2.70 A common mineral of barium is
Here is the equation:
barytes, or barium sulfate (BaSO 4).
Because elements in the same periodic
group have similar chemical properties,
we might expect to fi nd some radium
sulfate (RaSO4) mixed with barytes
because radium is the last member of
Group 2A. However, the only source of
radium compounds in nature is in
uranium minerals. Why?
caffeine (C8H10N4O2).
urea [(NH2)2CO], which is used as
a fertilizer, in animal feed, and in the
manufacture of polymers
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a colorless,
syrupy liquid used in detergents,
fertilizers, toothpastes, and in carbonated
beverages for a “tangy” flavor.
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy.
C3H4O3 as the empirical formula for
ascorbic acid.
Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is a principal
mineral of copper
When aluminum metal is exposed to air, a
protective layer of aluminum oxide
(Al2O3) forms on its surface. This layer
prevents further reaction between
aluminum and oxygen, and it is the reason
that aluminum beverage cans do not
corrode. [In the case of iron, the rust, or
iron(III) oxide, that forms is too porous to
protect the iron metal underneath, so
rusting continues.]
All alkali metals react with water to
produce hydrogen gas and the
corresponding alkali metal hydroxide. A
typical reaction is that between lithium and
water:
2Li(s) 1 2H2O(l) ¡2LiOH(aq) 1 H2(g)
The reaction between nitric oxide (NO)
and oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) is a key step in photochemical smog
formation: 2NO(g) 1 O2(g) ¡2NO2(g)
Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting
ammonia with carbon dioxide:
2NH3(g) 1 CO2(g) ¡ (NH2)2CO(aq) 1
H2O(l)
Titanium is a strong, lightweight,
corrosion-resistant metal that is used in
aircraft bodies, jet engines, bicycle frames,
and artificial joints. It is prepared by the
reaction of titantium(IV) chloride with
molten magnesium between 950°C and
1150°C:
TiCl4(g) 1 2Mg(l) ¡Ti(s) 1 2MgCl2(l)
Industrially, vanadium metal, which is
used in steel alloys, can be
obtained by reacting vanadium(V) oxide
with calcium at high temperatures:
5Ca1 V2O5¡5CaO 1 2V
Pheromones are a special type of
compound secreted by the females of
many insect species to attract the males
for mating. One pheromone has the
molecular formula C19H38O. Normally,
the amount of this pheromone secreted
by a female insect is about 1.0 3 10212 g.
Tin (Sn) exists in Earth’s crust as SnO2.
For many years chloroform (CHCl3) was
used as an inhalation anesthetic in spite
of the fact that it is also a toxic
substance that may cause severe liver,
kidney, and heart damage.
Cinnamic alcohol is used mainly in
perfumery, particularly in soaps and
cosmetics. Its molecular formula is
C9H10O.
Allicin is the compound responsible for
the characteristic
smell of garlic
Peroxyacylnitrate (PAN) is one of the
components of
smog. It is a compound of C, H, N, and
O Titanium(IV) oxide (TiO2) is a white
Tin(II) fl uoride (SnF2) is often added to
toothpaste as
an ingredient to prevent tooth decay.
The anticaking agent added to Morton
salt is calcium
silicate, CaSiO3. This compound can
absorb up to 2.5
times its mass of water and still remains
a freefl
owing powder.
Monosodium glutamate (MSG), a food-
fl avor enhancer,
has been blamed for “Chinese restaurant
syndrome,” the symptoms of which are
headaches
and chest pains.
When baking soda (sodium bicarbonate
or sodium
hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3) is heated,
it releases
carbon dioxide gas, which is responsible
for the rising
of cookies, donuts, and bread
When potassium cyanide (KCN) reacts
with acids, a
deadly poisonous gas, hydrogen cyanide
(HCN), is
given off.
KCN(aq) 1 HCl(aq) ¡KCl(aq) 1 HCN(g)
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is also called
“laughing gas.” It
can be prepared by the thermal
decomposition of
ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). The other
product is
H2O.
Hydrogen fl uoride is used in the
manufacture of Freons
(which destroy ozone in the
stratosphere) and in
the production of aluminum metal. It is
prepared by
the reaction
CaF2 1 H2SO4¡CaSO4 1 2HF
Nitroglycerin (C3H5N3O9) is a powerful
explosive. Its
decomposition can be represented by
4C3H5N3O9¡6N2 1 12CO2 1 10H2O 1 O2
This reaction generates a large amount
of heat and
many gaseous products. It is the sudden
formation of
these gases, together with their rapid
expansion, that
produces the explosion.
substance produced
by the action of sulfuric acid on the
mineral
ilmenite (FeTiO3):
FeTiO3 1 H2SO4¡TiO2 1 FeSO4 1 H2O
Its opaque and nontoxic properties make
it suitable as
a pigment in plastics and paints.
Industrially, nitric acid is produced by
the Ostwald
process represented by the following
equations:
4NH3(g) 1 5O2(g) ¡4NO(g) 1 6H2O(l)
2NO(g) 1 O2(g) ¡2NO2(g)
2NO2(g) 1 H2O(l) ¡HNO3(aq) 1 HNO2(aq)
names—acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin)
and magnesium
hydroxide (milk of magnesia). Milk of
magnesia is an aqueous suspension of
magnesium
hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] used to treat acid
indigestion.
These are common household
compounds: table salt
(NaCl), table sugar (sucrose), vinegar
(contains
acetic acid), baking soda (NaHCO3),
washing soda
(Na2CO3 ? 10H2O), boric acid (H3BO3,
used in eyewash),
epsom salt (MgSO4 ? 7H2O), sodium
hydroxide
(used in drain openers), ammonia, milk
of magnesia
[Mg(OH)2], and calcium carbonate.
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is an important
industrial
chemical used in fertilizers, detergents,
and in the food
industry. It is produced by two different
methods. In
the electric furnace method elemental
phosphorus (P4)
is burned in air to form P4O10, which is
then reacted
with water to give H3PO4. In the wet
process the mineral
phosphate rock [Ca5(PO4)3F] is reacted
with sulfuric
acid to give H3PO4 (and HF and CaSO4).
Plasma is a state of matter in which a
gaseous system
consists of positive ions and electrons
A technique called photoelectron
spectroscopy is
used to measure the ionization energy of
atoms. A
sample is irradiated with ultraviolet
(UV) light, and
electrons are ejected from the valence
shell. The kinetic
energies of the ejected electrons are
measured.
Because the energy of the UV photon
and the kinetic
energy of the ejected electron are
known, we can
write
hn 5 IE 1 12
mu2
in which n is the frequency of the UV
light, and m
and u are the mass and velocity of the
electron, respectively.
Hydrogen
cyanide (HCN) is a deadly poison.
Carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen
sulfi de (H2S),
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), O3, and sulfur
dioxide (SO2) are somewhat less toxic.
The
gases He and Ne are chemically inert;
that is, they do not react with any
other substance.
Most gases are colorless. Exceptions
are F2, Cl2, and NO2. The dark-brown
color of NO2 is sometimes visible in
polluted air.
the atmosphere is
much denser near the surface of Earth
than at high altitudes. (The air outside
the
pressurized cabin of an airplane at 9
km is too thin to breathe.)
Sulfur hexafl uoride (SF6) is a colorless,
odorless, very unreactive gas
Sodium azide (NaN3) is used in some
automobile air bags. The impact of a
collision
triggers the decomposition of NaN3 as
follows:
2NaN3(s) ¡2Na(s) 1 3N2(g)
The nitrogen gas produced quickly infl
ates the bag between the driver and the
windshield
and dashboard.
Industrially, gas effusion is used to
separate uranium
isotopes in the forms of gaseous
235UF6 and 238UF6.
Electron affi nity is positive if the reaction
is exothermic and negative if the reaction
is endothermic.
There is a much less regular variation in
electron affi nities from top to bottom
within a group
Strontium-90, a radioactive isotope, is
a major product
of an atomic bomb explosion. If an
atomic bomb is exploded in the
atmosphere, the
strontium-90 formed will eventually
settle on land and water, and it will
reach our
bodies via a relatively short food
chain. For example, if cows eat
contaminated grass
and drink contaminated water, they
will pass along strontium-90 in their
milk. Because
calcium and strontium are chemically
similar, Sr21 ions can replace Ca21 ions
in our
bones. Constant exposure of the body
to the high-energy radiation emitted
by the
strontium-90 isotopes can lead to
anemia, leukemia, and other chronic
illnesses.
Despite
the immense interest in the chemistry
of the noble gases, however, their
compounds
do not have any large-scale
commercial applications, and they are
not involved in
natural biological processes. No
compounds of helium and neon are
known.
Thus, Al2O3 is classifi ed as an
amphoteric oxide because it has
properties of both
acids and bases. Other amphoteric
oxides are ZnO, BeO, and Bi2O3.
Plasma is a state of matter in which a
gaseous system
consists of positive ions and electrons.
In the plasma
state, a mercury atom would be stripped
of its 80
electrons and exist as Hg801.
A technique called photoelectron
spectroscopy is
used to measure the ionization energy of
atoms. A
sample is irradiated with ultraviolet
(UV) light, and
electrons are ejected from the valence
shell. The kinetic
energies of the ejected electrons are
measured.
lithium fl uoride, a poisonous white
powder used
in lowering the melting point of
solders and in manufacturing
ceramics.
the formation of glucose (C6H12O6)
from water and carbon dioxide,
best achieved by photosynthesis, is
highly endothermic:
6CO2(g) 1 6H2O(l) ¡C6H12O6(s) 1
6O2(g) DH° 5 2801 kJ/mol
Oxygen forms three types of ionic
compounds in
which the anions are oxide (O22),
peroxide (O222), and
superoxide (O22
).
Ethylene dichloride (C2H4Cl2) is used to
make vinyl
chloride (C2H3Cl), which, in turn, is
used to manufacture
the plastic poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC),
found
in piping, siding, fl oor tiles, and toys.
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), the most
important industrial
chemical in the world, is prepared by
oxidizing sulfur
to sulfur dioxide and then to sulfur
trioxide. Although
sulfur trioxide reacts with water to form
sulfuric acid,
it forms a mist of fi ne droplets of
H2SO4 with water
vapor that is hard to condense. Instead,
sulfur trioxide
is fi rst dissolved in 98 percent sulfuric
acid to form
oleum (H2S2O7). On treatment with
water, concentrated
sulfuric acid can be generated.
The chlorine nitrate molecule (ClONO2)
is believed
to be involved in the destruction of
ozone in the
Antarctic stratosphere.
Methyl isocyanate, CH3NCO, is used to
make certain
pesticides. In December 1984, water
leaked into a
tank containing this substance at a
chemical plant to
produce a toxic cloud that killed
thousands of people
in Bhopal, India.
The neutral hydroxyl radical (OH) plays
an important
role in atmospheric chemistry. It is
highly reactive
and has a tendency to combine with an
H atom
from other compounds, causing them to
break up.
Thus, it is sometimes called a
“detergent” radical
because it helps to clean up the
atmosphere.
Glycerol is a clear, odorless,
syrupy liquid used to make
explosives, ink, and lubricants.
If water did not have the ability to form
hydrogen bonds, it would be a gas at
room temperature.
Intermolecular forces are independent of
temperature; the kinetic energy of
molecules increases with temperature.
“Fusion” refers to the process of melting.
Thus, a “fuse” breaks an electrical circuit
when a metallic strip melts due to the heat
generated by excessively high electrical
current.
Ammonia is both a donor and an
acceptor of hydrogen
in hydrogen bond formation
Europium crystallizes in a body-
centered cubic lattice
(the Eu atoms occupy only the lattice
points).
Barium metal crystallizes in a body- osmotic pressure. A large quantity of
centered cubic sugar is actually essential to the
lattice (the Ba atoms are at the lattice preservation
points only). process because the sugar helps to kill
bacteria that may cause botulism. As
Vanadium crystallizes in a body- Figure
centered cubic lattice 13.10(c) shows, when a bacterial cell
(the V atoms occupy only the lattice is in a hypertonic (high-concentration)
points)
sugar
solution, the intracellular water tends
Heats of hydration, that is, heat changes
that occur to move out of the bacterial cell to the
when ions become hydrated in solution, more
are largely concentrated solution by osmosis. This
due to ion-dipole interactions. process, known as crenation, causes
the cell
Ozone (O3) is a strong agent that can to shrink and, eventually, to cease
oxidize all the functioning. The natural acidity of
common metals except gold and fruits also
platinum. A convenient inhibits bacterial growth.
test for ozone is based on its action on
mercury. Zero order does not mean that the rate is
When exposed to ozone, mercury zero. It just means that the rate is
becomes dull looking independent
and sticks to glass tubing (instead of fl of the concentration of A present.
owing
freely through it). Uranium-235 was
the fissionable material in the bomb
Why do citrus growers spray their trees dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, on
with water to August 6, 1945.
protect them from freezing? Plutonium-239 was used in the bomb
When water freezes, the
exploded over Nagasaki three days
heat released protects the fruits. Also, the ice
forms help to insulate later.
the fruits by keeping the temperature at 0°C.
A magnetic plasma confi nement
A chemistry instructor performed the design called tokamak.
following mystery
demonstration. Just before the students
arrived in
class, she heated some water to boiling
in an Erlenmeyer
fl ask. She then removed the fl ask from
the
fl ame and closed the fl ask with a
rubber stopper. After
the class commenced, she held the fl ask
in front of
the students and announced that she
could make the
water boil simply by rubbing an ice cube
on the outside
walls of the fl ask. To the amazement of
everyone,
it worked. Can you give the explanation
for this
phenomenon?
The ice condenses the water vapor
inside. Because the water is still hot, it will
begin to boil at
reduced pressure. (Air must fi rst be driven
off in the beginning.)
Home preserving of jam and jelly
provides another example of the use of