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This chapter is designecl to help with the internal assessment of pracrical rrork.
It will also be useful in ansrvering question in Units 1 and 2 that are.based, on
precticai $,ork for exaniple, enthalpl'experiments and tirrations.
-
Tests
Tests for gases
Tlie ttsts gsed to idr:ntifl'ilte cotrmott laboratorl'gases have to be learnt- It is
a)so impcrrtant to [e ab]e to drau, conclusiolts trcm the iclcndfication of these
gases. ior exanrple. if diiute sulfurjc acid is added to a solic and a gas is produced
that iurns limeuarer nrilki', the conclirsions are rhat:
I the gas is carbon dioxide
r the'.lnkno$,n solid is a carbonate or a hvdlogencarbo:ate
I I-i.drogr-=n
Cx-r'gen
Test: ptace a gtowrng wooden sptint in the gas
0bservatiotr: sptint catches fire
bY:
Nitrogen dioxide is Produced
i i.",i.g a Sroup 2 nitrate or lithium nirate
Chlorine
gas
iest: ptace damp litmus paperin the
sobdsarethose of groul
l metab'
@Ihe onty hyarcgencarbonatc thatexi*as t'r"-1;,
-.t -,-
-\ _ ...,rir::i-2;.
Flame tests
To carry out a flame
test, a cleon platinum or nichr
conentrated. hydrochlo.L
the hotest pan ofa Bunsen
a.l4 then inro,h" r;;':;n;"':ffi: Hffi il:;
flarne.
The concentrated hydrochroric
acid conver* some of the unkrown
chloride' chlorides are more sorid into a
vorarire ,irr, r"lts, so some of the unknown
when heated in tn""*.r
goes into the gas phase
t"
r,ot n",n.. ilo.,;;;*"I*o
i Tgl* :nergy
lever by the heat. I*hen rar, ir.t to the ground srate and
emis light of a corour specific to the metar pr.ru*- in che cornpound.
obtained in flame rcsB are given -' Tfie corours -l'--'-*
in Table ;i.;.
Fhme olorr lon pr€sent in sotid loile 17.1
frimson Flanr.,colous
Li-
Yellow Na-
I-ilac K+
YeUou+ed Ca?*
Red
5r2t
Pate green
Ba2"
Precipitation reactions
Ir is important ro krow which
ionic compounds are solubre in
are insoluble.
water and which
Ba2'and 5012-
r $ihite precipitate ofbarium sutfite
o 0n adding dilute hydrochtoric acid, the
precipitate dissotves with no fizzing
'solid.
Caftonate
;;dil" sulfuric acid ro the suspected clblnate in solid form' If it is a
off' This is tested forby passing the gqs
;;";;;;, carqon dioxidewill be.girren
into limewater, which goes milkY'
Hydrogencarbonate
To distinguish beh,veen a group 1 carbonate and a hydrogencarbonare:
e add some of the unknown sorid ro armosr
boiling ivatei. I{ydrogencarbonares
decompose with the production of carbon
dioxide fizzingo"..rrr. carbon
dioxide can be tested for by passing it into limewarei; -
which"goes milk1,.
or
a add a solution of the unknown to a sorutjon
of carciurn chloride. Hydrogen-
carbonates do not give a precipitate because
calcium hydrogencarbonare is
soluble; carbonates give a white precipirate of
calcium carbonate.
or
E test a solution wirh pH paper. carbonares
have a high (arkarine) pr{ w}rereas
hydrogencarbonates are armost neutrar.
on warnring, if the solution is a
hydrogencarbonate, the pH rises rapid\, as the hydrogencarb6nat":
-'r -'-o-"-!
decomposes ro give a carbonate and
carbln jioxide.
t.liloricle
lb a solutiolt of tlte suspectecl cirloride,
add dilure rritlir: acid uniil rl.re s,r.)I:rion
,r' isjust ar:idic (test with litmus p.;.rJ.
white precipitate, which dissol'e.s when
ih.;,lJo ,,,,., nitrate solution. L chatkr..
excess dilute arrruronia is a.rled,
1r.o.,*,,
the prcsence of cliloriile ions in the original
solution.
Brorrritle
'lb a solutiott of the
suspected bromide, add dilute nitric acitl unril
tlre solution
is just acidic (test with litmus paper).
Then, add siivei. nitrate s'iutiorr. A cr-eani
precipitate, which is insoluble in dilute
ammonia but dissolves in coni:entrared
amnronia, proves the pl-esencc of bromicle
ions in the original solution.
fut alternative test
is to add chlorine \,iater to a solution
of the unknorvn. Bromicie
ions are oxklised to bromine, which turns
the colourlcss solution lrro*,.,.
']odide
The resrrltr,,outd he
To a solution of the suspectecl iodide, add
dihrte nitric acid until the solurion is the same if broml'ne
just acidic (tesr with litmus paper).
Then, ,il;.;;i;;:;i;;on. o ,u,* watel'had been
yellow preciilitate, which remains nrhen "d;
conccntrated amrnonia i.s addecl, proves added. tlromine is a
the presencc of iodicie ioniinthe orrginal
solurion. stronger oxidising
A, alternieti,e test is to add chrorine wate r
to a solution of the unknon n and then
agentthan ioCine
add a few drops of an organic sor'ent such and thercfore
hexane. Iodide ions are oxidiseci
as
to iodine, so the colourless hexane raye. cxidise.c iodide
tur,s violet. The presence of iodine from
the oxidation of ioclide ions'can also
be deicted by adding r,ur,,rr, ,rhi.h t.,rn,
{ ions to iodine.
blue-black.
e&t" aoing this t?st
{ that
alloy and sodium you need to show
aluminium powder or-Derrarda's
Ilff tr*"*,oiid, "dd are reduced to ammonia' which thecomPound is notan
and then warm' Nitrate ions
bydroxide solution amnronium salt' as
canbe.detecteauytt,"gus;,ouedturningdampredlitrnuspaperblue. ammonium salts give I
i
ammonia when heated
k
' ontyconctusive if ammoniurn
ions have been shown to be
absent' They
with atkati.
r
t
I
@This testis presentin this tesl
by reacting with the atkati
Xr;;rrd;;"ammonia
,brown-ring, rest. IIix together solutions of the unknown
An aiternative is the sulfuric acid dolvn
carefull-l' Pour some concentrated
and iron(tt) sulfure' Then acid and
,''irrg forffi where the concentrated
rhe side of the test ,br.';;r;;
aqrleous laYers meet'
gives a resutt
- @ Oo not state that this is a test for atcohols'
If a com Pcund
itis
Posittve
a carbo;<ylic aciC cr an
to determirre vrhether
for a C-0H qroup, yo' tl'en have iiiiie ethanol is
tetween the two' aad sonre ofthe
testcompound to sodium A
aLcohol- To difinguish giwn to
sometimes added
en acidwill produce fizins as carbon dioxideis
;il;;;;;;rt,.it'r"tlon' hdP dissotve the
oit nitt' ,n at ohot there is nr' reaction' habgenoaltane and
-{
*:+ii{:j74+.*:.,l'' x
*-':.>iitJ.ii:+rt -. - :,r_.i:.-.+
t-
' 9tryit
indilute amrnonia.
of silver chloride, which is soluble laf,rotped byttre
sodium hydroxile
I
I
r oryanic bromides give a-aeam
precipirate of silver bromidg
I which is insoluble to gire halide'funs
in dilute ammonia but dissolves
in.*.un*r.l-r*roonir. in sobtion, whictr
r organic iodides give a pale y.,o*
p.."ipir"ie of silver iodide, which is then reactwith the
insoluble in both dilute and
.oo..norla silvrr ions to furn a
Alkanes
"irr_i. precipitate.
reactions do not go
to comple::1":'.tffi:;[
Most organ'c ispresent tna ffi:t[:|!Ht:::-,
#;;;;rt that the desired prodqct species' sttch
caq ot from non'voladle inorganic
so they
,re voiatile, 'lpttt*a
distillarion'
,;;;;t alkatis, bY
boiling temperatures ::'::-,^:"1'
th cifference in the to separate then
ui"d
'ff::iil;:Iff ;ilT|-il[:1il:.#"*i;''"'o"
Sti[, nead
Water out
Ii .t
d/t Qilake sure '.hat
Safety issues
;";;,,*'*::':#,,:Tff
aparticulr exPerirnent' s
ffl fi :T:T}'fil*Xti,:.ilf:'H
]
a
the followng: I
I
I
t
t
t
loborutory skills I I
322 tj'ift 3::hemisvy I
i.:i:i.::i:.i:i::?ri,:.rr--..::.; :i. ::-:-.,
?'i;r:.:li;it;i.;t*;..:;..-' j;
.
:.::i'r,;,i.11:.1:)/.+ ,r,
-.
Yield
@rou mustbe
yieids are
Iess than 10006because of: ableto calculate
r competing reactions theoreticatyieid and
r handling Iosses during purification percertageyietd
(pages 68 and
280-81).
Enthalpy change measurements
Enthalpy of combustion
The method for determining
the entharpy of combusrion
ethanol, is described r of a liquid, such as
wavs to increase the accuracv
of the
experiment,"rri" ,i.'[,?iirti*l^"
I The copper calorimeter strouta
U. first weighed empty and then
containing water. A,ternad'ely, when
water could u. aaa"a ,o irr".ur;ri..i*
a pipette, not a measuring.yiina"r. ,rr",
ff the volume of water is measured,
mass is calculated using the the
density of *"te., which is 1 g
r cm_t.
A screen should be ptaced amund
,t. *ro.i*ur"r;; ;;r:;;
the transfer of
heat from the hot combusdon
r To ensure an even temperature
gases ro ii. U".f,", of *r,"..
be sdrred continually.
throughout, ,h.;;;;.;;e calorimetermusr
r The remperature of the water
shourd be measured for severar
Iighring the tuel and forseveral minutes before
r The temperarure-rime measr.*..ro
minures ,f".or"t;;;;;il;#.r;;..
theoreticar temperarure rise
* *"iil
pto. grrph from which the
"
is estimatea uy erruporarion.
error caused by heat loss from Tfus reduces the
the beaker o the surroundings.
r The burner and its contenr shourd u. *eished
b"fore and immediatery after
the experiment, using a balance
,h", ;;";-;;*r_cy
of 0.01 g or better.
Tte calculatiou is carried ant
in three steps.
ftp r: heat produced by the
ombustion of the firel m x c x
= Af
buml lhe'
'
.-9. 1'
*'Jj:[:[ffi s of rater in tJre beaker' noi the
ff;;; .c-i-'",i.,*
mass of fuet
t'* p'oau"o
"r'ni
isSoutes, not htojoutes'
lHc= -;;6;f*lb"*,
heat Produced { negative.
w'e i s h i n g t h e o'l
r
.onlining tht soludcn'
4 ;
Y, : 1' 91
This
.Tt:::[;: [',[:i:::;
gives an accurate va
il: ri
notwhollv accurate'
thedensiry of a soludon is l gcm-3
is
The assumption that
of the solution using a pipette
rather than a measuring "',illil: -d
r measuring tht uolrrn'"
be accurateiy determined'
qvlinder, so that the ;;;; lmoles) of
'otute.ttt'
' This is not necessary for enthalpy of soluiion determinations'
the reaction = m x c x AT
SteP 1: heat produced by
:t
' mass, m, is the mass of sotution in the cup' notthe mas of solirte
reacted'
'
I
@The that ofwater
is assumed to be the same as
The specific heat
"ttt't '"illot t''uut p'oduced isjoutes'
notki$outes' i
il
(4.18 J gr "g"1, ,otnt-unitiitt'e
l.r
ii
ii
skills t
324 tlnit3: Chemltiry.llborctoty
*ilEffiRlr:F- . -ffi.
" .; . ..
@The unit of volume measured by a pipette is cm3. This must be converted into dm3
.:J by dividing by 1000.
,i "-
jSeFj-r
t'.,, Ptoi'iua oitJrt
I step 3: *- -
rnoles of solute reacted
If there is a temperarure rise, A.FI is negati'e; if the remperature falrs, .\H is
rpositive.
lnstantaneous reactions
Neutralisation and precipitation reactions are insranranebus This ncionl.ygivesan
reactions. The
method used for following both types of reacdon is rhe same accurate vaLue for the
and is described on
page 90. amounts (moies) of
each reactant, but
Errors can be reduced by: also gires an accurate
rusing pipettes, rather rhan measuring cylinders, to
measure out the volumes vatue f*r the votume
'
of the rwo liquids. ( of the solutr'on.
r rnaking sure that one of the reactants is in excess. The value
of aH can then
be worked out using rhe amount in molcs of the
limiting reagent.
r for neutralisation reacrions onry, weighing the expanded polystyrene
cup
empty and after the reacrion. This is a more..accurate lvay
of obtai:ring the
mass o[solution than using a pipette and assuming that the sorution
ias a
densiryoflgcm-3.
! measuring the temperature of both liquids before mixing
and averaging the @ Ihereis no
' fwo values need to plot a
r stirring immediately on mixing the firuo solutions temperafure-time
r reading the maximum temperature reached graph because the
reaction is instant-
The calculation is carried out in three steps. aneous, so tfuere is
no time for heat to
Step 1: hear produced by rhe reaction m x c x LT
= be [ost.
@The mass, m, is the total mass of the fwo sotutions; notthe mass of solute
reacted. Ihe specific heat ofthe solution is assumed
to be the same as that of water
(4.1slg.t1-t;,sotheunitoftheheatproducedisjoutes,notkitojoul'es.,
.@Ihesotuteusedintheca[culationmustbethatofthetimitingreagenL
remove the botrte from the pan and then add the
@n. Ustttayto do this is to
Jtia. cnedng ttre mass untit the correct amount has been added. This prevenb
errors caused by spitting sotid onto the pan ofthe batance'
: Tip the contents of the weighing bonle into a beaker. Wash any remaining solid
from the bottle into the beaker.
r Add about 50 on3 of distilled water to rhe beaker containing the solid. Using
a glass rod, stir until all the solid has dissotved. In order to dissolve the solid
completelS it may be necessary to hear the beaker.
I Pour the solution through a funnel into a standard 250 cm3 flask' Wash the
stirring rod and the beaker, making sure that all the washings go through the
funnel into the standard flask,
I Add more distilled warer ro the solution until the bottom of the meniscus is
326 rJnir3:Ownistrylobantc{yskillsj - . .
it i
:ii:rri..,.;: - : -.-
@ru1S, the equation for the reaction is normally given in the question.
Lookatit
..
retulty to fi nd the mote ratio of
the tr,rc rei cta-#]ri in. ;; ;;; ;;;:,
you must write it before starting
the catculation "r.,,.",
Rememhrthatthecalculationiscarriedoutinthreesteps.
Step2:usethestoichiometryoftheeguationtocalcrrlatethenunberofrioles
(amount) in the o*rer solution used in the titration'
Worked exomPle
was weighed out'
A sample of Z.OSg of pure sodiumcarbonate, Na2CO3'
cm3 in a standard flask. some of
dissohred in water and made up to 250
this solution was placed in a burette and used to ritrate 25'0 urf portions
are shown in the
of h solution of hydrochloric acid. The titres obtained
table.
Expcriot€nt Tiht/cml
7 ?2.35
- 2 . 22-10
3 27.85
4 ??.50
mean titre.
d Calculate rhe amount (in moles) ofhydrochloric acid that reacted'
€ Calculate tle concentrarion ofthe hydrochloric acid solution'
Ans*er
,- rofrt *rtt of sodium carbonate= (2 x 23.0) + 12'0 + (3 x 16'0) = 106'99mo[-l
= 0.0?50 mot
amount of sodium carbonate =
#H* = ,;ffit,
mot 0'0250 lot - = 0.100 mol dm-3
concentration = votume- -
(zso/rooo; Um'
Evaluation of error
There is always a built-in error when using apparatus such as balances,
thermometers, burettes and pipettes.
The pipette may be stamped with the volume 25.0 cm3, or the balance rnay
read 1.23g, but these quantities ar-e aU subject to some error. For example- the
manufacturer of a balance may state that the mass of an object is accurate to
t 0.01 g. Therefore,'a reading of i.23 g may mean a mass anywhere berween
1.22 and 1.24 g.
If a container is neighed empry and then reweighed containing some solid, each
weighing would be subject to a possible eror of t 0.01 g and so the mass of the
solid could have an error of t 0.02 g.
Worked example I
An empty crucible was weighed, using a balance with a possible error of
1 0.019. It was reweighed containing some solid metal carbonate, MCO3,
and was then heateij te ccnstant weight. On hearing the metal carbonate
decomposes according to the equatidn:
MC03 -+ M0 + C02
.. .- . .' :
mass 2-23 q
s mo[-t
molar mass of l,lCO, =
;#k =
;ffi;='116
motarmassof H=116-[12.0+(3x 16.0]]=56.0 g mol 1
e mass of C0, = 0.85 t 0.02 g
The amount (motes) of C02 lies between 0'83/44.0 = 0.0189 mol and
9.57144.0 = 0.0198 mol.
Since the ratio of l.lC03 to C0, is t:t. the amount (motes) of MC03 also lies
between 0.0189 and 0.0198 mot.
mass of l.lC0r= 2.23 t 0.02 g
=11e s mo[-r
maximummolarmassof MC03=
#ffi#*=#*
Therefore,
1
maximum molar mass of M = 119 - 60.0 = 59 g mof
smallest mas 2.21 @The etement' M'
. minimum molar of Mt0: = = = 112 g mo[-1 be(r, Mn" Fe'
coutd
mass
;*;;ttt 0J198
Therefore. :"ril,T.ttlil',
minimum molar mass of= 112 - 60.0 = 52 g
M mot-1 the range 52 to
Theuncertaintyofthemotarmassof Misthatitisbetween52and5g g mot-l' 59gmot-r.
Worked example2
A thermometer is labeiled as having an accuracy of + 0,2'C.
In an enthalpy of neutralisation reaction, the ternperarure before the
reaction was 124"C and after the reaction was 24.5'C. The mass of liquid
userl was 100 g. The specific heat capacity of the liquid is 4.18 J 8-1 "C-1.
Calculate the percentage enor caused by the thermometer and hence the
error in dre evaluationofthe heat produced
Answer
temperatureriss=(24.5 -17.4)L0.4=7.11 0.41 ' ,,
-
1!
percenta ge error caused by the therm om eter = t0.4 x = ts.A3%
7.7
eC-1
heat produced = 1fi) g x 4.18 J 9-1 x 7.1T = 2968 J
error in vatue of heat produced = +5,67'/o of 2968 J = 167 J t