdars
The mansabdars during Mughal period were very highly paid. They were generally
given salary in cash. Sometimes, the revenue of a particular jagir was assigned to
them as salary.
They had to manage their own horsemen and the expenditures of horses from
their own salary. They were necessary for the transport of the army. Prof. Satish
Chandra says regarding the pay of the Mughal mansabdars, ‘the Mughal mansabdars
were paid very handsomely; in fact, their salaries were probably the highest in the
world, at that time’. A mansabdar of 5000 got from 28,000 – 30,000, out of
which he would spent 16,000 to maintain the soldiers and the other obligations. A
mansabdar of 1000 got nearly 8000 of which 3000 were spent to meet his
obligations. Moreover, there was no income tax in those days.
The purchasing power of the rupee in those days has been calculated to be
sixty times of what it was in 1966. Even though the nobles had to spent roughly half
of their personal salary in the up keep of the animals for transport and in the
administration of their jagirs, they could lead lives of ostentation and luxury.
Duty of the mansabdars
Mansabdars could be sent to the battlefield on military campaigns as the military
commanders or under some commander, who himself was a mansabdar. They could
be called upon to quell a revolt, conquer a new area or perform non-military and
administrative duties. Sometimes, they were allowed to recruit their own troops and
to purchase their equipment.
Restrictions on mansabdars
Great care was taken to ensure that the sawars recruited by the mansabdars were
experienced and well mounted. Akbar started the practice of keeping a record of the
description (huliya) of each horseman under a mansabdar and of branding their horses
(dag) to prevent the mansabdars from going as they pleased. Each horse bore two
marks—the government mark on the right thigh and the mansabdar’s mark on the
Self-Instructional
240 Material
left thigh. Every mansabdar had to bring his contingent for a periodic inspection Administration of
Various Empires
before persons appointed by the emperor for the purpose. The horses were carefully
inspected and only good quality horses of Arabic and Iraqi breeds were employed.
For every ten cavalrymen, the mansabdar had to maintain twenty horses. This was so
because the horses had to be rested while on march, and replacements were necessarily NOTES
in the times of war.
Pure and mixed troops of mansabdars
Generally, a provision was made that the contingents of the nobles should be mixed
ones, and drawn from all the groups—Mughal, Pathan, Hindustani, Muslims, Rajputs,
etc. Thus, Akbar tried to weaken the forces of tribalism and parochialism. The Mughal
and Rajput nobles were allowed to have contingents exclusively of the Mughals or
the Rajputs, but in course of time, mixed contingents became the general rule.
Recruitment, promotion and dismissal
During the Mughal period, the recruitment, promotions and dismissals of mansabdars
were in the hands of the emperor. A person desirous of joining the Mughal service
may contact the emperor through a mansabdar or through mir bakshi to the emperor.
It was up to the mood and satisfaction of the emperor to accept the recommendation
of mir bakshi to assign a mansab to the concerned person. If he was granted a mansab,
his whole record, known as ‘hakikat’ was prepared. Promotions of the mansabdars
were also in the hands of the emperor and were made generally on such occasions as:
(i) before and after an expedition,
(ii) at the time of vacancy and
(iii) on some auspicious occasions or festivals.
A mansabdar could be dismissed at any time by the emperor if the latter felt that the
former was disloyal or dishonest to him or had lost his utility for the empire.
Mansabdari System during the Reign of Akbar’s Successors
(i) Difference in the highest mansab: In Akbar’s time, the smallest mansab was
of ten sawars and the highest of 10,000 even though, initially, mansabs higher
than 5000 were given only to princes. Later on, Akbar increased the mansab of
the princes to 12,000. He gave a mansab of 7000 only to three of his very
famous amirs, namely Mirza Shah Rukh, Aziz Koka and Raja Man Singh.
After Akbar’s death, for ordinary mansabdars, the highest mansab remained
that of 7000, but mansab of the princes was raised to 40,000 during Jahangir’s
time and 60,000 during Shah Jahan’s time. Shah Jahan gave to his father-in-
law a mansab of 9000 and Jahangir gave to Asaf Khan a mansab of 9000.
(ii) Rise of a new class of sawars: The end of Jahangir’s reign saw the rise of a
new class of sawars. It was known as do aspa sih aspa, i.e., two-three horses.
The mansabdars were to maintain additional horsemen and draw special
allowance.
(iii) Reduction in the number of soldiers: Shah Jahan reduced the number of
soldiers kept by the mansabdars to one-third the original number. According
to some historians, sometimes this number was even reduced to one-fourth or
one-fifth of the original number. In other words, during the reign of Shah Jahan,
a mansabdar of 6000 kept only 2000 soldiers. If any mansabdar was given the
additional rank of do aspa sih aspa, he could keep 2000 soldiers. Self-Instructional
Material 241
Administration of (iv) Difference in the categories of Mansabdars: Adul Fazal in his book
Various Empires
Akbarnamah had mentioned thirty-three categories of mansabdars during the
period of Akbar. During the time of Jahangir and Shah Jahan, this was reduced
to eleven, and during Aurangzeb’s time, their number was reduced to three.
NOTES (v) Relaxation in rules: After the death of Akbar, the Mughal Emperors started
relaxing the rules of muster and descriptive roles, and also became less watchful
on their activities, which resulted in degeneration and an inefficiently in
administration.
Merits of the Mansabdari System
 End of the main defects of the Jagirdari system: The mansabdari system
brought to an end many of the defects of the Jagirdari system. The mansabdars
had to come to the emperor every month for their pay. The emperor could
maintain direct contact with the mansabdars every month.
 Increased military efficiency: The mansabdari system was an improvement
over the military establishment of the medieval period. It was a sort of a
compromise between the tribal chieftainship and the feudal system of giving
troops. It combined the advantages of both the systems. Moreover, it was
designed to tap every source of fighting strength in the country. Various units
were particularly suited to certain special kinds of military duties. For example,
certain Rajput mansabdars were diplomatically used against certain Rajput
chiefs with whom they were in a feud.
 No more loss to royal treasury: Under the jagirdari system, the jagirdars
were assigned jagirs that covered huge areas of land, which resulted in a great
loss to the royal treasury. In the mansabdari system, all the land became the
state land. All the mansabdars were paid in cash on a fixed salary basis. This
prevented extra revenues from going to the jagirdars, and the state treasury,
thus, was enriched.
 End of corruption: According to some historians, the mansabdari system
raised the moral standard of the military officials because after the death of a
mansabdar, all his property used to be confiscated, and therefore, they did not
indulge in dishonesty or show greed for hoarding more and more money.
 Merit as the basis of selection: All the ranks in this system were given keeping
in view the ability of the officers. Moreover, incompetent officers were promptly
removed from their positions. The son of a mansabdar did not inherit the mansab
after the death of his father. With the appointment of efficient and able officials
on different posts, all parts of the administrative machinery functioned smoothly.
 Caste feeling and discrimination weakened: People from different castes
and religions formed the military group of mansabdars. This helped to weaken
the feeling of caste and discrimination between the Hindus and the Muslims.
Thus, this system helped to create an atmosphere of emotional integration in
the country.
Demerits of Mansabdari System
(i) Very expensive system: The fat salaries paid to the mansabdars made the whole
army system of the Mughals very expensive, and later on, in Aurangzeb’s time,
this proved to be one of the factors which brought about the downfall of the
Self-Instructional
Mughal Empire.
242 Material
(ii) Within a mansabdar’s division, there was no classification of the troops into Administration of
Various Empires
regiments. All the troops were immediately under him and every soldier had
personal relations with him. Nor was the numerical strength of each army
regulated or fixed in a mansabdar’s contingent.
(iii) Each system was a great defect of the whole system. Hawkins, Bernier and NOTES
Peter Mondy have referred to this in their accounts. Whenever a particular
mansabdar died, his property was confiscated by the state. This made the
nobles and the mansabdars lead a luxurious life, for they thought and very
rightly too, that their savings could not be inherited by their children. Therefore,
they spent whatever they possessed. This led to many corrupt practices in their
private life. This generation of the nobility later on proved to be a potent cause
of the downfall of the Mughal Empire.
(iv) Corruption in some form or the other was unavoidable in a system which left
the duties of the recruitment and the administration of the army to the
mansabdars, i.e., the commanding officers themselves.
(v) Moral degradation – Dishonest officials and dishonest mansabdars used to
tally together, and during inspection, used to borrow horses from the other Check Your Progress
mansabdars and used to maintain their full quota only on paper. 7. State whether true
or false.
(vi) The mansabdars drew the money from the king and paid the troops their salaries
with the result that the troops were more loyal to the mansabdars than to the (a) Akbar organized
his army on the
king. basis of the
mansabdari
Land Revenue System of the Mughal Dynasty system in place
of the jagirdari
The revenue system of the Mughal Dynasty went through many changes from the day system.
of its inception by Babur till the reign of Aurangazeb. However, the system was quite
(b) The lowest rank
an efficient one and helped in the prosperity of the Empire. The major income of the according to the
state was the revenue from land. Some of the major sources of income of the Mughal mansabdari
emperors were the following: system was
2000.
 Land revenue (c) Mansabdars
 One-fifth part of the loot in the war could be sent to
the battlefield on
 Trade tax military
campaigns.
 Mint 8. Fill in the blanks
 Unclaimed property with the
appropriate words.
 Income from industries run by the state
(a) Mansabdars who
 Annual tribute and presents from feudatory kings and mansabdars had a mansab of
500 –2500 were
Babur and Humayun imposed Jaziya on the Hindus and Zakat on the Muslims. Akbar called .
abolished these religious taxes; Aurangzeb revived them during his reign. Revenue
(b) During the reign
from land was the biggest source of income of the state. of Shah Jahan, a
mansabdar of
The Ryotwari System 6000 kept only
soldiers.
The Ryotwari system of land revenue was launched in AD 1582 by Raja Todar Mal (c) The mansabdari
(a Hindu), who was appointed by Akbar as the Diwan-i-Ashraf. Land was surveyed system brought
and measured carefully, and was classified into four categories based on the frequency to an end the
of cultivation and productivity, each with an annual fixed rate of revenue. Only the
system.
area that was cultivated was assessed, and the state took a third of the actual produce.
The actual cultivator of the land was responsible for the payment of tax. For purposes
Self-Instructional
Material 243
Administration of of the revenue administration, the empire was divided into several subahs, with each
Various Empires
subah subdivided into sarkars, and each sarkar into paraganas. A paragana consisted
of several villages. There were several revenue officials appointed such as the
Amalguzar (revenue collector), and the Potdar (treasurer) both at the district level,
NOTES and the Muqqaddam (headman), and the Patwari (recorder) at the village level.
Interestingly, the village officials did not function as servants of the state, but of the
local community.
Babur distributed all land as Jagirs to his nobles. Humayun took no step to
bring about any major change. Humayun, when he recaptured his empire, revived the
old Jagirdari system. Akbar was, therefore, the first Mughal Emperor who established
a sound revenue administration. During the early period of his rule, he made several
experiments in this field, but did not succeed in implementing any innovative system.
Ultimately, the system which he introduced with the help of Raja Todar Mal succeeded
which was called the Dahsala system.
In AD1580, the Dahsala system was introduced and it was stated as permanent. Raja
Todar Mal was the Diwan at that time and his deputy was Khwaja Shah Mansur.
Historians have expressed diverse opinions regarding this system. However, the most
admired features of this system were that instead of a hempen rope, the land was
measured by bamboos which were joined together by iron rings. One unit of land was
called bigha and the land was divided into the following four categories:
(i) Polaj-land: Cultivated every year
(ii) Parauti-land: Sometimes left uncultivated for a year or two
(iii) Chachar-land: Left uncultivated for three or four years
(iv) Banjar-land: Left uncultivated for five years or more
The average yield per bigha of each type of land in respect of every crop was ascertained
separately in every Pargana on the basis of the past ten years’ produce. That average
was regarded as the standard produce of that land and on its basis revenue was fixed
with the cultivator for the following ten years.
The demand of the state was one third of the average produce of the land. The
cultivators were asked to pay the revenue in cash. For this purpose, the prices of
every cereal were fixed in different localities on the basis of local prices. The
government officers, of course, maintained an annual account of the area and the
quality of land in possession of a cultivator, its produce, type of produce and the
prevailing prices of all cereals in every dastur. This was because such an account was
essential to fix up revenue for the future. Moreover, both the revenue and the prices
of cereals were not fixed yearly, but for a decade (ten years). The Jagirdari land was
also brought under this system. It was managed by the officers of the state though its
income went to the concerned jagirdars. The infliction of the permanent dasturs
meant that the revenue rates were to be largely dissociated from the quality of the
actual harvest in a particular year.
All those who possessed land, given to them in charity, of an area of five hundred
bighas or more were asked to present themselves before the emperor. The lands of
those who did not obey the orders were confiscated by the authority.
For future, the emperor himself took over the responsibility of granting land to
the people in charity. He did it with the help of provincial sadars. Akbar introduced
the Ryotwari system. He accepted the cultivators as owners of their lands and the
Self-Instructional
244 Material
state kept direct contact with them for all purposes. The cultivators were given clear Administration of
Various Empires
pattas by the state on which their quality and quantity of land and the revenue which
they had to pay were recorded. The cultivators were given all promising encouragement
for better production and were helped in case of emergencies. Like other organized
system of taxation, the land-revenue arrangement of the Mughal administration NOTES
comprised mainly of two stages – first, assessment and second, the actual collection
of the revenues. The term ‘Jama’ signified the amount assessed as opposed to the
total amount collected.
Among the most used methods of assessment, the most compact one was known
as hast-o-bud. In this method, the assessor inspected the village and after his
observation made an estimate of the total produce on the basis of which he decided
the revenue. Another popular method involved counting the ploughs and assessing
the revenue by applying to them rates fixed according to localities.
The Dahsala system was not introduced throughout the entire empire. Other Check Your Progress
systems also continued in different parts of the empire that is the Bantai system 9. State whether true
remained in force in Kandhar, Kashmir and part of Sindh and Multan. or false.
The Nasq or Kankut system was continued in Bengal, Gujarat and Kathiawar. (a) Babur and
Humayun
The Dahsala system was followed in the provinces of Bihar, Allahabad, Malwa, imposed Jizya on
Awadh, Agra, Delhi, Lahore and parts of Multan. Patwaris and muqaddams assessed the Hindus and
and collected revenue and also maintained records. In return, they were paid a part of Zakat on the
the revenue. Akbar abolished Jizya and Zakat. He also abolished taxes from the sale Muslims.
and purchase of animals, salt, sale and purchase of houses, house-tax, leather, blankets, (b) Banjar-land was
left uncultivated
etc., for lessening the burden of the cultivators. The system was continued by Jahangir for five years or
as it existed during the reign of his father. However, there was leniency in its execution. more.
During his reign, Jagirdars claimed more rights. Though it did not concern the peasants (c) Babur
adversely, the income of the state was condensed. Shah Jahan increased the state introduced the
demand. Ryotwari system.
(d) The Dahsala
The peasants were asked to pay between 33 per cent – 50 per cent of their system
produce as revenue. Besides, Shah Jahan gave the right of collecting the revenue to introduced
contractors. Aurangzeb continued the practices of the reign of Shah Jahan. throughout the
entire empire.
The Jagirdari system persisted; lands were given to contractors; revenue was 10. Fill in the blanks
fixed between one-half to two-thirds of the produce and the rest of the defects remained with the
as before. The net result was that the cultivators suffered badly. The system broke appropriate word.
down during the period of the later Mughals emperors. There remained nothing except (a) The major
that the lands were given to the contractors for the purpose of collection of revenue. income of the
state was the
The state increased its demand to the contractors and, in turn, the contractors, who in revenue from
most of the cases enjoyed hereditary rights, taxed the cultivators heavily. It resulted in .
the poverty of the cultivators which, ultimately, broke down the economy of the Mughal (b) Babur
Empire. distributed all
land as
to his nobles.
(c) The Dahsala
system was
introduced by
in 1580.
(d) One unit of land
was called
.
Self-Instructional
Material 245
Administration of
Various Empires 10.4 MARATHA ADMINISTRATION
Shivaji laid the foundation for a strong administrative system. To some extent his
NOTES administration was based on those of the Deccan administration system, but it had
some original features of its own. A study of the various levels of his administration
and the administration of its various departments can be made under the following
heads.
Central Administration
1. The King: Shivaji was a despotic and an autocratic ruler who enjoyed all
sovereignty. All the powers of the state were vested in him. He was the supreme
judge, administrative head, law giver and General. In spite of being autocratic,
he never used his power for meeting his selfish ends. He used to run his
administration with the help of a council of ministers called the Ashtapradhan.
It consisted of eight ministers who were responsible to Shivaji. Their continuation
in office depended upon the wishes of Shivaji.
2. Ashtapradhan: To help Shivaji with the work of administration, there was a
Council of eight ministers called the Ashtapradhan. The ministers were as
follows:
(a) Peshwa or Mukhya pradhan: The Prime Minister was known as the
Peshwa or Mukhya pradhan. His main task was to look after the efficiency
of administration. For the fulfilment of this duty he kept a control over all
officials of the government. He acted on behalf of the king in his absence.
In all governmental documents there was his stamp and signatures below
those of the Chhatrapati. He had to follow the instructions of the
Chhatrapati.
(b) Sare-Naubat or Senapati: He was responsible for the organization and
supervision of the army, he used to command the army in the battlefield.
He used to give an accurate account of the booty to the Chhatrapati. It
was he who informed the Chhatrapati about the requests and requirements
of the soldiers. His main duties were recruitment of soldiers, organization
of army and maintenance of discipline.
(c) Amatya or Finance Minister: He was in charge of the income and
expenditure of the state. He was not only the finance minister, but also
had to perform active military service at the time of war. He had to
acknowledge the orders of the ‘Chhatrapati’ in all the acts performed by
him.
(d) Sumant or Foreign Minister: He used to perform all the functions
connected with the foreign affairs. He used to look after the foreign
ambassadors and deputies and acquired knowledge about the political
activities of the other states through the spies. The king took his advice at
the time of entering into peace treaties with the enemy rulers.
(e) Sachiv or Shurunvish: He was a sort of superintendent in the central
ministry. His main duties were the arrangement for the official posts and
to set the language and style of royal letters right.
(f) Wakianavis or Mantri: He kept an account of the daily activities of the
king and the important events at the court. He also prepared a list of the
Self-Instructional
246 Material
people desirous of visiting the king and kept a strict watch over the food, Administration of
Various Empires
etc. prepared for the king.
(g) Panditrao or Danadhyaksha: Panditrao or Danadhyaksha was in charge
of religious activities. His main function was the hospitality of the Brahmins
on behalf of the king, to give them donation and prizes and to fix dates for NOTES
religious activities, to arrange for the punishments for anti-religious or
other perverse activities, to make the regulations for religious ceremonies,
etc. and to give his decisions on the religious questions. It was his
responsibility to reform the conduct of the people.
(h) Nyayadhisha: He was the highest official of judicial department. He heard
both the civil and the criminal cases. He also decided about the land-right
and chefship, etc. It was also his duty to implement the decisions of the
Gram Panchayat. He also interpreted the law. Out of the above mentioned
eight ministers, everybody had to perform military service at the time of
necessity except Panditrao and Nyayadhisha. With the exception of
Senapati and Wakianavis, very often all the members of the Ashtapradhan
were Brahamins. No office was hereditary. On all official documents,
firmans and peace documents, on the top there were the signatures of the
king, then the Peshwa and at the bottom were those of Amatya, Wakianavis,
Sachiv and Sumant.
Provincial and Local Administration
Shivaji had divided his whole empire into four provinces:
1. Northern provinces: This part included Balaghat, Kori region, Southern Surat,
Northern Konkan, Northern Bombay and Poona. It was under Peshwa Maro
Trimbak Pingle.
2. Southern provinces: This part included Southern Bombay, Southern Konkan,
Coastal regions, Samantvari regions,etc. This province was under Annaji Pant.
3. South eastern province: This province included the regions of Satara, Koljpur,
Belgaon and Dharwad and Kopal. Its Sar-Karkun was Dattaju Trimbak.
4. Four southern provinces: These included districts from Kopal to Vellure like
Zinzi, Velari, Chennai, Chittore and Arcot. This province was under the military
officials.
These provinces were known as Swarajya. Every provincial ruler respected the wishes
of the king. Like at the centre, there was a committee of eight ministers in every
province. In order to maintain central hold over the Sar-i-Karkun or the Prantpati and
the provincial ministers, Shivaji did not make their offices hereditary and to some
extent kept central hold on their appointments under the Prantpati or the Sar-i-Karkun
and the Subedars. Perhaps, Karkun was responsible for the maintenance of the empire
and Subedars was in charge of the land yielding about 1 Lakh annual revenue.
According to one estimate, Shivaji got the income of 3.5 crores annually barring the
income from the chauth. On the basis of this account it can be maintained that there
were about 350 subedars in his empire. The office of Subedar was generally given to
the Brahmins.
In the local administration of Shivaji, forts played an important part. The
responsibility for the defense of the neighbouring area of the fort was of the Havaldar.
He made arrangements for all administration of the fort. Shivaji’s empire included
Self-Instructional
Material 247
Administration of about 240 forts. Thus, he had appointed about 240 Havaldars. The post of the Havaldar
Various Empires
was generally given to a Maratha. He managed the entire administration of the fort. In
every fort, besides the havaldar, there were two other officials of equal rank – first
Sari-Naubat (who was generally a Maratha), who led and supervised the army
NOTES stationed in the fort and the other equal ranking officer was Sabnis. He was generally
a Brahmin. The financial arrangements of the fort and the neighbouring area, the
correspondence and the management of the official stores were his responsibilities.
Karakhanis (who were generally Kayasthaa) helped him. Shivaji paid all his provincial
or local officials either in cash or ordered their salaries to be given out of the revenues
of a particular area.
Military Administration/Army Organization
The organization and discipline of Shivaji’s army was worth emulating. He paid cash
salaries to his soldiers. He adopted the practice of branding the horses and writing the
descriptive rolls of the soldiers. Soldiers of his army did not carry their wives with
them. Shivaji ordered his soldiers to carry a minimum burden or luggage so that the
mobility of the army should be efficiently maintained. His army had the four branches
of cavalry, infantry, artillery and navy.
Cavalry consisted of two parts. The horsemen who were provided horses and
weapons on behalf of the state were called the Bargirs and the horsemen who arranged
for their own horses and weapons were called Siledars. All cavalry was under Sar-i-
Naubat. Infantrymen were good archers. Shivaji recruited the Mawalis in big numbers
in his army. His army had 700 Pathan soldiers as well.
Shivaji’s artillery consisted of only the mortar guns. It was managed by the
Portuguese. Shivaji got gunpowder, etc. from the French of Bombay. The main purpose
behind organizing the navy was to arrest the plunder of the Abyssinians.
The army remained in the cantonment only for the period of four months of
rainy season. During the remaining eight months, it went out either to conquer fresh
territory or to collect supplies from the enemy-land. Every article of every soldier was
accounted before he left the cantonment and when he returned to it, so that no soldier
will possibly hide his booty. Shivaji formed elaborate rules and regulations to maintain
discipline in the army and all of them were rigorously enforced. Consequently, he
succeeded in organizing a well-disciplined, strong and highly mobile army for the
period of his own lifetime. The forts and their security occupied an important place in
the army organization of Shivaji. Shivaji had as many as 250 forts which were important
for him both for purposes of defence and offence. Consequently, he took all necessary
measures for the security of his forts. There were three important officers, viz., a
havaldar, a sabnis and a sar-i-naubat in every fort. All the three were jointly responsible
for the safety of their fort. The sar-i-naubat and the havaldar were Marathas at the
same time as the sabnis was a Brahmana by caste.
There was another officer called kharkhana-navis who was responsible for the
maintenance of all sorts of supplies in the fort. He also kept an account of every
income and expenditure incurred in the fort. The havaldar had to look after the working
of his subordinates, the right to dismiss them, to receive and dispatch letters, to close
the gates of the fort in the evening, to open the gates in the morning and to check the
measures taken for the security of the fort. Shivaji maintained a navy as well.
Once he conquered the Konkan coast, it became necessary for him to safeguard
his coastal territory from the invasion of the Sidis of Janjira. Shivaji had 400 ships of
Self-Instructional
248 Material
different types in his navy. The navy was divided into two parts and each part was Administration of
Various Empires
commanded by daria nayak and mai nayak respectively. The navy of Shivaji fought
against the Dutch, the Portuguese and the English at several occasions.
Land Revenue Administration NOTES
Shivaji organized his land revenue administration most probably after the pattern of
that of Malik Amber, the minister of Ahmednagar. Four main sources of revenue in
his kingdom were the land revenue, custom, chauth and sardeshmukhi. He brought
the jagir system under control to some extent to make his land revenue system effective
and successful. In AD 1679, Annaji Datta made a revenue survey of the cultivable
land and fixed the land revenue according to the productivity of the soil. Initially, he
fixed it 30 per cent of the produce but later on it was increased to 40 per cent. To
protect the peasants, Shivaji exempted the revenue demands at the time of natural
calamities and gave them Takvi loans to purchase seeds, etc. Takvi loans were taken
back in easy instalments. According to some historians, Shivaji completely ended the
Zamindari or Deshmukhi system but it does not appear to be correct from our point of
view because he gave salary to many officials in the form of jagir though they were
kept under control. During his time there was strict supervision over the officials who
acquired a hereditary right over land. Shivaji did not permit them to keep soldiers or
build forts in their jagirs and took from every jagir a fixed amount as the State’s
share. Besides revenue, a fixed percentage of the custom duty was charged on the
import and export of the goods of businessmen. Shivaji augmented his income by
exacting revenue from the neighbouring regions of the Mughals. This was one-fourth
of the revenue imposed on the land and was called the chauth. Probably, it was a sort
of military tax. It was levied on those regions where Marathas promised not to have
any military raid. A similar type of tax was sardeshmukhi which was one-tenth of the
state income. It was levied on those Maratha Deshmukhs who acknowledged Shivaji
as their Sardeshmukh. By levying this tax, Shivaji proved that he was very farsighted Check Your Progress
and the builder of a strong empire. By means of the sardeshmukhi tax he achieved 11. Fill in the blanks
success in bringing the various Maratha Chiefs under one sovereign power and with the
appropriate word.
established a Maratha empire. Recent research has proved that the financial system
of Shivaji was beneficial to the people. (a) The Prime
Minister was
Judicial System known as
the
Shivaji did not establish organized courts like the modern courts nor did he establish or .
any Law Code. His judicial administration was based on the traditional ways only. At (b) was
the highest
the centre, the eight ministers of the Ashtapradhan, viz. Nyayadhish decided both the
official of
civil and the criminal cases according to the Hindu Scriptures only. In the provinces judicial
the same function was performed by the provincial judges only. In the villages judicial department.
work was performed by the Panchayats. Justice was impartial and the penal code was (c) All cavalry was
strict. under
(d) Shivaji
In brief, Shivaji was an able administrator and he laid the foundations for a exempted the
powerful empire. Undoubtedly his kingdom was a regional kingdom but it was based revenue
on popular will. Shivaji adopted a secular policy in his empire. In the words of Dr. demands at the
Ishwari Prasad, he organized an administrative system which in many respects was time of natural
calamities and
better than even that of the Mughals. gave them loans
to purchase
.
Self-Instructional
Material 249
Administration of
Various Empires 10.5 SUMMARY
NOTES  Sher Shah Suri was the first great national ruler. He ruled only for a short time
but the subsequent history of India shows that this short rule of Sher Shah had
the same significance as fifty years of Akbar’s reign.
 Islam Shah was a worthy son of his father. He not only maintained the
administrative setup of his father, but also strengthened it further. Sher Shah
had constructed Sarais on every fourth mile. Islam Shah constructed Sarais on
every second mile and arranged for free distribution of food in each of them.
 The early death of Sher Shah (AD 1545) and, later, the second battle of Panipat
(AD 1557), assured the Mughal dominance.
 In the Mughal system of governance, the emperor enjoyed real sovereignty,
which was indivisible and inalienable. Within this realm, he stood supreme as
a symbol of unity and preserver of peace.
 It was Akbar who organized the provincial administration of the country and
put it on a sound footing. He divided the empire into twelve divisions, later on
increased to fifteen, and named them subahs.
 The administrative system in the provinces of the Mughal Empire was an exact
replica of the Central government.
 During the Mughal administration, each subah was divided into a number of
units called the Sarkars.
 The revenue administration under the Mughal rule was under the wazir. The
nomenclature diwan and wazir were used interchangeably by the various Mughal
emperors.
 The Ryotwari system of land revenue was launched in AD 1582 by Raja Todar
Mal (a Hindu), who was appointed by Akbar as the Diwan-i-Ashraf.
 The Mughals, in the beginning, readily adopted the administrative system, which
had been introduced by their Pathan predecessors.
 In theory, the Mughals like every other Muslim ruler were under the Holy Law.
Though, he led the divine service and presided at the prayer, the emperor enjoyed
no spiritual functions.
 The emperor was the pivot of the Mughal administrative power, and the supreme
dispenser of justice. He was the despot and the source of all the authority. He
was the head of the state, supreme commander of the military and the chief
executive of the civil administration.
 To help Shivaji with the work of administration, there was a Council of eight
Ministers called the Ashtapradhan. It was a committee of eight ministers in
every province. In order to maintain central hold over the Sari-Karkun or the
Prantpati and the provincial ministers, Shivaji did not make their offices
hereditary and to some extent kept central hold on their appointments under
the Prantpati or the Sar-i-Karkun and the subedars.
 Shivaji organized his land revenue administration most probably after the pattern
of that of Malik Amber, the minister of Ahmednagar. Four main sources of
revenue in his Kingdom were the land revenue, custom, Chauth and
Self-Instructional
250 Material
Sardeshmukhi.
Administration of
10.6 KEY TERMS Various Empires
 Nazarana: A gift offered especially to a prince to pay respect

 Pargana: A former administrative unit of the Indian subcontinent, used NOTES
primarily, but not exclusively, by the Muslim kingdoms
 Mansab: An office of rank as well as of profit
 Jagir: A tract of land owned by a jagir which he did not own, but collected tax
on it equivalent to his salary. The jagir was transferable from one mansabdar
to another; the office itself was not hereditary
 Muhtasib: The Muhtasib looked after the moral development of the subjects.
 Parochialism: Being provincial and narrow in scope
 Nyayadhisha: He was the highest official of judicial department. He heard
both the civil and the criminal cases

1. (a) True; (b) True; (c) False; (d) True
2. (a) Diwan-i-Rasalat; (b) Chief Munsif and Chief Shiqdar; (c) Village;(d) One-
third
4. (a) Langar; (b) Sikandari Gaz; (c) Patta
5. (a) False; (b) True; (c) False; (d) True
6. (a) ‘Badshaah’; (b) Omrahs; (c) Jahanbani, Jahangiri; (d) Diwan
7. (a) True; (b) False; (c) True
8. (a) Amirs; (b) 2000; (c) Jagirdari
9. (a) True; (b) True; (c) False; (d) False
10. (a) land; (b) Jagirs; (c) Akbar; (d) bigha
11. (a) Peshwa, Mukhya pradhan, (b) Nyayadhisha; (c) Sar-i-Naubat; (d) seeds
1. Analyse the land reforms brought about by Sher Shah.
2. Discuss the important features of the land revenue system of the Mughal
Dynasty.
3. Highlight the important features of Shivaji’s administration.
4. Describe the characteristic features of the central administration of Mughals.
1. Describe the administrative setup introduced by Sher Shah.
2. Analyse the features of the provincial administration and local administration
Self-Instructional
during the Mughal Dynasty.
Material 251
Administration of 3. Analyse the judicial and social reforms brought about by Akbar during his
Various Empires
reign.
4. Discuss the important features of the mansabdari system. Add a note on its
merits and demerits.
NOTES
5. Analyse the military organization adopted by Shivaji.
10.9 FURTHER READING

Ali, Athar; The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi, 2001.
Faruki, Z.; Aurangzeb and His Times, Idarah-i Adabiyât-i Delli, New Delhi, 1972.
1982.
Laine, James, W.; Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India, Oxford University Press,
New York, 2003.
New Delhi, 1992.

 Sher Shah Suri’s administrative reforms
 The features of Mughal administration, land revenue system
and mansabdari
 The main points of Maratha administration
Self-Instructional
252 Material

History of India From 1206 To 1707 AD

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

History of India From 1206 To 1707 AD

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM

"The copyright shall be vested with Bharathidasan University"

Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

Syllabi Mapping in Book

UNIT I: Sources Unit 1:

UNIT II: Political Developments: The Sultanate Unit 2:

UNIT III: Foundation of the Mughal Empire–I Unit 3:

UNIT IV: Foundation of the Mughal Empire–II Unit 4:

UNIT V: Rise and Rule of the Bahmanis Unit 5:

UNIT VI: The Rule of the Marathas Unit 6:

UNIT VII: Economics Aspects Unit 7:

UNIT VIII: Socio-Religious Movement Unit 8:

UNIT IX: Social and Cultural Life Unit 9:

UNIT X: Administration Unit 10:

UNIT 1 SOURCES 3-28

UNIT 2 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS: THE SULTANATE 29-66

UNIT 3 FOUNDATION OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE-I 67-95

UNIT 4 FOUNDATION OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE-II 97-133

UNIT 5 RISE AND RULE OF THE BAHMANIS 135-155

UNIT 6 THE RULE OF THE MARATHAS 157-171

UNIT 7 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE PERIOD 173-183

UNIT 8 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS 185-202

UNIT 9 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 203-222

UNIT 10 ADMINISTRATION OF VARIOUS EMPIRES 223-252

1.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

1.2.2 Numismatic Sources Check Your Progress

Fig. 1.1 Coins

Fig. 1.2 Ruins of Mohenjo-Daro

Fig. 1.3 The Great Bath

Fig. 1.4 Ruins of Taxila

Fig. 1.5 Indian Manuscript

1.3 LITERARY SOURCES

Check Your Progress

Fig. 1.6 The Typical 5 Characters

Write down the most important characteristics of Sanskrit writings. NOTES

Fig. 1.7 Brahmi Script on a Segment of the Ashoka Pillar

 Anisul Muhaqqiqin, which was a book on Indian saints

Fig. 1.8 Fa-Hien

1.5 KEY TERMS

1.6 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’

1.7 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1.8 FURTHER READING

1.9 LEARNING OUTCOMES

UNIT 2 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS: The Sultanate

2.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

Analysis of the Northern Conquests of Alauddin’s Administrative

2.3 THE TUGHLAQS

Fig. 2.1 Mohammad bin Tughlaq

Many Invasions and Revolts

NOTES Revolt of Kishlu Khan (AD 1328)

Fig. 2.2 Coins of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Firoz Tughlaq’s Military Campaigns and Foreign Policy

4. Suppression of the rebels of Itawa and Katehar (Rohilkhand)

2.4 SAYYIDS AND LODHIS

2.6 KEY TERMS

2.7 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’

2.8 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

2.9 FURTHER READING

2.10 LEARNING OUTCOMES

UNIT 3 FOUNDATION OF THE Mughal Empire-I

3.2 ASCENSION AND FALL OF BABUR

3.3 ASCENSION AND FALL OF HUMAYUN

Expedition of Kalinjar (AD 1531)