NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHOD

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
 Procedure

➢ A film is placed inside a cassette between lead screens. It is

then placed to the rear of the object to be radiographed, a
radiographic source is exposed to the work and film for a pre-
calculated time.

➢ Any imperfections in line with the beam of radiation will be

shown on the film after exposure and development.
 Method

Exposure to Interpret
Load film
Radiation Film

Radioactive Developed
source Film
IQI

Film cassette Latent image on the film

➢ The two types of radiation used in industrial radiography:
1) X-rays (from Cathode Ray Tube)
2) Gamma rays (from a Radioactive Isotope)
❑ Gamma ray & X-ray from electromagnetic family and
have same properties:

1. Travel at the light speed (185000 m/s).

2. Travel in straight lines.
3. Not affected by magnetic fields.
4. Will exposed photographic film.
5. Scatter in any direction.
➢ The film darkness (density)
will vary with the amount
of radiation reaching the
film through the test object.

X-ray film

= less exposure
= more exposure

Top view of developed

film
❑ Thicker materials absorb more radiation, resulting in
less transmission to the film.
❑ Higher density materials absorb more radiation, resulting
in less transmission to the film.
❑ Thickness difference in specimen:
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)

➢ A hose-like device called

a guide tube is connected to
a threaded hole called an
“exit port” in the camera.

➢ The radioactive material will

leave and return to the camera
through this opening into the
“guide tube” when performing
an exposure!
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)

➢ A “drive cable” is connected to

the other end of the camera.
This cable, controlled by the
radiographer, is used to force the
radioactive material out into the
guide tube.
❑ Shielding:
Radiation Sources – Gamma ray
Radiation Sources – Gamma ray
Radioactive Materials
( Isotopes )

Iridium Ir 77 
Cobalt Co 60 
Cesium Cs 137 
Radiation Sources – X ray
 X-ray Radiography (cont.)
The cathode contains a small  High Electrical Potential
filament much the same as in a light
bulb. Electrons
Current is passed through the  + -
filament which heats it. The heat
causes electrons to be stripped off. X-ray Generator
The high voltage causes these “free”  or Radioactive
Source Creates
electrons to be pulled toward a Radiation
target material (usually made of
tungsten) located in the anode.
The electrons impact against the 
target. This impact causes an energy Radiation
exchange which causes x-rays to be Penetrate
the Sample
created.
Exposure Recording Device
Radiation Sources – X ray
❑ X-Ray Tube Head Components (Cont.):

➢ Origin of X-rays when change in electrons K.E on the anod:

➢ At 300 KEV change to 97% heat energy & 3% X-rays.
➢ At 50 KEV change to 99.9% heat energy & 0.1% X-rays.

➢ To prevent arcing, the anode and cathode are located inside

a vacuum tube, which is protected by a metal housing.
X-Ray tube head
 ❑ Radiographic film layers:

• A cetate base (polyester): used as the base of radiographic film.

• The emulsion layer (image layer): contains microscopic grains
of silver bromide.
• Protective layer (gelatin): to protects the emulsion layer from
scratches.
•A latent image is formed on the emulsion layer when silver
bromide grains are ionized by the X-ray, Gamma ray, or light.
• In order for the image to be viewed, the film must be
“developed” in a darkroom. The process is very similar to
photographic film development.

• Film processing can either be performed manually in open

tanks or in an automatic processor.
❑ Manual Processor:
❑ Automatic Processor:
➢ Three Processing Solutions:

(1) Developer (2) Stop Bath (3) Fixer

(1) Developer (combination of chemicals from alkaline):

- First chemical act as accelerator to removes the protective layer.

- Second chemical act as reducer to reduce the exposed silver
bromide grains to black metallic silver.

• The time of development is about from 5 to 8 minutes at 20 °c.

• “Replenishment’’ is the usual technique used to deal with a
weakened developer solution, which controlled by combination
of record-keeping and use of a “control strip”.
(2) Stop Bath (from glacial acetic acid):

- Stops developing action by neutralizing the alkaline developer

& stop bath of unexposed ions.
- Always add acid to water because may cause severe burns.

(3) Fixer (from hypoacid):

- Fixes the image on the film.

- Removes all unexposed silver grains from the film as:
1. Clearing time: Removing unexposed silver grains
2. Hardening: Hardens the emulsion gelatin which helps prevent
scratching during handling

• Washing : Then the film is washed with water for 20 minutes to

remove all the processing chemicals.

• Drying : The film is dried for viewing.

 Radiation Detection and Measurment Instrument

➢ Technicians who work with radiation must wear monitoring

devices that keep track of their total absorption, and alert them
when they are in a high radiation area.

Pocket Dosimeter Radiation Badge Survey Meter Radiation Alarm

❑ Personnel Monitoring Devices:

➢ Pocket dosimeter
➢ Film Badge:
❑ Survey Meters:

➢ Survey Meter or Radiation Detection measures radiation rate.

 Protection Against Radiation
➢ There are three means of protection to reduce exposur
to radiation:

❑ Time:
➢ Dose = Dose Rate x Time
• The penetrameter is a device whose Image on Radiograph is
used to determine radiographic quality level (Sensitivity).

• Is not intended for use in Judging the size or in establishing

acceptance limits of discontinuities.

• There are many different designs of IQIs. Some contain

artificial holes of varying size drilled in metal plaques while
others are manufactured from wires of differing diameters
mounted next to one another.
Types of Image Quality Indicators
❑ For Pipe or Tube Welds :

➢ Single Wall Exposure-Single Wall Viewing technique

➢ Double Wall Exposure-Single Wall Viewing technique
➢ Double Wall Exposure-Double Wall Viewing (Ellipse)
technique
Radiographic techniques contd …
Single Wall Exposure-Single Wall Viewing
 Double Wall Exposure-Single Wall Viewing

➢ For any outer diameter (O.D.)

➢ At least 3 exposures at 120 deg to each other for complete
coverage.
 Double Wall Exposure-Double Wall Viewing (Ellipse)

➢ For outer diameter (O.D.) equal to 3.5 in.(88mm) or less.

➢ At least 2 exposures at 90 deg to each other for complete
coverage.
Radiographic techniques
❑ Film Density Vs Flaws

Darker film zones:

- Cracks, slag, porosity
- Incomplete joint penetration

Lighter film zones:

- Tungsten inclusions
- Melt through, reinforcement
Cluster Porosity
External Undercut
Internal Undercut
Excessive Reinforcement
Insufficient Fill (Underfill)
Excessive Penetration
Incomplete Penetration
Lack of Side Wall Fusion
Interpass Cold Lap
Misalignment
Oxide Inclusion
Porosity
Burn through
Root Concavity (Suck Back)
Slag Inclusion
Elongated Slag Lines (Wagon Track)
Tungsten Inclusion
Thank you