TECHNICAL PAPER Sand transport at and

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING shoreline response to
Vol 49 No 2, June 2007, Pages 2–9, Paper 613
a breakwater attached
ANDRE THERON is a research
to a large tidal pool at
engineer at the Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR) in
Stellenbosch. He holds BEng and MEng
Monwabisi, Cape Town
degrees from the University of
Stellenbosch. Previously he worked for A K Theron and J S Schoonees
the Department of Water Affairs,
where he was involved mainly with
operations, construction, project planning, irrigation and
engineering services. Since joining the CSIR in 1990, he has A beach has formed in the lee of a breakwater (spur: rubblemound structure built parallel
been specialising in coastal engineering. His fields of expertise to the shoreline) attached to the eastern side of the Monwabisi tidal pool, which is located
are primarily sediment dynamics, nearshore hydrodynamics, along the shoreline of northern False Bay near Cape Town. The sediment transport regime
coastal developments, harbours and dredging, estuarine at Monwabisi is described in terms of the longshore sand transport, an eddy current
dynamics, and coastal zone management.
that forms in the lee of the spur, the effect of wave reflection against a steep slope,
Contact details:
CSIR
transport through the spur, and wind-blown sand transport. The accretion and stability of
PO Box 320 Monwabisi beach were investigated by analysing photographs, five topographic surveys,
Stellenbosch, 7600 cross-sections, and loss/gain maps from these surveys. Large accretion of sand (in total
T 021-888-2400 about 32 000 m3 and up to about 2,5 m vertically) occurred mainly alongside the eastern
F 021-888-2693
atheron@csir.co.za
tidal pool wall and between the original shoreline and the spur. The beach slope varies
considerably along Monwabisi beach: from 1:66 to 1:8. Beach profile changes occurred
up to a level of +3 m. The beach reached equilibrium approximately 2,5 years after
KOOS SCHOONEES, PrEng, construction of the spur started.
graduated from the University of
Stellenbosch (US) with an Hons BEng
degree in 1978. Since then he has
specialised in coastal engineering and
INTRODUCTION is approximately parallel to the shoreline
has obtained MEng and PhD degrees False Bay, a large, partly protected bay in water of about 3 m deep, is about 175 m
from the US. He is employed by WSP (about 35 km by 35 km in size), is situated from the shoreline. In addition, a short
Africa Coastal Engineers (Pty) Ltd near Cape Town (figure 1). As a result of groyne was built, perpendicular to the
(formerly Entech Consultants) in Stellenbosch. His main fields the establishment of residential areas in the shoreline, about 350 m east of the pool wall
of interest are coastal and hydraulic engineering, including
vicinity of the northern False Bay coastline, (figure 1).
sedimentation at ports, dredging and sand bypassing, design of
harbours, breakwaters and beach improvement schemes, shore recreational nodes have been developed to False Bay broadly resembles an open
protection, and coastal zone management. cater to public demand. One such develop- rectangle with western, eastern and north-
Contact details: ment, close to Khayelitsha, is Monwabisi, ern shorelines. The western shoreline of
WSP Africa Coastal Engineers (Pty) Ltd which is located in the northern, most the bay is generally protected against wave
PO Box 413 wave-exposed part of the bay coastline and action. Along the eastern shoreline, the
Stellenbosch, 7599 partially within the littoral zone. beaches are typically moderately protected
T 021-883-9260
A large semi-circular tidal pool (some to exposed to waves. The northern beaches
F 021-883-3212
koos.schoonees@wspgroup.co.za 260 m in diameter), together with its ameni- of False Bay are generally the most dynamic
ties, was constructed at Monwabisi in around and usually experience higher waves than
1987 to provide safe bathing facilities for the the rest of the bay beaches.
nearby communities. The pool, which is very Along northern False Bay there is gener-
popular, is situated on a mixed rocky/sandy ally a nett eastbound longshore sand trans-
shoreline. Previously bathing also took place port along the shoreline. At Monwabisi, the
immediately adjacent to the pool in rather spur causes a local reversal in the direction
hazardous conditions. of the nett longshore transport (that is, nett
A number of problems were experienced westbound transport) along the shore in its
at the pool. Two of these were a narrow and lee. Furthermore, the nearshore zone con-
exposed rocky bathing beach immediately sists mostly of flat, rocky areas interspersed
east of the pool, and excessive wave over- with sandy areas. These rocky areas restrict
topping over an outflow section of the pool the rate of sediment movement around the
wall. The overtopping caused an uneven tidal pool and the spur. An intricate sedi-
pool bottom and strong current action in the ment transport regime, which established
pool, which contributed to unsafe bathing the plan form of the beach next to the pool,
conditions. Thus, a spur or longshore break- therefore exists around the spur.
water of some 170 m was built, attached to The aim of this paper is to describe the
Keywords: False Bay, Monwabisi, Cape Town, tidal pools, the seaward wall of the existing tidal pool sediment transport regime at Monwabisi
breakwaters, shoreline evolution, beach accretion, sand as part of a scheme to address the above and to investigate the evolution of the sandy
transport, equilibrium shoreline problems. The centreline of the spur, which bathing beach that formed in the lee of

2 Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering • Volume 49 Number 2 June 2007

N 2,9 m in 10 m of water. The maximum sig-
South
Africa
Beach in
lee of spur
(Photo (16/01/04): D Phelp: Map : DEAT & CSIR)
Figure 1 Aerial view and location map of Monwabisi tidal pool
the spur next to the tidal pool (Monwabisi
beach). Of further interest are: the rate at
which the beach developed in the lee of the
spur, and whether an equilibrium beach
plan form has been reached. The study area
(site) is the beach immediately adjacent to
the Monwabisi tidal pool, bounded by the
spur on the southern side and a rocky slope
on its northern side (figure 1).
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
SURROUNDING COASTAL AREA
General
The shoreline in the area is relatively
straight and oriented almost exactly east–
west. In general, the nearshore slope is flat
and the bottom contours are relatively even,
which lead to a narrow range of breaking
wave angles. Waves usually reform inside
the surf zone and break again, thus dissipat-
ing wave energy and thereby providing some
protection to the shoreline.
There is a general increase in median
sediment grain size from west to east, with
medium sands at Monwabisi. From quar-
terly surveys it was found that the average
median sand grain size (D50) on the beach
varies from about 0,3 mm to 0,45 mm.
From about 3 km east of Monwabisi,
sparse rocks are found near the shoreline.
The extent of the rocky areas increases
to the west and the shoreline west of
Monwabisi consists entirely of rocks. The
friable beach-rock or aeolianite rises to
about 25 m above mean sea level (MSL) just
west of Monwabisi. There are some low-
lying areas with narrow beaches between
the cliffed areas. In the greater Monwabisi
region, a high proportion of the nearshore
seabed is rocky. The beaches to the east of
Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering • Volume 49 Number 2 June 2007
Short groyne
Spur
Cape
Town
Monwabisi
N
False Bay
29 km
Monwabisi are characterised by a berm,
which forms the boundary between an area
of cobbles and boulders on the back shore
and an area of sand and pebbles on the fore-
shore. Intermittent rocky outcrops are also
found in the surf zone. The stony area above
the highwater mark is approximately 30 m
wide. Behind that lies a belt of partially veg-
etated and disturbed hummock dunes.
Regional and detailed beach and hydro-
graphic surveys of the site vicinity were con-
ducted (CSIR 1984, 1986, 1989, 1995; Swart
& Schoonees 1994) and the occurrence of
rocky and sandy areas around the site was
determined from geophysical surveys. It was
found that the sea bottom consisted of about
70 % rocky areas and 30 % sandy areas.
Comparison with old data (for example
CSIR 1984, 1995) revealed that considerable
changes take place in the extent of rocky
and sandy areas, complicating the sediment
transport regime and shoreline response.
The long-term horizontal variation of the
shoreline at the open exposed beach east of
Monwabisi is about 20 m to 35 m.
More details about the characteris-
tics of the site can be found in Swart and
Schoonees (1994), Schoonees et al (1999)
and CSIR (1995).
Wave regime
The dominant deep-sea swell waves are
from the southerly to south-westerly sector.
Waves were recorded during 1980 and 1981
at nearby locations (Swart & Schoonees
1994) in about 20 m of water, using two
Waverider buoys. During the one-year
recording period, the mean significant wave
height at the Waveriders was 1,2 m, with a
mean peak wave period of 11,1 s.
Site-specific wave and current measure-
ments were also made during two months in
1994 (Schoonees et al 1999). At Monwabisi,
the 1-in-1 year significant wave height is
nificant breaking wave height during this
period was determined to be 4,4 m, with an
average peak period of 13 s. Wave incidence
angles are typically small; that is, the angle
between the wave crests and the shoreline is
less than about 5º. The wave characteristics,
combined with the flat nearshore slope,
result in quite a wide surf zone, normally
about 270 m, with an extreme value of about
530 m. Wind waves, which are generated
over False Bay mostly in spring and sum-
mer, also play a role in generating west-
bound currents and sand transport.
Tides and water elevations
Tides in False Bay are semi-diurnal, with
mean spring tides ranging from -0,60 m to
+0,95 m to MSL, or about 1,55 m in total
(SAN 2004). The highest astronomical tide in
False Bay is predicted to be +1,25 m to MSL.
Weather conditions and waves often
cause set-up resulting in the actual water
level exceeding the tidal water level (for
example Jury et al 1986). This should not
be confused with the additional effect of
wave run-up, which could reach even higher
elevations. Wave run-up is the rush of water
in the swash zone up the beach slope above
the still-water level. For example, the wave
run-up exceeded for 2 % of the time during
a typical storm was calculated to be about
1,7 m in northern False Bay (CSIR 1983a).
These wave and water level effects usually
result in significant changes of the beach
profile up to an elevation of about +3 m to
MSL along the False Bay shoreline (which is
approximately spring high tide of 0,95 m +
run-up of 1,7 m + set-up). The above effects
are demonstrated by the fact that parts of
the coastal road in the vicinity that have an
elevation of +3,7 m to MSL are inundated on
a few occasions every year.
Surf zone currents
In the Monwabisi area (figure 1) the direc-
tion of the incident waves is such that in
many instances a weak longshore current,
generally flowing towards the east, would
be generated in the surf zone. The wave
attack on the seaward side of the spur would
often generate currents parallel to the spur
and flowing towards its head (eastbound).
However, a reversal of the longshore cur-
rent direction (that is, towards the west)
also occurs often, especially during strong
south-easterly winds. At the beach directly
adjacent to the pool wall, a wave-generated
counter-clockwise eddy current is gener-
ally found. The contributing factors to the
formation of the counter-clockwise cur-
rent could be described as follows: owing
to the wave shadow region on the leeward
(landward) side of the spur, the wave
energy entering the constrained embayment
3

N
Accreted
W E
beach
S E
spil lw -
w
ay
Monwabisi
outf lo
F
tidal pool
Spur
G
wave overtopping inflow
A sand northward towards shore (component
Figure 2 Schematic sand transport regime
is reduced and a wave height gradient is
induced in the wave shadow area. The wave
height gradient generates (as a result of so-
called radiation stress) a counter-clockwise
eddy current in the wave shadow area of the
spur. This eddy current could be reinforced
during times of waves approaching the
beach obliquely from the south-eastern sec-
tor as well as wind-driven currents from this
sector. Such a current (and rip currents) can
at times make bathing conditions less safe.
Wave-overtopping water periodically
flows into the pool and out of the pool via
the pool outflow-spillway on the eastern
side of the pool (figure 2). The latter over-
flow discharges into the embayment formed
by the spur and reinforces the counter-
clockwise eddy current in the wave-shadow
of the spur to some extent. Consequently it
also influences the local sediment transport
regime and the plan shape of the accreted
beach. The influence of the pool overflow
on the local currents and beach configura-
tion has not been quantified, but it is pos-
sibly relatively small.
Wave-driven sediment transport regime
During the wave and current recording
period in 1994, two temporary groynes were
constructed east of Monwabisi pool to meas-
ure longshore transport on the mixed rocky/
sandy coast over a short period (Schoonees
et al 1999). A novel type of sandbag con-
struction was developed where large bags
were filled and placed by means of an exca-
vator (Schoonees et al 1999). The groynes
had lengths of 70 m and 40 m respectively,
with a vertical height of 1 m. The sandbag
groynes were deployed over a period of five
months. In the short term (a few days) the
longer groyne had a significant effect up to
40 m from the groyne.
The impact of locally generated wind
waves and circulation (especially as a result
of persistent gale-force south-easterly to
southerly winds) on the sediment transport
regime can be significant. Wave-generated
longshore currents dominate in the surf
zone because the main winds generally blow
4 Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering • Volume 49 Number 2 June 2007
spur was built in 3 m water depth, significant
transport takes place seawards of the spur.
Short groyne
Most of the sand is transported in the surf
zone, which normally extends approximately
Mean surf zone width 270 m
Reflection
E 270 m from the shoreline. The potential nett
D longshore transport rate is about 100 000
175 m
m3/year to 140 000 m3/year. However, the
actual nett longshore transport rate is lower,
because the occurrence of rocky areas limits
B
the availability of sand. This sand moves
C alongshore towards the head of the spur.
Wave action then transports some of this
B in figure 2). The rest of the sand transport
(2002 photograph: City of Cape Town) carries on alongshore in the outer surf zone
(component C in figure 2). In the lee of the
spur, the longshore transport is westbound
(component D in figure 2). Some of the sand
almost perpendicularly to the shoreline. going round the tip of the spur therefore ends
Based on wave data covering a medium up in the embayment formed by the spur, the
time-scale, it was found that the potential eastern pool wall, and the original shoreline.
gross longshore sediment transport rate Another part of the sand arrives along the
at this site is about 490 000 m 3/year to beach to the east of the tip of the spur and
530 000 m 3/year, while the potential nett is transported eastwards around the short
rate is eastbound and between 100 000 m 3/ groyne (component E in figure 2).
year and 140 000 m 3/year (CSIR 1995). The spur acts as a partial trap for sedi-
ment moved by both east- and westbound
Aeolian sediment transport longshore transport. The persistent anti-
A number of studies have been conducted clockwise current (eddy) brings sand into
on the wind climate at sites along the the embayment (component F in figure 2).
northern False Bay coast and at Cape Town The reduced wave energy and limited cur-
International Airport (for example CSIR, rent velocity in the lee of the spur could
1983b and 2001). The area directly adjacent not transport all of the sediment out of the
to the eastern side of the tidal pool has suf- area, resulting in the beach being formed.
fered continuous wind-blown sand problems Monwabisi beach accreted mainly from the
for which practical solutions were sought north-west and to a smaller degree from the
(CSIR 2001, 2005). The wind data show that south-west. The sand especially enters the
the winds causing the aeolian sand trans- embayment under stormy conditions (from
port problems at Monwabisi range in direc- both the south-east and south-west) when
tion from south to east, with the dominant the entire embayment, including the spur,
winds being southerly to south-easterly. is within the surf zone. Part of the accre-
The areas where sand accumulates confirm tion along the lee side of the spur is due to
these wind directions as being dominant. sand transport through the relatively porous
The median sediment grain size (D50) of the spur from the seaward side (component G in
wind-blown sediment that has accumulated figure 2), as well as transport to the leeward
adjacent to the eastern side of the tidal pool side by means of the eddy. (Keep in mind
wall is about 0,30 mm (CSIR 2001). that sand also was placed alongside the spur
The rates at which sand is blown season- on its northern side during construction.)
ally in specified directions by the prevail- Initially, the whole shoreline between
ing winds were calculated by applying the the tidal pool and the short groyne was
Swart (1986) method. It was found that the very rocky, strewn with calcrete blocks, and
average nett, potential rate of the north- had a very steep (back-beach) slope. In the
bound sand encroachment at Monwabisi is north-western corner, next to the pool wall,
between 1 600 m 3/year and 4 200 m 3/year sand has covered the toe of this rocky slope.
(CSIR 2001). However, the steep rocky slope still exists
west of the short groyne. This slope leads to
some wave reflection from the shore, espe-
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT REGIME cially at high tide (figure 2). The reflection of
Figure 2 is a schematic illustration of the sand wave energy increases the turbulence, causes
transport regime during typical conditions at local erosion of the seabed in front of the
Monwabisi. Reference should be made to this rocky slope, and thereby prevents a beach
figure in the following discussion. from forming on the western side of the short
Sand is normally transported along the groyne. The wave reflection as probably con-
shore at Monwabisi from the west to the east tributed to sedimentation in the lee of the
(component A in figure 2). Significant long- spur by suspending more sand, which can
shore transport occurs up to a water depth be transported by the eddy. The short groyne
of about 6 m (CSIR 1995). Thus, because the appears to have had a limited effect on overall

170 m
(Photographs: City of Cape Town & CSIR)
Figure 3 Aerial photographs of shoreline configuration
littoral processes in the region and has only
contributed to localised shoreline stability.
ACCRETION AND STABILITY OF
THE MONWABISI BEACH
Background
Shorelines and beaches, in particular, are
dynamic and respond to changes in wave,
current, and wind action through changes in
their profile, alignment and overall character-
istics. Although they are dynamic, shorelines
may be in a state of long-term equilibrium
in which the average configuration does not
change over time. An understanding of the
response of a beach to external forces (its
dynamic stability and variability) is of great
importance in order to define possible con-
straints that must be considered during plan-
ning or management actions.
Comparative beach surveys provide a
good indication of the stability of a shore-
line. Beach survey data are much more
accurate than aerial photographic data.
Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering • Volume 49 Number 2 June 2007
1990
1998
N
2002
2003
Figure 4 Oblique photographs of beach configuration
However, aerial photographs often cover
much longer time periods than existing
beach surveys and provide a longer-term
perspective. Aerial photographs are therefore
especially useful in identifying long-term
trends, while beach surveys provide accu-
rate information on short- to medium-term
variability.
Beach changes discerned
from photography
Vertical aerial photographs
Aerial photographs covering the study area
and used in the analysis were available from
the CSIR Information Centre and from the
City of Cape Town for the years 1990, 1993,
1998, 2002, 2003 and 2004. Analysis of aer-
ial photographs provided additional infor-
mation on nearshore wave directions, cur-
rent patterns and coastline characteristics.
The spur, which was constructed in the
period September 1996 to February 1997,
appears to have had a rapid and signifi-
cant effect on the shoreline configuration
30 Oct 1996 (mid tide)
28 Jan 1997 (low tide)
22 Sept 1999 (high tide)
12 Nov 2004 (low-mid tide)
adjacent to the pool (for example 1990
versus 1998 photographs, figure 3), notably
the beach that formed in the lee of the spur
attached to the east of the tidal pool.
The apparent differences in the location
of the waterline between the 1998, 2002 and
2003 photographs (figure 3) create a percep-
tion of significant beach changes. However,
the 1998 and 2003 photographs were taken
at relatively low tidal levels, which means
that a wider expanse of beach is visible east-
wards of the pool wall (below 0 m MSL). In
contrast, the 2002 photograph was taken at
mid-tide to high tide with only a relatively
small, approximately triangular shaped beach
fillet visible (above 0 m MSL). In fact, since
as early as 1998 the shoreline appears to have
been close to a state of dynamic equilibrium
(with occasional smaller short-term variations
occurring). The fact that no further signifi-
cant long-term shoreline changes (or accre-
tion against the pool wall) have occurred
implies that there is no long-term nett marine
sediment transport to or from the beach in
the vicinity of the tidal pool.
5
 1,00
N 1,60
1,90
Land 1,5 1 0,5
Oblique photography
0,00
0,70 Figure 4 shows oblique photographs of the
0,20 -0,3 -0,5 Heights (m) beach configuration taken at four different
-0,50
-1,70 to MSL times (selected from about ten different times
P ool wall

Roc k s lope
-1,40
-1,00
-1,30
-1,60
-1,20 -1,40 -1,60
-1,20 -1,00 -0,90 available), all from roughly the same vantage
-0,30 1
-2,10
-1,30 -1,60
point (looking towards the south-west).
-0,90 -0,60
-1,300,5
-1,40 -1,30 -1,90
-1,20
-1,20
-1,40 -1,70 -1,60
-1,40
-1,20
Although construction had been in
-1,60
-1,00 -1,60 -2,20 0
-1,40
progress for less than two months, a con-
-1,30 -1,60 -1,90
-1,60 -1,60
-1,60
-1,30 -2,00 -1,70
-1,80 -1,50-0,5 siderable beach fillet had already accreted
-1,20 -1,70
-2,00
-1,70 by the end of October 1996. By the end
l

-1
nne

-1,70
-2,00 -1,80 -1,80
-2,20 -1,90 -2,00
-1,30
-1,90
-1,80
-2,10 -1,80
-1,5
of January 1997, when construction was
-2,00
c ha

-2,30 -2,20
-2,10 -2,30
not even 100 % complete, most of the
-2,00 -2,20 -2,20 -2
-2,50 -2,40
-2,10 -2,30
beach accretion had already occurred. The
w

-2,40 -2,10
-2,50 -2,40
rflo

-2,50 -2,5
-2,20 -2,00 -2,60 -2,70 approximately triangular (in plan) beach
-2,60 -2,80 -2,70 -2,80
configuration, shown roughly three years
Ov e

-2,20 -2,80 -2,40 -3

-2,20 -3,20 -2,70
-2,20 Heights (m) to MSL
-2,30 -2,30 -2,70
-3,10 -3,10
-3,10 -3,5 later, is probably relatively close to the
-2,30 -2,60 -3,00

-2,50 Spur 0 -3,70

m 50 m -3,10
-3,10
100 m -2,70
-4 long-term dynamic equilibrium shape,
-2,40
-2,40
-2,50 -2,50
Date-3,40
of survey: 22 August 1994 but appears much reduced from the 1997
configuration. In reality, however, the 1997
Figure 5 Contour map of beach – pre-spur (1994) beach area is not wider, but just seems so,
because this photograph was taken closer
Profile 5

N
Pr

6.05
5.31 3.72
to low tide, while the 1999 photograph was
of

Land 6.12 7.02

6.80
6.04 5.62
3.64
3.20 5.42
3.41 2.20 3.68
ile

3.51
3.50
1.86 1.88
0.54
1.31 taken closer to high tide. The dry beach
4

2.23 0.69 1.62

0.10 -0.21 -0.043.07
2.59
1.49 -0.23
-0.27
area, shown approximately five years later
2.85

Pr -0.78 -1.13
2.87 (2004), is actually quite similar to 1999 (and
of 1.57 -0.13 -0.61 -0.87
2.56
ile -0.01 -0.41 -0.96
-1.78
even to early 1998). The wide, relatively flat,
3 -1.71
tidal beach area is again visible in the 2004
Pool wall

0.29 -1.92
1.74 1.50 -1.63
-1.61
-1.52
Rock slope

-0.64-0.75
-1.60 Heights (m) photograph.
0.12 -0.60
1.51 to MSL
-0.59
P ro
file
0.37
-1.43
-1.64-1.53
-1.96
-2.25
-1.39 3
Beach changes derived from
2 -0.36 topographic surveys
2.5
1.29
1.00 2
l

0.26 -1.69
Surveys
e

-0.46 1.5
a nn

-1.69
0.87
0.74 0.18 -0.37 -0.95 -1.59
1 The beach at Monwabisi has been surveyed
w ch

P ro fil -0.70
0.5 from 1994 to 2004. Topographic contour
0.62 e 0.19
1 -0.30 -1.53
1.02 0 maps were studied to identify changes in
rflo

0.08 -0.15 -0.47

0.31 -0.87
0.54 -0.5
1.04
0.73 -1.59 beach topography, areas of sediment deposi-
Ov e

-0.50 -0.92 -1.77

0.66
0.50
0.29 0.09 -0.13 Heights (m) to MSL -1
tion or erosion, and volume changes. Five
0.77
-1.5
1.87 1.67 1.67 2.18 1.78 1.49 1.43 0m 50 m 100 m contour maps of the beach area (dated 22
1.69 -0.61 -2
1.42
1.57 Spur August 1994, 30 January 1997, 8 April 1997,
Date of survey: 22 June 2004 -2.5
7 October 2002 and 22 June 2004) were
Figure 6 Contour map of beach – post-spur (2004)
plotted from these topographic surveys.
(The surveys were carried out by the CSIR
and Entech Consultants.) Figure 5 depicts
Land 184 858 669 236 -126 -197 -18
the contours as on 22 August 1994, about
two years before construction of the spur.
Figure 6 depicts the contours as on 22 June
2004, which is the most recent survey. Data
Pool wall

582 1229 1143 809 546 277 -1

from bathymetric surveys of the surround-
Bed-level
ing areas conducted by the CSIR in 1994
Rock slope

change (m)
1292 1276 1068 816 458 77 were also utilised in the study.
3 From these survey data, six loss/gain
2,5 or difference maps were produced. These
1457 1188 858 490 138 maps show changes in vertical elevation
Accretion

2
between consecutive surveys and between
l

1,5
pre- and various post-spur surveys, as well
nne

1498 1187 1047 744 142 1

as volume changes per unit area (in 25 m
c ha

0,5 by 25 m squares). The difference map com-

w

0 paring 22 August 1994 to 22 June 2004 is

rflo

151 1574 1222 1286 966 123

-0,5
shown in figure 7. Through this comparison
Ov e

it was possible to analyse beach changes and

Erosion

-1
25 m to clearly identify the deposition patterns
1308 1282 1045 1185 837 55 -1,5
found in the difference maps, which show
25 m -2 all the areas where significant vertical accre-
Spur
-2,5 tion occurred. This accretion is depicted
Volume changes (m 3) are indicated for the relevant 25 m x 25 m grid blocks in figure 7. The pattern is quite clear: large
Figure 7 Beach difference map – 22/08/1994 to 22/06/2004 accretion occurred seaward (south) and

6 Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering • Volume 49 Number 2 June 2007
 through the beach area. The locations of
4
these cross-sections (numbered 1 to 5)
22 August 1994 are shown in figure 6. Figure 8, for exam-
30 January 1997
3 ple, illustrates the different beach profiles
8 April 1997
7 October 2002
recorded at section 3, which is located
22 June 2004 approximately at the centre of the accreted
2
9 November 1996 beach.
Figure 8 (profile 3) clearly shows the
Depth (m to MSL)

27 November 1996
1 large initial accretion of the area from
about the –2 m to the +2 m MSL contours,
between the pre-spur situation (1994 sur-
0
vey) to January 1997 (at completion of
the spur). The profile recorded about two
-1 months after completion of the spur (8 April
1997) does not differ much from the previ-
ous (end of construction) profile. However,
-2
the profile recorded about 4,5 years later
(October 2002) again shows large accretion
Profile 3 of the area from about the 0 m to +2 m MSL
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 contours. The last profile, recorded about
Distance (m) along profile 1,8 years later (June 2004), is relatively
similar to the previous (2002) profile. Two
Figure 8 Beach profile cross-sections – profile 3 further partial profiles are shown: 9 and 27
November 1996, both recorded during the
1 650 days construction period. However, these two
19 19 996
r il r y r 1 6
Ap u a e 9

97 97
4

02
8 Jan embr 19

profiles are considered to be of too limited

9

04
19

20
e

20
30 Novmb
st

er

coverage to be compared with the other pro-

gu

ob

ne
e
26 o v
Au

ct

Ju
O
N
22

22
files. Nevertheless, the apparent accretion
9

110
over the intervening 18 days is at least par-
100 tially due to the 5 000 m 3 of sand that was
placed on the beach during construction.
90 The available space prohibits showing
Distance (m) from station to 0 m MSL

beach changes at all the other profiles, but a

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 Comparison of profiles 1 to 5 (profile
0 500
Figure 9 Horizontal displacement of shoreline over time
eastwards of the corner between the original
shoreline and the eastern tidal pool wall.
Significant accretion also occurred land-
ward (north) and eastwards of the corner
between the eastern tidal pool wall and the
leeward side of the spur. Some of this latter
accretion was initially aided by a volume
of about 5 000 m3 of sand placed there in
November 1996 during the construction
process to provide vehicular access to the
spur. Sand was also transported through the
porous spur from the seaward side through
wave action, which added to this accretion.
More localised erosion of the mid- to
high-tide beach area appears to have
brief description follows.
Profiles 1 and 2 show similar trends to
profile 3 and, to a lesser degree, also to pro-
file 4. The changes and differences at profile
5 are all relatively small. This is as expected,
as profiles 1 to 3 lie within the main accre-
tion area (figure 6), while profile 4 lies near-
er the edge of the accreted area, and profile
Profile 1 5 is outside of the area significantly affected
Profile 2 by the spur. In all of the above instances,
Profile 3 large accretion (that is, where the beach has
Profile 4 built up) is mostly due to natural sediment
Profile 5 transport and deposition.
1 000 1 500 2 000 2 500 3 000 3 500 4 000 3 is shown in figure 8) shows a progressive
Days from first survey steepening of the beach slope from profile
1 to profile 5, with approximate slopes of
respectively 1:66 to 1:8 around the 0 m MSL
contour. These trends are consistent with
occurred from about 130 m to 190 m east the greater wave exposure from profile 1 to
of the pool wall (figure 7). (It should be profile 5. This means that the beach slope
noted, however, that the pre-spur survey did varies considerably along Monwabisi beach,
not cover this particular area well (figure from a mild slope to quite a steep slope over
5), which diminishes the accuracy of the a distance of only about 200 m along the
recorded changes in this area.) 0 m contour.
The total nett beach accretion volume Significant changes in the beach profile
between the pre-spur survey and the 2004 (profile 3) occurred after formation of the
survey is about 32 000 m 3, with vertical Monwabisi beach, up to a level of +3 m MSL,
accretion of up to about 2,5 m in places. as is shown by the fact that all the surveyed
profiles essentially converge at this level
Beach profiles (figure 8). This is in line with the finding of
To further analyse and explain the beach +3 m MSL being the level up to which sig-
changes that have taken place, five differ- nificant beach changes are found along the
ent cross-sections (or profiles) were taken northern False Bay beaches.

Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering • Volume 49 Number 2 June 2007 7

4
19
st
gu
Au
30
22
35 000
30 000
25 000
Volume changes (m3)
20 000
15 000
10 000
5 000
0 shorter at Monwabisi, which is also partially
0 500
Figure 10 Beach volume change over time
Shoreline and beach evolution
as a result of the spur
Shoreline evolution was first quantified by
measuring, in each case, the horizontal
distance from a fixed reference point (sta-
tion) on land to, for example, the 0 m MSL
contour as determined from each survey.
This yielded curves of the variation of these
distances over time. A positive general slope
of such a curve indicates accretion because
the beach becomes wider; that is, the dis-
tance increases over time. Similarly, a curve
having a negative general slope depicts ero-
sion of the beach. If the distance fluctuates
around a mean value (having a horizontal
trend on average), it indicates that the beach
is dynamically stable.
The shoreline evolution at profiles 1 to 5
(based on all of the available beach surveys)
is shown in figure 9. In general, profiles 1 to
3 show rapid shoreline accretion (increase in
the cross-shore distance over time) over the
spur construction period up to the survey
of April 1997. The survey of 2002 shows a
further moderate increase at profiles 2, 3 and
4, but a small decrease (erosion) at profile 1
(figure 9). In the survey of 2004, profiles 1
to 4 all show moderate erosion relative to the
2002 survey. Profile 5 shows very little differ-
ence over the last three survey dates.
No surveys were conducted in the period
between April 1997 and October 2002,
which is unfortunate, because it is within
this period that the new beach reached a
state of long-term dynamic equilibrium (as
the photography indicates during 1998, fig-
ure 3). Analysis of the wave data of the weeks
preceding 7 October 2002 and 22 June 2004
is inconclusive and it cannot be ascertained
which of these two dates represents the situ-
8 Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering • Volume 49 Number 2 June 2007
1 650 days
97 7
02
19 99
04
20
r il y 1
20
er
Ap a r
ob
8 a nu
ne
ct
Ju
J
O
22
7
Volume change
Cumulative volume change
Estimated cumulative volume change
1 000 1 500 2 000 2 500 3 000 3 500
Days from first survey
ation closest to the long-term equilibrium.
However, both of these dates are clearly
beyond the point at which the earlier beach
accretion trend had terminated (as a result of
the beach being filled to capacity). The dif-
ferences between the 2002 and 2004 surveys
are ascribed to normal shorter-term beach
fluctuations (around the average), and not to
progressive effects of the spur.
Beach formation over time (evolution) can
also be quantified by calculating the beach
volume change from one survey to the next.
Beach volume changes over time were there-
fore plotted (figure 10) from the difference
maps (for example figure 7). Thus, the total
nett beach accretion volume up to 30 January
1997 (when spur construction was virtu-
ally complete) was about 26 000 m3. (This
includes the 5 000 m3 of sand placed during
construction.) After a further nett volume
increase of about 6 000 m3, the beach accre-
tion volume is considered to have reached
approximately the long-term equilibrium,
which is near the volumes calculated for
7 October 2002 and 22 June 2004 (about
32 000 m3). It is interesting to note that,
despite the beach changes between these
latter surveys, the total nett beach accretion
volume remained virtually unchanged. This
is confirmed by the difference map between
these two surveys, which shows that, while
there was generally erosion of the upper
beach, the sub-tidal beach area accreted,
thereby balancing the volume change. To
some extent, this also confirms that the dif-
ferences between the 2002 and 2004 surveys
can be ascribed to normal shorter-term beach
fluctuations (around the average), and that
the long-term dynamic equilibrium configu-
ration had already been reached.
By analysing the trends of the survey
data shown in figures 9 and 10, it can be
concluded that the beach reached equi-
librium by approximately February 1999
(about 1 650 days after the first survey); that
is, after 2,5 years. Equilibrium was certainly
reached before 7 October 2002, about six
years after construction started.
In physical model tests of beach improve-
ment schemes in False Bay near Cape Town
(Swart & Schoonees 1994) it was found that
most shoreline changes occurred within two
or three years after construction of groynes.
Equilibrium at a few other sites around the
world was generally reached after four years:
in Israel (Nir 1982), Japan (Toyoshima 1976)
and Britain (Barber & Davies 1985). It is
interesting to note that the conditions and
the degree of wave exposure vary consider-
ably at these sites around the world. The
time required to attain equilibrium is slightly
4 000 due to 5 000 m3 (of the total of 32 000 m3,
or 16 %) of sand being imported during
construction.
The initial rate at which the spur trapped
sand is: 26 000 m3 of sand trapped − 5 000 m3
placed artificially from September 1996 to 30
January 1997 = about 55 000 m3/year. This is
an approximate rate because of, for example,
the uncertainty of the exact date when con-
struction of the spur started in September 1996
and the fact that the spur did not trap all of the
sand, especially when the spur was still incom-
plete. This rate is lower, but of similar order
of magnitude to the potential nett longshore
transport rate of 100 000 to 140 000 m3/year.
Some of the reasons why the potential nett
longshore transport rate differs from the initial
trapping rate are as follows:
■ The real longshore transport rate is less
than the potential rate because rocky areas
limit the availability of sand to be moved
■ The portion of the longshore transport,
which occurs seaward of the spur in the
outer surf zone, cannot be trapped by the
spur and continues moving past
■ Some of the eastbound longshore trans-
port that moves past the tip of the spur
and northwards to the shore moves away
from (to the east of) Monwabisi beach
■ Clearly, the spur also trapped westbound
longshore transport usually resulting from
wind waves generated by southerly to
south-easterly winds, especially before the
short groyne was built
■ Owing to the relatively high initial porosity
of the breakwater, significant amounts of
sand moved through the breakwater, which
(together with wave reflection) enhanced
the sand build-up on the leeward side
As the new beach in the lee of the spur filled
up and the accreted volume approached the
total/full capacity of the ‘trap’ formed by
the structures, the trapping rate decreased
until the net long-term rate became zero
when the equilibrium beach configuration
was reached. Thus, the accretion against the
eastern side of the pool has long since built
up to capacity and most sand transport from
the west or east bypasses the area.
CONCLUSIONS
The sediment transport regime at
Monwabisi has been established. Sand is
transported eastwards along the northern
False Bay shoreline at a nett rate lower than
the potential rate, which is about 100 000
to 140 000 m 3/year. Some of this sand
transport carries on alongshore in the outer
surf zone, while the rest of the sand moves
around the tip of the spur and northwards
towards the shore. At the shore, the sand
either moves west- or eastwards (compo-
nents D and E of the sand respectively,
figure 2). In the lee of the spur, the sand
(component D) is transported westwards
because of an anti-clockwise eddy cur-
rent. Some of the sand settles in the calmer
embayment formed by the spur, the eastern
pool wall, and the original shoreline. In
this way, Monwabisi beach was formed. The
initial rate at which the spur trapped sand
is about 55 000 m 3/year, which is of simi-
lar order of magnitude, but lower than the
potential nett longshore transport rate. Part
of the accretion along the lee side of the
spur results from sand transport through
the relatively porous spur from the seaward
side, as well as transport to the leeward side
by means of the eddy current (figure 2).
Wind blows sand off Monwabisi beach
at a nett rate of between 1 600 m 3/year and
4 200 m 3/year in a northerly direction. This
sand, which causes the aeolian sand prob-
lems at the Monwabisi resort, is replenished
by marine sand.
Vertical and oblique photographs, as
well as five topographic surveys, were used
to document the evolution of Monwabisi
beach. Loss/gain maps show that large
accretion occurred south- and eastwards of
the corner between the original shoreline
and the eastern tidal pool wall; and north-
and eastwards of the corner between the
Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering • Volume 49 Number 2 June 2007
eastern tidal pool wall and the leeward side
of the spur (aided by about 5 000 m 3 of
sand placed during the construction, and by
sand transported through the porous spur
from the seaward side). Waves reflecting
from a steep rocky slope west of the short
groyne cause local erosion and prevent a
beach from forming in front of the rocky
slope. The total nett beach accretion volume
between the pre-spur survey and the 2004
survey is about 32 000 m 3, with vertical
accretion of up to about 2,5 m in places.
At profile 3, located in the centre of
Monwabisi beach (figure 6), most of the
initial accretion occurred between elevations
of –2 m and +2 m to MSL. Profiles 1 and 2
and, to a lesser degree, also profile 4, show
similar trends to profile 3. The spur does not
significantly affect profile 5. The beach slope
varies considerably along Monwabisi beach,
from a mild slope (1:66; profile 1) to quite
a steep slope (1:8; profile 5) over a distance
of about only 200 m. This trend is consist-
ent with the increased wave exposure from
profile 1 to profile 5. Significant changes in
the beach profile (profile 3) occurred up to a
level of +3 m (figure 8). This is in line with
the finding of +3 m being the level up to
which significant beach changes are found
along the northern False Bay beaches.
Rapid shoreline accretion occurred dur-
ing construction of the spur and up to April
1997 (figures 9 and 10). The survey of 2002
shows a further moderate increase, while the
2004 survey shows moderate erosion rela-
tive to the 2002 survey. Despite the beach
changes between these latter surveys, the
total nett beach accretion volume remained
virtually unchanged. The differences between
the 2002 and 2004 surveys are ascribed to
normal shorter-term beach fluctuations. The
beach reached equilibrium between April
1997 and October 2002; the best estimate is
approximately 2,5 years after construction of
the spur started (figures 9 and 10). The time
required to attain equilibrium was somewhat
shortened at Monwabisi, partly because 16 %
of the total volume of sand that accreted was
imported during construction.
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9