POWER POINT

MODULE 5
RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
Reorter:

2017.XX.XX
INTRODUCTION
• Radiography testing is one of the oldest and widely used method for
defect detection.
• It make use of short wavelength electromagnetic radiations ( X rays,
Gamma rays) .
• It finds wide application in medicine, engineering, forensics etc.
PRINCIPLE
• The part to be inspected is placed between the radiation source and a
radiation sensitive film.
• When rays fall on the testpiece,it penetrates through the testpiece
and reach the film.
• Thinner sections in the testpiece allow more radiation to penetrate
through while thicher sections blocks more radiations.
• So the intensity of radiation falling on the film varies as thickness of
the testpiece varies.
• The rays falling on the film will form an image of the test piece.
• Regions of more exposure becomes dark.
TYPES OF RADIOGRAPHY
1. Conventional Radiography

• Conventional radiography uses a sensitive film which reacts to the

emitted radiation to capture an image of the part being tested.

• The biggest limitation to this technique is that films can only be used
once and they take a long time to process and interpret.
2. Digital Radiography
• Digital radiography doesn’t require film.

• It uses a digital detector to display radiographic images on a computer screen

almost instantaneously.

• It allows for a much shorter exposure time so that the images can be
interpreted more quickly.

• The digital images are much higher quality when

compared to conventional radiographic images.

The most commonly utilized digital radiography techniques are

- Computed radiography
- Direct Radiography
- Computed Tomography
 COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY
• Computed radiography (CR) uses a phosphor imaging plate that
replaces film in conventional radiography techniques.

• Much quicker than film radiography

• CR requires several extra steps compared to direct radiography.

• capturing the image on a phosphor plate

• converting image into digital signal

• processing the image

DIRECT RADIOGRAPHY
• Direct Radiography (DR) is very similar to computed radiography.
• In DR, a flat panel detector is used to directly capture an image and
display that image on a computer screen.
• It is more costly than computed radiography.
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY

• Computed tomography (CT) is a technique that takes hundreds to

thousands (depending on the size of the component) of 2D radiography
scans and superimposes them to create a 3D radiographic image.
TYPES OF RAYS USED FOR RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
• Both X rays and Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves having
frequency higher than UV rays.

• The major difference in X rays and Gamma rays are....

• X rays are produced artificially by X ray generator and Gamma rays are
produced by radioactive materials.

• X rays are produced by the electrons revolving around nucleus while gamma
rays are produced from nucleus.
X rays

• Wavelengths ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometres.

• Frequencies from 3×1019 to 3×1016 Hz.

• X-rays can be produced on Earth by sending a high-energy beam of

electrons smashing into an atom like copper or gallium.

• It is an ionising radiation.
• X-rays are roughly classified into soft X-rays and hard X-rays.
1. Soft X-rays have relatively short wavelengths of about 10 nanometers,

• They fall in the range of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum between ultraviolet (UV)
light and gamma-rays.

2. Hard X-rays have wavelengths of about 100 picometers.

• These electromagnetic waves occupy the same region of the EM spectrum as

gamma-rays.

• Hard X-rays are more useful for radiography.

PROPERTIES OF X RAYS
• They travel in straight lines with speed of visible light in vacuum.
• They remain undetected to human senses.
• They cannot be deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
• They have high penetrating power.
• Can induce colour changes to many substances.
• Flourescent materials glow when X rays fall on it.
• Can ionize gases and damage living tissue.
• Liberate minute amount of heat when passed though matter.
PRODUCTION OF X RAYS - Bremsstrahlung
radiation / braking radiation

voltage - 104 to 105 volts

PRODUCTION OF X RAYS - K shell emission
radiation / characteristic radiation
GAMMA RAYS
• It is a penetrating electromagnetic radiation arising from the
radioactive decay of atomic nuclei.
• It consists of the shortest wavelength waves and so imparts the
highest photon energy.
• Gamma-rays and hard X-rays overlap in the EM spectrum, which can
make it hard to differentiate them.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
• It is the process by which a nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy
by emitting ionizing radiation.

• The ionising radiation can be in the form of particles (α and β

particles) or photons (γ rays).
• α –a helium nucleus (42He)
• β – where electrons or positrons
• γ– high energy photons .

• Cobalt 60 (Co-60), Iridium 192 (Ir-192), Caesium137 (Cs-137) and

Thulium 170 (Th-170)
PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS
• Gamma rays cannot be captured and reflected by mirrors.
• It can easily penetrate almost all kinds of materials and hence they
are also called penetrating radiation (a very thich layer of lead or
concrete can help in shielding).
• They have no mass or charge and travel at speed of light in vacuum.
• They are not detected by human senses.
• Their paths are unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.
• They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage living cell.
PRODUCTION OF GAMMA RAYS -
Gamma ray equipment
• The radioactive material is a pellet that measures 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm.
• Depending on the level of activity desired, a pellet or pellets are
loaded into a stainless steel capsule and sealed by welding. The
capsule is attached to short flexible cable called a pigtail.
• The source capsule and the pigtail is housed in a shielding device referred to
as a exposure device or camera.
• Depleted uranium is often used as a shielding material for sources.
• To make a radiographic exposure, a crank-out mechanism and a guide tube
are attached to opposite ends of the exposure device.
• They cannot be turned off like an x-ray device.
• The radionuclides in the device always produce gamma rays.
• The only way to block a gamma radiation from a radiography device is
to interrupt the beam with a heavy metal plate.
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
BASE
• It is the central portion of x ray film.
• Made of polyester ( glass was initially used, followed by celluse nitrate
and cellulse triacetate).
• Transparent, flexible and non-flammable.
• Chemically inactive and impermeable to water and processing solution.
• Retains dimensional stabiity throughout processing.
• An adhesive layer is used to ensure that the eulsion adheres to
base during processing.

FUNCTIONS
1. To provide support for emulsion layer.
2. To transmit light to view image.
EMULSION

• Microscopic crystals of silver iodide (1 to 10%) and silver bromide (99

to 10%) in gelatin binder.
SUPERCOAT
• A thin layer of hardened layer of gelatin.

• FUNCTIONS
• Provide an anti-abrasive coating.
Why Gelatin?
• It can easly disperse silver halide crystals evenly.
• When warm,gelatin can easily spread over the base to form a uniform
layer and sets to a hard gel when cooled.
• It is very flexible and does not crack easily during rough handling.
• Does not react chemically with silver halide crystals.
• Transparent.
SINGLE EMULSION AND DOUBLE EMULSION
FILMS
FORMATION OF IMAGE
• The radiation interacts with silver halide crystals to release free
electrons.
• The free electrons combine with silver ions to form atomic silver.
• The development of atomic silver causes the formation of image in X
ray film.
• The invisible image is known as latent image.
• By chemically processing the latent image, it is made visible known as
manifest image.
Before exposure,
film consist of silver Formation of silver
bromide crystals atoms ( green Developer converts
(grey). colour) on silver atoms into Fixer dissolves
exposure to X ray. metallic silver( undeveloped silver
black colour). halide crystals. Only
metallic silver is
retained
FILM PROCESSING
• Film immersed in developer (DEVELOPING).
• Converts latent image to manifest image
• Developer washed away with water ( STOP BATH).
• Removes excess developer
• Film immersed in fixer ( FIXING)
• Removes undeveloped,unexposed silver halide crystals
• Fixed washed off in water bath (WASHING)
• Removes excess chemicals
• Drying
FILM STORAGE AND HANDLING

FILM BOX
• Films should be stored in a cool (10 to 20 degree celsius) and low
humidity ( 40 - 60%).
• Film boxes should be kept vertical without any presure on film.
• Avoid places of heat, radiation or water.
• Films should be unloaded only in dark room
• Check for expiry date.
FILM CHARACTERISTICS
• Film speed - It is the ability of film to respond to x ray.(Time of
exposure)

• Film Sensitivity - Ability to detect small flaws

Radiographic sensitivity is calculated using the following formula
all the radiograph shall have a minimum 2% sensitivity.
• Film resolution - Ability to distinct closely spaced flaws

• Film Graininess - Distribution in space and size of grains

• Film contrast - Films ability to record variations in density(blackening)

RADIOGRAPHY CASSETTE
• A radiographic cassette is a rectagular or square container used to
hold X ray film and intensifying screens during imaging.
• The object to be screened is placed between X ray source and
cassette.
INTENSIFYING SCREENS
• Intensifying screens are used in the x-ray cassette to intensify the
effect of the x-ray photon by producing a larger number of light
photons.
• It is a plastic sheet coated with fluorescent material called phosphors
(lanthanum, yittrium).
• The thickness of an intensifying screen is about 0.4 mm.
TYPES OF X RAY FILMS
On the basis of photosensitive emulsion layers

1. Single emulsion film

2. Double emulsion film

On the basis of use with intensifying screen

1.Screen films

2.Non screen films

On the basis of light sensitive emulsion coating
1. Blue light sensitive films
2. Green light sensitive films (Orthochromatic)
3. Panchromatic films

On the basis of speed of film

1. Par speed or standard speed films
2. fast speed film
3. Ultraspeed film
Fast speed films require lesser exposure but they produce grainy images that
lack definition.
 QUALITY OF FILM
• All radiographs must be free from any mechanical or chemical blemishes.

• It can mask certain defects or can make indications that are confused as a
defect.

• Some blemishes include

• Fogging
• Processing defects like watermarks or chemical stains
• Scratches, fingermarks, dirt, smudges and tears
• false indications by defective screens
• Good quality radiograph should have
1. Image with optimum density and contrast.
2. Image with minimum distortion.
3. Image with sharp borders and maximum details.

Low contrast High contrast

IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS(IQIs) /
PENETRAMETERS
• It is a device for showing the quality of a radiograph.

• The quality of a radiograph determines the amount of detail that can

be shown.

• Quality of a radiograph depends on

• Sharpness
• Contrast
• Noise
1. Wire IQI
• It consist of a series of wires placed between two plastic films.
• The diameter of the thinnest wire that can be seen on the radiographic image
provides a measure of the quality of the image.
2. Step IQI
• The step IQI is a piece of material that decreases stepwise in thickness and
contains holes.
• It is the smallest thickness that can be seen on the image that provides a
measure of the quality.
RADIOGRAPHY INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
• SWSI
• DWSI
• DWDI
• panoramic

A single-wall exposure technique shall be used for radiography

whenever practical.
When it is not practical we go for a double-wall technique .
SWSI ( Single wall single image)
• Used when both sides of the specimen are accessible.
• Used for plates, cylinders, shells, large diameter pipes, etc.
• Here the radiation passes through only one wall of the test piece.
PANORAMIC EXPOSURE
• In panoramic exposure, radiation source is kept at center and film is
made to surround the pipe.
• Multiple films can be used,but it should be of same thickness.
• The entire pipe can be inspected in one exposure.
• So it is cost effective and rapid.
DWSI (Double wall single image)
• Where access to the bore is not possible or the pipe diameter is too
small to permit the use of an internal source then the double wall,
single image (DWSI) technique is used.
• The source may be offset slightly to avoid an image of the upper part
of the weld to be projected onto the film.
• Poor sensitivity since radiation has to pass through two walls.
• Requires multiple exposures to enable the complete circumference of
the pipe to be examined
DWDI ( Double wall double image)
• It is used in pipes having very small diameter.
• Both upper and lower part of weld becomes visible in the form of an ellipse.
• It can be made superimposed also.
REAL TIME RADIOGRAPHY/ REAL TIME RADIOSCOPY
• An image is produced electronically, rather than on film.
• Very little lag time occurs between the item being exposed to radiation
and the resulting image.

• The rays that pass through the test piece falls on a screen that gives off
light when rays fall on the object.
• The fluorescent elements of the screen form the image.
CONVERTER DEVICE/ IMAGE INTENSIFIER
• It is a device used to convert radiation into light.
• Made of a fluorescent material such as cesium iodide.
• The brightness variation is too dim to identify.
• Photons are converted to electrons, accelerated, and reconverted to light
on the output screen.
• output window is typically made of silver-activated zinc-cadmium sulfide
and converts incident electrons back to visible light photons.
• In output phoshor a much brighter inverted version of the original image is
produced.

• The purpose of the image intensifier is to boost the brightness of a

fluoroscopic x-ray image so that it can be viewed directly in ordinary room
light and/or easily captured via movie film or a video camera.
 CAMERA
• After conversion of radiation to visible light, the light image must be
changed to a video signal so that an image can be produced for viewing
on a monitor.
• In most instances, a closed-circuit TV camera (CCTV) is used.
• The cameras can be very small are typically housed in an enclosure on
the back of the image intensifier.
 ANALOG V/S DIGITAL RADIOGRAPH
ANALOG RADIOGRAPH DIGITAL RADIOGRAPH

Lot of space required for storage. Storage takes less time and no physical space
required for storage.
Higher chance of getting lost. Less chance of getting lost.

Copy is available only at one place. Digital image can be send anywhere.

Radiograph degrades over time Quality of radiograph is not affected over

time.
Processing of radiograph is a time consuming Instant result is obtained.
process.
Screens and chemicas are less costly. But High resolution monitors are expensive,but in
repeated purchase need to be done. long run it can be compensated.
 FILM VIEWING
• Radiographs are generally viewed on a light-box.
• The viewing conditions can enhance or degrade the details of radiographs.
• subdued lighting is preferable
 APPLICATIONS
X ray radiography is used in following industries

Aerospace – ex. Castings

Medical Devices – ex. Stents
Automotive – ex. Piston head
Military & Defense – ex. Ballistics
Manufacturing – ex. Pre-production qualification of part
Packaging – ex. Structural integrity/leak or failure analysis or package
Ship building
USE
• For detection of internal defects.
• For inspecting cracks, welds, etc.
• For measurin geometry variations and thickness of components.
• Qualitycontrol of industrial components like pressure vessels, boilers,
storage tanks, etc.
 ADVANTAGES

• No material limitation. Can be used to inspect any kind of material.

• Ability to inspect complex shapes, hidden areas and multi-layered structures

without disassembly.

• Minimum surface preparation required

• Detects both surface and subsurface defects

• Provides a permanent record of the inspection

• Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, flaws and material density

LIMITATIONS
• Possible health hazard.
• Film processing and viewing arrangements need to be done.
• Film processing is time consuming.
• Extensive training need to be given.
• Depth od defect can't be judged.
• Both side of component should be assessible.
• Expensive investment.
• Equipments are bulky