foods
Article
Moisture Distribution and Structural Properties of Frozen
Cooked Noodles with NaCl and Kansui
Jiarong Wang, Yangyue Ding, Mingyang Wang, Tianqi Cui, Zeyu Peng and Jianjun Cheng *






Citation: Wang, J.; Ding, Y.; Wang,
M.; Cui, T.; Peng, Z.; Cheng, J.
Moisture Distribution and Structural
Properties of Frozen Cooked Noodles
with NaCl and Kansui. Foods 2021, 10,
3132. https://doi.org/10.3390/
foods10123132
Academic Editor: Maria
Papageorgiou
Received: 11 November 2021
Accepted: 15 December 2021
Published: 17 December 2021
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Foods 2021, 10, 3132. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10123132
Grain Engineering Research Laboratory (10), College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University,
Harbin 150030, China; wjrsci@163.com (J.W.); dingyangyue77@163.com (Y.D.);
wmy15663028822@163.com (M.W.); cuitianqi0906@163.com (T.C.); zerypaul@163.com (Z.P.)
* Correspondence: jjcheng@neau.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-136-3364-0828
Abstract: The effects of NaCl (1–3%) and kansui (0.5–1.5%) on the quality of frozen cooked noodles
(FCNs) were investigated, which provided a reference for alleviating the quality deterioration of
FCNs. Textural testing illustrated that the optimal tensile properties were observed in 2% NaCl
(N-2) and the maximum hardness and chewiness were reached at 1% kansui (K-1). Compared
to NaCl, the water absorption and cooking loss of recooked FCNs increased significantly with
increasing kansui levels (p < 0.05). Rheological results confirmed NaCl and kansui improved the
resistance to deformation and recovery ability of thawed dough; K-1 especially had the highest dough
strength. SEM showed N-2 induced a more elongated fibrous protein network that contributed to the
extensibility, while excessive levels of kansui formed a deformed membrane-like gluten network that
increased the solid loss. Moisture analysis revealed that N-2 reduced the free water content, while
K-1 had the lowest freezable water content and highest binding capacity for deeply adsorbed water.
The N-2 and K-1 induced more ordered protein secondary structures with stronger intermolecular
disulfide bonds, which were maximally improved in K-1. This study provides more comprehensive
theories for the strengthening effect of NaCl and kansui on FCNs quality.
Keywords: frozen cooked noodles; NaCl; kansui; moisture distribution; structure; rheology; quality
1. Introduction
Frozen cooked noodles (FCNs), as a new type of instant noodle product, have grown
increasingly popular among consumers due to their advantages in preservation, safety, and
convenience, and now account for approximately 45% of the total noodle production [1,2].
However, freezing might reduce hardness, tensile force, aroma, and consumer acceptance
of noodles [3]. These negative changes are closely related to the uneven water redistribu-
tion in the noodle matrix upon freezing and ice recrystallization caused by temperature
fluctuations, which could lead to the loss of gluten network integrity and denseness, with
implications for the machinability and rheological properties of the dough [4]. Currently,
numerous studies emphasized the minimization of freeze-induced structural damage and
quality deterioration during FCNs freezing.
Salts have been widely used as dough conditioners or quality improvers to improve
the flavor, texture, and cooking characteristics of noodles. Depending on the types of salt in
the recipe, the noodles are divided into two different types: white salted noodles containing
NaCl and yellow alkaline noodles with Na2 CO3 or K2 CO3 , or a mixture of them, called
kansui [5]. Fu (2008) reported that the typical addition of salt was 1–3% by flour weight,
while approximately 0.5–1.5% of alkaline salts was used to make alkaline noodles [6]. NaCl
could increase the mixing tolerance of the dough, extend the dough development time,
and improve the dough sheeting properties and noodle quality by increasing the density
of gluten network [7–9]. The alkaline salt contributed to the unique color, texture, and
flavor of the noodles and promoted a denser gluten structure by strengthening the disulfide
bonds and non-disulfide bonds cross-linking [10–12]. In spite of the addition of NaCl and
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods
Foods 2021, 10, 3132 2 of 15

kansui being a convenient and cost-effective means of improving the noodles quality, few
studies have investigated their effects on frozen cooked noodles.
The deterioration process of FCNs quality is strongly dependent on the quantity,
physical state, and location of the water [2]. Previous studies demonstrated that the sodium
and chloride ions in the NaCl are dispersed around the proteins and act to retain the water.
NaCl also accelerates the absorption of water into the flour and distributes it uniformly [8].
In addition, Li et al. (2017) revealed that alkali enhanced the interaction between aqueous
and non-aqueous components [11]. However, most studies about NaCl and kansui focused
on the interactions between them and fresh dough [8,13]. Few quantitative studies have
focused on the effects of NaCl and kansui on frozen noodles, and even fewer studies have
taken the water molecules movement into account.
The singularity of this work was to investigate the effect of different levels of NaCl
(1–3%) and kansui (0.5–1.5%) on the quality of FCNs, and to elucidate the potential mecha-
nisms for the transformation of noodle quality in terms of rheological behavior, microscopic
morphology, water distribution, and protein structure of the dough. This study might
provide a more comprehensive theoretical basis for broadening the applications of NaCl
and kansui in the noodle industry.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
Wheat flour (9.80% moisture, 0.67% ash, and 11.75% protein) was obtained from
Jinshahe Flour Industry Co., Ltd. (Xingtai, Hebei, China). Sodium chloride, sodium
carbonate, and potassium carbonate were provided by Tianli Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd.
(Tianjin, China). All reagents were analytical grade.

2.2. Preparation and Sampling of FCNs

The formulation of FCNs was composed of 200 g wheat flour, 70 g distilled water, and
different levels of NaCl or kansui (%, w/w). The predetermined amount of NaCl or kansui
was dissolved in water before adding. NaCl was added at 1%, 2%, and 3% levels; kansui (a
9:1 mixture of sodium and potassium carbonate) was added at 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5% levels;
and the samples were named N-1, N-2, N-3, K-0.5, K-1, and K-1.5, respectively. The noodle
without NaCl or kansui was the control.
The crumbly dough was obtained using an automatic dough mixer (M6-L30, Joyoung,
Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) to knead for 5 min. The dough was rested at 23 ◦ C for 30 min. Sub-
sequently, the dough was placed on a semiautomatic sheeting machine (Juxin Machinery
Co., Ltd., Zaoyang, China) and the sheeting gaps were reduced to 1 mm gradually to obtain
dough sheets. The resultant dough sheets were cut into noodle strands (2 mm in width
and 1 mm in thickness) with a cutter. Fresh noodles (30 g/500 mL water) were boiled for
3.5 min (optimal cooking time), and then immersed in 500 mL cold water (4 ◦ C) for 1 min.
These noodles were drained for 1 min and placed in sealed bags. Then, they were frozen in
an ultra-low temperature freezer (DW-HL100, MELNG, Hefei, China), with air temperature
in convection at −40 ◦ C, until the core temperature dropped to −18 ◦ C (~60 min). After
freezing, the FCNs were stored at −18 ± 2 ◦ C in the freezer (BCD-480WDGB, Haier Co.,
Ltd., Qingdao, China) for more than 24 h until use. Additionally, some fresh dough sheets
were cut into 35 mm diameter discs and placed in polyethylene bags and frozen in the
same procedure for further rheology testing [14].

2.3. Rheological Properties Tests

After fixed-time frozen storage, the dough sheets were removed from the polyethylene
bags and put in a stainless-steel tray. Then, they were thawed in a constant temperature
incubator at 25 ◦ C and 75% relative humidity for 1 h. Then, the rheology performance of
doughs (~3 g) was determined by a Haake Mars 40 rheometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific,
Waltham, MA, USA) following the method of Zhang et al. (2018) and equipped with a
35 mm parallel plate geometry at a gap of 1 mm [15].
Foods 2021, 10, 3132 3 of 15

2.3.1. Dynamic Frequency Sweep

A frequency sweep was run from 0.1–100 rad/s at a strain of 0.2% (within the linear
viscoelastic region) and a temperature of 25 ± 0.1 ◦ C to determine the storage modulus
(G0 ), loss modulus (G00 ) and tan δ (G00 /G0 ) as functions of frequency [16]. The degree
of dependence of G0 on the frequency sweep (z0 ) and the strength of the dough (K) was
obtained by fitting the curves to the following the power-law model (Equation (1)):
0
G0 = K ωz , (1)

where ω is the angular frequency.

2.3.2. Creep Recovery Measurement

At 25 ◦ C, within the linear viscoelastic range of the doughs (0.2% strain), instant stress
(250 Pa) was applied and maintained for 300 s, and then stress was released to allow sample
recovery for the next 300 s. The experimental parameters were obtained by analyzing
the creep and recovery curves using Haake RheoWin 4.83.0004 software (Thermo Fisher
Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), including maximum creep compliance (Jmax ), zero shear
viscosity (η0 ), relative elastic part of the maximum creep compliance (Je /Jmax ), and the
relative viscous part of the maximum creep compliance (Jv /Jmax ).

2.4. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

The cross-sections of the frozen-dried FCNs were examined using a scanning electron
microscope (Hitachi S-3400N) at 500× magnification. The accelerating voltage for scanning
was 5 kV [17].

2.5. Freezable Water Content

The freezable water (FW) content was measured by differential scanning calorimeter
(DSC 3, Mettler Toledo, Basel, Switzerland) referring to the method described by Hong
et al. (2021) [14]. A sliced subsample of ~10 mg from each sample was placed into the
DSC pan. Then, the pan was hermetically sealed. During the test, samples were held at
−40 ◦ C for 10 min for the equilibrium of temperature and then heated from −40 ◦ C to
40 ◦ C at 10 ◦ C/min. Nitrogen was used as a carrier gas at a flow rate of 20 mL/min. The
FW content (FW%) was calculated by the following formula.

∆Hw
FW% = ×100% (2)
∆Hi × TW

∆Hw , melting enthalpy, J/g of water. ∆Hi , the latent heat of the ice fusion, 334.3 J/g.
TW, the moisture content of the sample, g/g.

2.6. Measurement of Protons Migration and Distribution

The water distribution was determined using a 23-MHz 1 H low-field nuclear magnetic
resonance analyzer (LF-NMR, MesoMR23-060H-I, Suzhou Niumag Electronic Technology
Co., Ltd., Suzhou, China) equipped with standard micro imaging accessories. The recooked
FCNs (2.50 g) were weighed accurately and sealed in PET/PE bags to avoid the interference
of air and moisture [4].
For the LF-NMR test, the transverse relaxation curves were acquired using the Carr–
Purcell–Meiboom–Gill pulse sequence. The parameters employed are as follows: echo
time (TE) = 0.2 ms, the number of echoes (NECH) = 10,000, the interval time of sampling
(TW) = 2500 ms, and the number of scans (NS) = 2.
The water migration of FCNs was observed using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A
15-mm radiofrequency (RF) coil was selected and a standard SPIN-ECHO (SE) sequence was
used to produce images. The parameters were: TE = 20 ms, TR = 500 ms, and Averages = 3.
Foods 2021, 10, 3132 4 of 15

2.7. Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) Analysis

The molecular interactions of freeze-dried dough were analyzed using ATR-FTIR
(Nicolet iS50, Thermo Fisher, Waltham, MA, USA) according to the method of Ying et al.
(2019) [18]. The spectra were generated in absorption mode in mid-IR (ca. 4000–525 cm−1 )
at a resolution of 4 cm−1 in 64 scans. The positions of the absorbance peaks located in
the amide I region were determined using Fourier self-deconvolution and the second
derivative using Peak Fit software (version 4.12). The peaks in the range 1650–1660 cm−1
corresponded to α-helix, 1660–1700 cm−1 and 1610–1640 cm−1 represented β-turn and
β-sheet, respectively, and 1640–1650 cm−1 indicated the random coil.

2.8. Measurement of Free Sulfhydryl Content

The content of the free sulfhydryl (-SH) was measured as described by Zhang et al.
(2018) using a UV-visible spectrophotometer (UVmini-1240, Shimadzu Instruments Co.,
Ltd., Suzhou, China) [15]. The -SH content was calculated as follows (Equation (3)).

73.53 × A × D
SH (µmol/g) = (3)
C
where A is the absorbance at 412 nm, C represents the concentration of freeze-dried dough
in mg/mL, and D is the dilution factor of supernatant.

2.9. Cooking Properties and Texture Analysis of FCNs

Referred to the AACC 6650 (AACC, 2000), FCNs (30 g/500 mL water) were recooked
for 90 s and rinsed in ice-cold water for 1 min. The cooking loss (CL) was defined as the
percentage of dry matter that the noodles lose during cooking. The water absorption (WS),
which was expressed as the percentage of water absorbed by noodles during cooking, was
calculated as the mass ratio after and before cooking.
The texture profile analysis and tensile tests of recooked FCNs were carried out
referring to our previous method [12], and measured within 10 min after recooking.

2.10. Organoleptic Evaluation

The recooked FCNs were evaluated by 30 trained panelists (male: female = 1:1) from
the College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University. The samples were cut
into 5 cm pieces and then cooked for 90 s in boiling water at a ratio of 1:10. Then, the
samples were placed on dishes marked with random three-digit numbers and provided to
all panelists in random order. Some organoleptic attributes such as appearance, texture,
flavor, taste, and overall acceptability of FCNs were assessed. A nine-point hedonic scale
ranging from 1 (dislike extremely) to 9 (like extremely) was used [19].

2.11. Statistical Analysis

All determinations were performed at least in triplicates. The data were expressed as
the mean ± standard deviation (SD) and were examined by one-way analysis of variant
(ANOVA) using SPSS (Version 13.0 for Windows, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Differences
were considered to be significant at p < 0.05.

3. Results
3.1. Rheological Properties Analysis
3.1.1. Dynamic Frequency Sweep
As depicted in Figure 1A,B, the G0 and G00 of the dough containing NaCl or kansui
were higher than those of the control, indicating the degree of gluten cross-linking and the
hydration capacity of the dough was enhanced [20]. From Figure 1C, the tan δ was less than
1 for all dough samples, suggesting that the elastic behavior dominated over the viscous
component in the entire frequency range investigated. The tan δ of the doughs containing
1% kansui was lower than that of others obviously, indicating that the elastic properties
of the dough and the polymerization of gluten proteins were dramatically enhanced [21].
Foods 2021, 10, 3132 5 of 15

Moreover, the tan δ of the dough containing 3% NaCl was higher than that of the dough
containing 1% and 2% NaCl significantly, which might be due to the higher levels of NaCl
induced conformational changes and enhanced hydrogen bonding between the gluten
components. The viscous flow of glutenin molecules relative to each other with gliadin
as the molecular bearing during small strain measurements was conferred, resulting in a
higher tan δ and a more viscoelastic network [22].
As listed in Table 1, the Power-law model is well fitted to the rheological property
curves of each sample, with the corresponding coefficients of determination (R2 ) ranging
from 0.952 to 0.995. The z0 values of all samples ranged from 0.244 to 0.261, indicating
that the gluten network structure was not stable and the covalent bond structure had a
certain tendency of physical interaction [15]. Furthermore, the control dough had the
lowest K value (0.992 × 105 ), which demonstrated the lower strength of wheat dough [23].
Dough with 1% kansui had the highest K value (2.118 × 105 ), followed by that of the 1.5%
kansui, 2% NaCl, and 0.5% kansui addition. This demonstrated that the addition of kansui
to the dough could enhance gluten strength and noodle texture markedly, especially for
doughs with 1% kansui.

3.1.2. Creep and Recovery Measurements

Figure 1D exhibited the plots of strain as a function of time for dough samples. The
addition of NaCl/kansui decreased the Jmax of the dough significantly (p < 0.05) (Table 1),
suggesting that NaCl/kansui enhanced the deformation resistance and rigidity of the
dough, especially at 1% kansui addition [15]. The η0 showed a similar trend with a
reduction of at least 27.82% and 52.69%, respectively. During the creep phase, η0 indicated
the flowability of dough, which suggested that the addition of NaCl or kansui made
the dough less fluid at the end of the applied load, the dough was less soluble in the
solvent and was more stable to maintain a better-processed shape [24]. With increasing
NaCl, the minimum value of η0 (8.74 × 109 Pa·s) was achieved for doughs containing 2%
NaCl, showing that this dough had a stronger structure and was more conducive to their
subsequent recovery.
In the recovery phase, supplementation of NaCl or kansui induced higher Je /Jmax and
lower Jv /Jmax , which suggested a higher dough recovery rate and the formation of a denser
cross-linked gluten network. The dough containing 1% kansui exhibited the maximum
Je /Jmax (78.27%) and the maximum Jv /Jmax (21.73%), which further confirmed that this
group presented a more desirable network structure and greater stability against dough
film rupture [25].

Table 1. The key parameters of the power law model and creep recovery curve of frozen dough with NaCl or kansui.

Creep Phase Recovery Phase

Samples z0 K × 105 R2 Jmax × 10−4
η0 × 109 (Pa·s) Je /Jmax (%) Jv /Jmax (%)
(1/Pa)
Control 0.261 ± 0.017 a 0.992 ± 0.037 e 0.952 ± 0.049 1.24 ± 0.09 a 15.96 ± 0.92 a 54.75 ± 3.68 d 45.26 ± 3.68 a
N-1 0.246 ± 0.052 a 1.055 ± 0.049 de 0.995 ± 0.002 1.09 ± 0.11 bc 11.52 ± 1.12 b 63.15 ± 2.03 c 36.85 ± 2.03 b
N-2 0.246 ± 0.015 a 1.184 ± 0.062 bc 0.968 ± 0.046 0.97 ± 0.07 cd 8.74 ± 0.77 c 73.57 ± 1.34 b 26.43 ± 1.34 c
N-3 0.257 ± 0.007 a 1.071 ± 0.025 de 0.977 ± 0.001 0.95 ± 0.05 d 9.33 ± 0.63 c 72.72 ± 3.06 b 27.28 ± 3.06 c
K-0.5 0.254 ± 0.003 a 1.114 ± 0.073 cd 0.982 ± 0.010 1.11 ± 0.04 b 7.55 ± 0.25 d 65.95 ± 3.17 c 34.05 ± 3.17 b
K-1 0.244 ± 0.004 a 2.118 ± 0.031 a 0.993 ± 0.004 0.77 ± 0.03 e 6.92 ± 0.35 d 78.27 ± 1.22 a 21.73 ± 1.22 d
K-1.5 0.251 ± 0.006 a 1.254 ± 0.077 b 0.980 ± 0.009 0.93 ± 0.09 d 7.34 ± 0.50 d 74.23 ± 0.72 b 25.77 ± 0.72 c
z0 , the degree of dependence of G0 on frequency sweep. K, the strength of molecular interactions. R2 , the corresponding coefficients
of determination. Jmax , maximum creep compliance. η0 , the zero-shear viscosity. Je /Jmax , the relative elastic part of maximum creep
compliance. Jv /Jmax , the relative viscous part of maximum creep compliance. Different superscripts in the same column indicate significant
difference (p < 0.05).
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K-1,K-1,
K-1,K-1, K-1.5.
(D) The creep-recovery curves. Control, N-1, N-2, N-3, K-0.5, K-1,
(D) The
K-1.5.
K-1.5.K-1.5.
K-1.5.K-1.5.
K-1.5. creep-recovery curves. Control, N-1, N-2, N-3, K-0.5, K-1,
K-1.5.
K-1.5. Table 1. The key pa
3.2. Morphological Characteristics
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table 1.1.1.1.
The1.The
The1.
The
The
Thekey
key
key
key
key keyparameters
parameters
parameters
parameters
parameters
parameters of
ofofofofthe
the of
thethe
the
thepower
power
power
power
power
power law
law
law
law
law lawmodel
model
model
model
model
model and and
and
and
and and creep
creep
creep
creep
creep
creep recovery
recovery
recovery
recovery
recovery
recovery curve
curve
curve
curve
curve
curve of
ofofofoffrozen
of
frozenfrozen
frozen
frozen frozendough
dough
dough
dough
dough
dough with
with
with
with
with withNaCl
NaCl
NaCl
NaCl
NaCl
NaCl or
orororor
or
kansui.
kansui.
kansui.kansui.
kansui.
kansui.
Table 1. The key parameters of the As power lawin
revealed model
Figure and2,creep
many recovery curve observed
voids were of frozen doughfor the with NaCl or
control, kansui.
which might be
related to the sublimation of theCreep Creep
ice Creep
CreepCreep
Creep Phase
crystals Phase
PhasePhase
PhasePhase
forming voids in Recovery Recovery
Recovery
the Recovery
Recovery Recoverynoodles, Phase Phase
Phase
Phase Phase
Phase
Samples
while a looser z’
Creep Phase Recovery Phase
Samples
Samples
Samples
Samples
Samples
Samples z’z’z’z’z’z’ KK K×K K
× K
×
10 ××
10 5×
10
gluten network 10
510
510
55 5
R 2R
R
also2RR
2R22 2
caused J J J JJ
starch
max ×J
max × 10
max
max max 10
max × ×× 10 ×10
−410
−410
−4−4−4−4
granules to fall off, thus creating voids [25,26]. With the
Samples z’ K × 105 R2 Jmax × 10 0ƞ
ƞƞ−4 ƞ0ƞ
0× ƞ
×0×10
×010 0×9×
1010
9109109
(Pa·s) 9
(Pa·s) (Pa·s)
9
(Pa·s)(Pa·s)
(Pa·s) JeJ/J Jemax
eJ/J J/J/J
Je/J
emax /J
(%)
emax
max max(%)
max(%) (%)
(%)
(%) JvJ/J Jvmax
J/J
v Jv/Jmax
Jv/J/J
/J
(%)
vmax
max (%)
max
max(%) (%)
(%)
(%)
addition of NaCl and kansui,(1/Pa) (1/Pa)
(1/Pa) (1/Pa)
(1/Pa)
more (1/Pa) starch granules ƞ0 × 10 were 9 (Pa·s) embedded Je/Jmax well(%)in theControl Jcross-section
v/Jmax (%) 0.261 ± 0.0
and (1/Pa)
Control
Control
Control 0.261
Control
Control
Control 0.261
0.261
0.261
0.261
0.261 ±±0.017
±0.017
±±0.017 ±0.017
0.017
0.017 a 0.992
a a a a a0.992 0.992
0.992
0.992 0.992
±±0.037 ±the
±±0.037±0.037
0.037 egluten
0.037
0.037e e0.9520.952
0.952 network
e e e 0.952
0.952
0.952
±±0.049
±0.049
±±0.049 ±0.049
0.049was
0.049
1.24 1.24
1.24
1.24 more
1.24
1.24
±±0.09±±0.09
±0.09 continuous,
±0.09
0.09
0.09 a a 15.96
a a a a15.96
15.96
15.96 15.96
15.96
±±0.92 suggesting
±±0.92
±0.92
±0.92
0.92
0.92 a a a 54.75
a a a 54.75 54.75
54.75 54.75
54.75±that ±±3.68
±3.68 ±3.68 the
±3.68 d d dstrengthened
3.68
3.68 dd d 45.26
45.26 45.26
45.26
45.26 45.26±±3.68±±3.68
±3.68
N-1 ±3.68a a gluten
3.68
3.68 aaa a
0.246 ± 0.0
Control 0.261 ± a0.017 a 0.992
network ± 0.037
could
e 0.952 ± 0.049 1.24 ± 0.09 a
capture the starch firmly. As 15.96
NaCl ±b levels
0.92 a 54.75 ± 3.68 d 45.26 ± 3.68 a
increased from 1% to
N-1
N-1 N-1
N-1N-1
N-1 0.246 0.246
0.246
0.246
0.246
0.246 ±±0.052
±0.052
±±0.052 ±0.052
0.052
0.0521.055
a a a a a 1.055
1.055
1.055
1.055 1.055
± ± ±±0.049
±0.049
0.049 ±0.049
0.049
0.0490.995
dededededede 0.995
0.995
0.995
0.995
0.995 ±±±±0.002
±0.002
0.002 ±0.002
0.002
0.002
1.09 1.09
1.09
1.09 1.09
1.09
± ± ±±0.11
0.11 ±0.11
±0.11
0.11
0.1111.52
bcbcbcbcbcbc 11.52
11.52
11.52 11.52
11.52
± ± ±±1.12
1.12 ±1.12
±1.12
1.12
1.1263.15
b b b b b 63.15
63.15
63.15 63.15
63.15 ± ± ±±2.03
2.03 ±2.03 ±2.03
2.03
2.0336.85
c c c c c c 36.85
36.85
36.85
36.85 36.85± ± ±±2.03
2.03 ±2.03
N-2 2.03bb b the
±2.03b2%,
2.03b b
0.246 ± 0.0
N-1 0.246 ± a0.052 a 1.055 ±network
gluten 0.049 de 0.995 ± 0.002 1.09 ± 0.11 bc
changed from 11.52 ± 1.12 b 63.15to ±b b2.03 c 36.85 ±c cfibrous 2.03 b
N-2
N-2 N-2
N-2N-2
N-2 0.246 0.246
0.246
0.246
0.246
0.246 ±±0.015
±0.015
±±0.015 ±0.015
0.015
0.015 a 1.184
a a a a1.184 1.184
1.184
1.184 1.184
± ± ±±0.062
±0.062
0.062 ±0.062
0.062
0.062
bcbcbcbcbcbc0.968
0.968 0.968
0.968
0.968
0.968 ±±±±0.046
±0.046
0.046 ±0.046
0.046
0.046
0.97 0.97
0.97
0.97 0.97
0.97
± ± ±less-connected
±0.07
0.07 ±0.07
±0.070.07
0.07
cdcdcdcdcdcd
8.74 8.74
8.74
8.74 8.74
8.74
± ± protein
±±0.77
0.77 ±0.77
±0.77
0.77
0.77 c cparticles
c c c c73.57 73.57
73.57
73.57 73.57
73.57± ± ±±1.34
1.34 ±1.34±1.34
1.34
1.34 an b belongated
bb26.43 26.43
26.4326.43
26.43 26.43 ± ± ±±1.34
1.34 ±
N-3 ±
1.341.34
1.34
1.34 ccc c
0.257 ± 0.0
N-2 0.246 ± a0.015 a 1.184 ± network
protein 0.062 bc 0.968 ± 0.046 0.97 ± 0.07 cd
with stronger adhesion dof9.33starch8.74 granules. ±c c0.77 c 73.57
When ±b NaCl
1.34 b
was 26.43 added ±c c1.34 c
c c cover
N-3
N-3 N-3
N-3N-3
N-3 0.257 0.257
0.257
0.257
0.257
0.257 ±±0.007
±0.007
±±0.007 ±0.007
0.007
0.007 a a 1.071
a a a 1.071 1.071
1.071
1.071 1.071
± ± ±±0.025
±0.025
0.025 ±0.025
0.025
0.025
dededededede0.977
0.977 0.977
0.977
0.977
0.977 ±±±±0.001
±0.001
0.001 ±0.001
0.001
0.001
0.95 0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95 0.95
± ± ±±0.05
0.05 ±0.05
±0.05
0.05
0.05
d d ddd9.33 9.33
9.33 9.33
9.33
± ± ±±0.63
0.63 ±0.63
±0.63
0.63
0.63 c c 72.72
c c72.72 72.72
72.72 72.72
72.72± ± ±±3.06
3.06 ±3.06±3.06
3.06
3.06 b b 27.28
b bb27.28 27.28
27.28
27.28 27.28 ± ± ±3.06
3.06 ±3.06
±K-0.5 ±3.06
3.06
3.06 c
0.254 ± 0.0
N-3 0.257 ± a0.007 a 2%, 1.071 a few ± cd0.025
loosely de 0.977
rounded ± 0.001starch0.95 granules ±b b0.05 b surrounded
d 9.33 ±d d0.63 by d a
c less 72.72 dense ±c c3.06
proteinb 27.28
network ±b b3.06 wasc
K-0.5
K-0.5
K-0.5
K-0.5
K-0.5 K-0.5 0.254 0.254
0.254
0.254
0.254
0.254 ±±0.003
±0.003
±±0.003 ±0.003
0.003
0.003 a 1.114
a a a a1.114 1.114
1.114
1.114 1.114
± ± ±±0.073
±0.073
0.073 ±0.073
0.073
0.073 cdcdcdcdcd0.982
0.982 0.982
0.982
0.982
0.982 ±±±±0.010
±0.010
0.010 ±0.010
0.010
0.010
1.11 1.11
1.11
1.11
1.11 1.11
± ± ±±0.04
0.04 ±0.04
±0.04
0.04
0.04 bbb7.55 7.55
7.55
7.55 7.55
7.55
±± ±±0.25
0.25 ±0.25
±0.25
0.25
0.25 ddd 65.95 65.95
65.95
65.95 65.95
65.95 ± ± ±±3.17
3.17 ±3.17 ±3.17
3.17
3.17 c c c 34.05
c 34.05 34.05
34.05
34.05 34.05± ± ±±3.17
3.17 ±3.17
K-1 ±3.17
3.17
3.17 bbb b
0.244 ± 0.0
K-0.5 0.254 ± a0.003 a observed.
1.114 ± 0.073 This cdmight
0.982 be explained
± 0.010 1.11 by thee bfact 7.55
±e e0.04 that ±datd0.25 low d levels 65.95 (<2%), ±a a3.17 NaCl
c 34.05shielded ±d d3.17 the
b
K-1
K-1 K-1
K-1K-1
K-1 0.244 0.244
0.244
0.244
0.244
0.244 ±±0.004
±0.004
±±0.004 ±0.004
0.004
0.004 a 2.118
a a a a2.118 2.118
2.118
2.118 2.118
± ± ±±0.031
±0.031
0.031 ±0.031
0.031
0.031 a a a 0.993
a a a0.993 0.993
0.993
0.993
0.993 ±±±±0.004
±0.004
0.004 ±0.004
0.004
0.0040.77 0.77
0.77
0.77
0.77 0.77
± ± ±±0.03
0.03 ±0.03±0.03
0.03
0.03 e e e6.92 6.92
6.92
6.92 6.92
6.92
±± ±±0.35
0.35 ±0.35
±0.35
0.35
0.35 dd78.27d d 78.27
78.27
78.27 78.27
78.27± ± ±±1.22
1.22 ±1.22 ±1.22
1.22
1.22 a a a 21.73
a 21.73
21.73 21.73
21.73 21.73± ± ±1.22
1.22 ±1.22
±K-1.5 ±1.22
1.22
1.22 ddd d
0.251 ± 0.0
K-1 0.244 ± a0.004 a charges2.118 ±of 0.031the gluten
a 0.993protein,
± 0.004 which 0.77 ±dpromoted 0.03 e the slow
6.92 ±d d0.35 hydration
d 78.27 ±of the
1.22 aflour 21.73 and± created 1.22 d
K-1.5
K-1.5
K-1.5
K-1.5
K-1.5 K-1.5 0.251 0.251
0.251
0.251
0.251
0.251 ±±0.006
±0.006
±±0.006 ±0.006
0.006
0.006 a 1.254
a a a a1.254 1.254
1.254
1.254 1.254
± ± ±±0.077
±0.077
0.077 ±0.077
0.077
0.077 bb b0.980
b b b0.980 0.980
0.980
0.980
0.980 ±±± ±0.009
±0.009
0.009 ±0.009
0.009
0.009
0.93 0.93
0.93
0.93
0.93 0.93
± ± ±
0.09±0.09
±0.09
±0.09
0.09
0.09 d 7.34
d ddd7.34 7.34
7.34 7.34
7.34
±± ±±0.50
0.50 ±0.50
±0.50
0.50
0.50 dd74.23d d 74.23
74.23
74.23 74.23
74.23± ± ± ±0.72
0.72 ±0.72±0.72
0.72
0.72 b b 25.77
b b bb25.77 25.77
25.77
25.77 25.77 ± ± ± ±0.72
0.72 ±0.72
z′, ±0.72
0.72
0.72
c c ccc c
the degree of depe
K-1.5 0.251 ± 0.006 aofofof a 1.254
more±orderly 0.077 b sweep. network.
0.980 ±K, Nevertheless,
0.009 0.93 ±of0.09 at dhigh7.34 levels of NaCl
±interactions.
0.50 d 74.23 (>2%), excessive
± corresponding
0.72 b 25.77shielding ± 0.72 c
z′,
z′,
z′,
the
the
thedegree
degree
degree of
ofof
dependence
dependence
dependence G′
G′ G′ononon frequency
frequency
frequency sweep.
sweep. K,
K,
the
the
the strength
strength
strength ofofmolecular
molecular
molecular interactions.
interactions. 2R 2R2R ,2the
,2the ,the
the corresponding
corresponding
z′, the degree ofofof dependence ofofof G′ on frequency sweep. K, the strength of molecular interactions. that is detrimental determ
coefficients of
z′,z′,
the
the degree
degree dependence
dependence G′G′ on on frequency
frequency sweep.
sweep. K, K,the
the strength
strength of of molecular
molecular interactions.
interactions. R R 2R , , ,
the
the corresponding
corresponding
corresponding
z′, theofof
degree of dependence and repulsion occurred, with thestrength NaCl preferring to bind to water,R2a, the factcorresponding
coefficients
coefficients
coefficients
coefficients
coefficients
coefficients of
ofofdetermination.
of
determination.
determination.
determination.
determination.
determination. J,max
Jmax
Jmax
Jmax ,of
J,maximum
J,max G′
,maximum
,maximum
maximum
maximum
maximum
max
on frequency
creep creep
creep
creep
creep creep sweep.
compliance.
compliance.
compliance.
compliance.
compliance.
compliance. K,
ηη0,η0the
η 0η0η
,0the
,the
,the ,0the
,zero-shear
the
the zero-shear
zero-shear
zero-shear
zero-shear of viscosity.
zero-shear molecular
viscosity.
viscosity.
viscosity.
viscosity.
viscosity. Jeinteractions.
J/JeJ/JJ/J
eJmax
emax/J
eJmax
/J /J,the
e,max
max ,the
,max
the ,the ,relative
the
the relative
relative relative
relative relative elastic
elastic
elastic
elastic
elastic
elastic part part
part
part part
ofpart maximum creep co
of
ofofof coefficients of determination.toJmax
ofmaximum
of
maximum
maximum
maximummaximum
maximum creep
creep
creep
creep
creep
creep compliance.
compliance.
compliance.
compliance.
compliance.
compliance. Jmax
vJ/J
JvJ/Jv Jmax
/J
v /J
vJmax
/J/J,max
v,max
the
,the
,max
thethe,the
,relative
the
the
hydrationcreep
, maximum
relative
relative
relative
relative
relative viscous
viscous
viscous
viscous
viscous
viscous
of gluten
part
part
part
part
part
part of
ofof
of ofmaximum
of
maximum
maximum
maximum
maximum
maximum
proteins
compliance.
creep
creep
creep
creep
creep
creep compliance.η0, the
compliance.
compliance.
compliance.
compliance.
compliance. Different
Different
[8,13].
Different
Different
Different
Different zero-shear viscosity. Je/Jmax, the relative elastic part
superscripts
superscripts
superscripts
superscripts
superscripts
superscripts in
inininininsame column indi
the
the the
the
the the
theof
same
same
same maximum
same
same
samecolumn
column
column
column
column
column creep
indicate
indicate
indicate
indicate compliance.
indicate
indicate
significant
significant
significant
significant
significant
significant Jdifference
v/Jmax, the relative viscous part of maximum creep compliance. Different superscripts in
difference
difference
difference difference
difference <(p
(p(p(p<(p
<(p
<<0.05).
0.05).0.05).
<0.05).
0.05).
0.05).
the same column indicate significant difference (p < 0.05).
3.2.
3.2.
3.2.
3.2.
3.2. 3.2.
Morphological
Morphological
Morphological
Morphological
Morphological
Morphological Characteristics
Characteristics
Characteristics
Characteristics
Characteristics
Characteristics
3.2. Morphological Characteristics
As As
As
As AsAs revealed
revealed
revealed
revealed
revealed
revealed in
inininin
inFigure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure 2,many
2,2,2, 2,many
2,many
many many
many voids
voids
voids
voids
voids
voids were
were
were
were
were were observed
observed
observed
observed
observed
observed for
for
for
for for
for
the the
the
the the
the control,
control,
control,
control,
control,
control, which
which
which
which
which
which might
might
might
might
might might
bebebe
bebe
be
related
related
related As
to
to
to revealed
the
the
thesublimation in Figure
sublimation
sublimation of
ofof 2,
the
the
themany
ice
ice
ice voidsforming
crystals
crystals
crystals were
forming
forming observed
voids
voids
voids in for
in
inthe
thethe
the control,while
noodles,
noodles,
noodles, which
while
while might
looserbe
related
related
related tototo
thethe
the sublimation
sublimation
sublimation ofofof
thethe
the iceice
ice crystals
crystals
crystals forming
forming
forming voids
voids
voids ininin
the the
the noodles,
noodles,
noodles, while
while
while aalooser
alooser
aalooseralooser
looser
related
gluten
gluten
gluten to thealso
network
network
network sublimation
also
alsocaused
caused
caused of the
starch
starch
starch ice crystals
granules
granules
granules to
toto
fallforming
fall
falloff,
off,
off,
thusvoids
thus
thus creatingin the
creating
creating noodles,
voids
voids
voids[25,26].
[25,26].
[25,26].while
With
With
With a the
looser
the
the
gluten
gluten
gluten network
network
network also
also
also caused
caused
caused starch
starch
starch granules
granules
granules tototo fall
fall
fall off,
off,
off, thus
thus
thus creating
creating
creating voids
voids
voids [25,26].
[25,26].
[25,26]. WithWith
With thethe
the
gluten
addition
addition
addition network
of
ofofNaCl
NaCl
NaCl also
and
and
and caused
kansui,
kansui,
kansui, starch
more
more
more granules
starch
starch
starch to
granulesfall
granules
granules off, thus
were
were
were creating
embedded
embedded
embedded voids
well
well
well [25,26].
inininthe
the
the With
cross-
cross- the
cross-
addition
addition
addition ofofof NaCl
NaCl
NaCl andand
and kansui,
kansui,
kansui, more
more
more starch
starch
starch granules
granules
granules were
were
were embedded
embedded
embedded well
well
well inininthe the
the cross-
cross-
cross-
addition
section
section
section and
and
and of
the
the
theNaCl
gluten
gluten
glutenand kansui,
network
network
network more
was
was
was morestarch
more
more granules
continuous,
continuous,
continuous, were
suggesting
suggesting
suggestingembedded
that
that
that
the
thewell
the in
strengthened the
strengthened
strengthened cross-
section
section
section and and
and thethe
the gluten
gluten
gluten network
network
network waswas
was more
more
more continuous,
continuous,
continuous, suggesting
suggesting
suggesting that
that
that the
the
the strengthened
strengthened
strengthened
section and the gluten network was more continuous, suggesting that the strengthened
 protein network with stronger adhesion of starch granules. When NaCl was added over
2%, a few loosely rounded starch granules surrounded by a less dense protein network
was observed. This might be explained by the fact that at low levels (<2%), NaCl shielded
the charges of the gluten protein, which promoted the slow hydration of the flour and
Foods 2021, 10, 3132 created a more orderly network. Nevertheless, at high levels of NaCl (>2%), excessive7 of 15
shielding and repulsion occurred, with the NaCl preferring to bind to water, a fact that is
detrimental to the hydration of gluten proteins [8,13].

Figure 2. Microscopic morphology of lyophilized frozen cooked noodles.

Similar phenomena
phenomenawere observed
were in kansui
observed treatment
in kansui group, with
treatment kansui
group, increasing,
with kansui
the number of pores decreased and induced denser membrane-like gluten
increasing, the number of pores decreased and induced denser membrane-like gluten protein struc-
tures. Especially
protein with
structures. 1% kansui
Especially withlevel, the starch
1% kansui granules
level, were
the starch embedded
granules werebetter in the
embedded
continuous
better in theprotein network
continuous thannetwork
protein other samples. However,
than other excessive
samples. kansui
However, resultedkansui
excessive in de-
formed membrane-like
resulted in deformed gluten network structures
membrane-like with surface
gluten network swollen
structures starch
with granules
surface that
swollen
were not properly embedded in the protein network and could leach into the
starch granules that were not properly embedded in the protein network and could leach water during
cooking,
into deteriorating
the water the cooking
during cooking, quality ofthe
deteriorating FCNs. Meanwhile,
cooking quality ofthe porous
FCNs. structurethe
Meanwhile, of
the unembedded starch granules might also produce more solids loss when
porous structure of the unembedded starch granules might also produce more solids lossthe kansui was
insufficient
when [4]. was insufficient [4].
the kansui
3.3. Freezable Water Content
3.3. Freezable Water Content
As illustrated in Figure 3A–C, both NaCl or kansui led to a significant decrease of
As illustrated in Figure 3A–C, both NaCl or kansui led to a significant decrease of
∆H and FW content of FCNs (p < 0.05). This indicated that the ice crystallization ability
ΔH and FW content of FCNs (p < 0.05). This indicated that the ice crystallization ability
and the number of ice crystals in FCNs decreased and the addition of NaCl/kansui could
and the number of ice crystals in FCNs decreased and the addition of NaCl/kansui could
effectively inhibit the progressive liberation of water from the gluten network and ice
effectively inhibit the progressive liberation of water from the gluten network and ice
recrystallization in the dough. These results might be related to the existence of non-
recrystallization in the dough. These results might be related to the existence of non-
covalent interactions between ionic compounds and water, which improved hydration
covalent
capacity ofinteractions
the doughbetween ionic compounds
[27]. Furthermore, and water,
the appropriate which improved
concentration hydration
of NaCl/kansui
capacity of the
could reduce thedough
water[27]. Furthermore,
migration of frozenthe appropriate
dough concentration
by inducing of NaCl/kansui
a denser gluten structure,
could reduce the water migration of frozen dough by inducing a denser
thus reducing the number and volume of crystals. The minimum values of ∆H gluten structure,
(131.77)
thus
and FWreducing thewere
(57.53%) number and volume
achieved at the 1%ofkansui
crystals. Theindicating
level, minimumgreatly
valuesenhanced
of ΔH (131.77)
water
holding capacity of alkaline noodles. The probable reason was that NaCl prompted a
slight depolymerization of proteins during cooking, while kansui contributed to protein
aggregation [11,28], thereby forming a higher spatial barrier. This might also be related to
the kansui contributing to an increase of the hydrophilic phase viscosity, resulting in less
movement of water molecules that could form ice crystals [29].
 and FW (57.53%) were achieved at the 1% kansui level, indicating greatly enhanced water
holding capacity of alkaline noodles. The probable reason was that NaCl prompted a
slight depolymerization of proteins during cooking, while kansui contributed to protein
aggregation [11,28], thereby forming a higher spatial barrier. This might also be related to
Foods 2021, 10, 3132 the kansui contributing to an increase of the hydrophilic phase viscosity, resulting in8 of
less
15
movement of water molecules that could form ice crystals [29].

(A) (B) (C)

Control N-2 K-1 160 a
10 b
80 a
Heating process cd bc bc b
e de
c
d d
120
Heat flow (mW)

60 e e
5

ΔH (J/g)

FW (%)
80 40
0

40 20
-5
Cooling process

0 0
-40 -20 0 20 40 Control N-1 N-2 N-3 K-0.5 K-1 K-1.5 Control N-1 N-2 N-3 K-0.5 K-1 K-1.5
(D) Temperature (℃) (E) (F)
400 52
a T21 T22 T23 A21
Type I Type Ⅱ Type Ⅲ a K-1.5 6.77 3.15 90.08
Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen Other signals A22
0.6
protons protons protons b 4 A23
K-1 6.89 3.87 89.25
300 c 39
Amplitude (a.u)

T21 (ms)

T22 (ms)

T23 (ms)
K-0.5 5.79 2.83 91.39
a a a
15 ab
200 b b b 26 N-3 5.26 2.54 92.21
a a d
10 0.3 a a d d 2
5 b b N-2 5.43 2.66 91.92
b
100 13
0.0 1.5 3.0 Control N-1 4.62 2.51 92.88
N-2
K-1
Control 4.54 2.48 92.99
0 0.0 0 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 Control N-1 N-2 N-3 K-0.5 K-1 K-1.5 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 98 100
Relaxation time (ms) Population (%)

Figure 3. Water distribution of the frozen cooked noodles. (A) Freezing and melting curves. The (B) melting enthalpy (∆H)
Figure
and (C)3.freezable
Water distribution of the
water content frozen
(FW) cooked
of frozen noodles.
cooked (A) Freezing
noodles. (D) Theand melting
typical curves. The
T2 relaxation (B) distribution
time melting enthalpy
curve.(ΔH)
The
and (C) freezable water content (FW) of frozen cooked noodles. (D) The typical T2 relaxation time distribution curve. The
(E) relaxation times and (F) peak area proportions of frozen cooked noodles. Different letters in the same bar chart represent
(E) relaxation times and (F) peak area proportions of frozen cooked noodles. Different letters in the same bar chart
significant differences (p < 0.05).
represent significant differences (p < 0.05).
3.4. Water Distribution and Migration
3.4. Water Distribution and Migration
3.4.1. Water Distribution
3.4.1. Water Distribution
The T2 spectra as shown in Figure 3D was inverted from the attenuation curve ob-
tained spectra as
ThebyT2LF-NMR shown in Three
technology. Figure1 H3DTwas inverted from the attenuation curve
2 populations were observed and named
obtained by LF-NMR technology. Three 1H T2 populations were observed and named
starting from the shorter to the longer relaxation time T21 (0.1–1 ms), T22 (1–10 ms), and
starting fromms),
T23 (10–100 the and
shorter
theirto proportions
the longer relaxation
were named timeA T2121 ,(0.1–1 ms),AT2322, (1–10
A22 , and ms), andThe
respectively. T23
(10–100
relativelyms),
short and
T21their proportions
represented the tightwere named
binding of A 21, A22water
bound , and toAnon-aqueous
23, respectively. The
compo-
relatively
nents, suchshort T21 represented
as a gluten the tight
matrix consisting mainly binding
of proteinof bound water
and starch. Theto T22non-aqueous
composition
components, such as a gluten matrix consisting mainly
denoted semi-bound water. In this state, the combination of water molecules of protein and starch.
withThe T22
gluten
composition denoted semi-bound water. In this state, the combination
and starch was relatively loose, filling mainly the space of the parallel sheet in gluten. The of water molecules
with gluten andlong
comparatively starch
T23 was
was relatively
designatedloose,as freefilling
water, mainly
whichthe wasspace
mainlyof the parallel in
distributed sheet
the
in gluten.
gluten The comparatively
network voids and waslong T23 was
the most designated
mobile [30]. as free water, which was mainly
distributed in the gluten
The addition network voids
of NaCl/kansui andthe
reduced wasT23 thevalues
most of mobile
FCNs[30].
significantly (p < 0.05),
The addition
indicating that theof NaCl/kansui
interaction reduced
between watertheandT23non-aqueous
values of FCNs significantly
components was (p < 0.05),
enhanced
indicating that the was
and the compatibility interaction
improved. between water the
Interestingly, and
peak non-aqueous
apexes of thecomponents was
three populations
enhanced
were shiftedandtothe thecompatibility
left distinctlywas improved.
by adding Interestingly,
kansui, with T21 and the peak
T22 alsoapexes of the three
decreased from
populations
0.28 ms and were2.77 ms shifted
to 0.21toms theand
left2.11
distinctly by addingindicating
ms, respectively, kansui, withthat Tkansui
21 and not
T22 only
also
induced greater
decreased from 0.28binding
ms and effects
2.77between
ms to 0.21aqueous
ms and and non-aqueous
2.11 components,
ms, respectively, but that
indicating also
encouraged
kansui the dough
not only induced to exhibit
greater stronger spatial
binding hindrance
effects between to delay deeply
aqueous andabsorbed water
non-aqueous
desorbing (asbut
components, shown in Figure 3E,F).
also encouraged These to
the dough findings
exhibit were
strongerfurther confirmed
spatial hindrance bytothe A21
delay
(4.54–6.77%) and
deeply absorbed water A 22 (2.48–3.15%) increased significantly and the A (92.99–90.08%)
desorbing (as shown in Figure 3E,F). These23findings were further of the
alkaline noodles decreased correspondingly (p < 0.05).
With increasing levels of kansui, the relaxation time showed insignificant changes,
while the FCNs containing 1% kansui achieved maximum values of A21 (6.89%) and A22
(3.87%) as well as the minimum values of A23 (89.25%). The sharp drop in free water
content of alkaline noodles meant that kansui could reduce the loss of bound water in the
dough system more effectively. This might be related to the proper levels of kansui could
induce protein polymerization through disulfide bonds or hydrophobic interactions, and
form a more compact network structure [9]. Moreover, the appropriate levels of kansui
Foods 2021, 10, 3132 9 of 15

helped to maintain the stability of starch granules, which prevented them from being
exposed to hydrophobic groups due to damage, thereby contributing to the high hydration
capacity of starch during freezing [12].
With increasing NaCl, the minimum values of T23 (36.12 ms) and A23 (91.92%) related
to free water were both obtained at 2% NaCl level. Na+ ions could prevent starch retrogra-
dation during aging, making starches less likely to build up and loosen, and prompting
faster water migration through noodles. However, due to the formation of the protein
network, the fewer pores on the surface of FCNs with NaCl, which decreased the channels
for water to penetrate into the noodle [8]. Therefore, 2% NaCl induced the formation
of a denser gluten network, and the effect of protein network formation on the water
migration speed was much greater than the effect of reduced starch lumps size. Overall,
water migration could be limited by the addition of appropriate levels of NaCl/kansui,
which was consistent with the DSC results.

3.4.2. Water Migration

As illustrated in Figure 4, the addition of NaCl and kansui could induce lower water
mobility and excellent water retention in FCNs. As NaCl and kansui were increasing,
the red areas occupied most of the cross section gradually and the green areas were
distributed evenly, indicating that the addition of NaCl and kansui had an inhibitory effect
on water migration and dehydration. Especially for the 2% NaCl and 1% kansui groups,
a well-integrated circle of high hydration might be noticed on the outside and the water
penetrated gradually from the surface to the interior of the cooked noodles. This suggested
that suitable additions of NaCl and kansui could promote the formation of a coherent
gluten network [31]. The red area of Figure 4 (K-1) appeared to be higher than that of (N-2),
showing that 1% kansui provided the dough with the best water retention performance.
Furthermore, alkaline noodles exhibited a large difference in water content between the
Foods 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16
surface and the center, with a higher moisture gradient, which could contribute to a firm
texture of FCNs.

Figure4.4.MRI
Figure MRIimages
imagesof
ofthe
thefrozen
frozencooked
cookednoodles.
noodles.

3.5. Gluten Secondary Structure

As described in Figure 5A, both NaCl and kansui added to the dough caused a
significant increase in β-sheets and β-turns, while α-helixes and random coils decreased
Foods 2021, 10, 3132 10 of 15

3.5. Gluten Secondary Structure

As described in Figure 5A, both NaCl and kansui added to the dough caused a
significant increase in β-sheets and β-turns, while α-helixes and random coils decreased
significantly (p < 0.05). Generally, β-sheet is recognized as the most stable secondary
structure among all of them, which itself increased molecular rigidity and frozen dough
strength [28]. As for β-turns, Bock and Damodaran (2013) reported that β-turns were the
preferred structure of gluten in the fully hydrated state [32]. Furthermore, consecutive
β-turns could form β-spirals domains with short α-helixes on the flank, and the β-spirals
structures contributed to the viscoelasticity of dough [33], which was in line with the
rheological results (Section 3.3). Lower contents of α-helixes, indicating a change in the
Foods 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW order of hydrogen bond and a redistribution of water in frozen doughs. The random coil
11 of 16
was typically regarded as a disordered secondary structure, and its reduction suggested that
the addition of NaCl/kansui contributed to the orderliness of protein secondary structure.

(A) (B)
50
Control N-1 N-2 N-3 Ordered
K-0.5 K-1 K-1.5 K-1.5 61.20±0.30d 38.81±0.30b
Relative proportion (%)

Unordered
40
K-1 65.98±0.30a 34.03±0.30e
aa aa
bc c aa a b K-0.5 61.23±0.32d 38.78±0.32bc
30 c c bb a b c
d d
e N-3 62.03±0.08c 37.97±0.08c
20 a
N-2 63.11±0.40b 36.89±0.61d
b
c c
10 dd d N-1 61.63±0.30cd 38.37±0.30bc

Control 57.92±0.11e 42.08±0.04a

0
α-helix β-sheet β-turn Random coil 0 20 40 60 80 100
(C) (D) Secondary structure (%)
10
Free sulfhydryl content (%)

9 a SH SH Oxidation S S
＋
8 b Protein1 CH2 CH2 Protein2 Protein1 CH2 CH2 Protein2
b
7 c c
c Protein1 CH2
6 d S
5 SH H2C S S CH2 SH-SS interchange S
＋ H2C SH
Protein1 CH2 Protein2 CH CH2
4
Protein2 CH CH2 CH2
3
2 SH
1 H2C S S CH2 β-Elimination H2C CH2 ＋ S0
0 Protein1 CH CH Protein2 Protein1 C CH Protein2
Control N-1 N-2 N-3 K-0.5 K-1 K-1.5

Figure 5. Structural properties of gluten protein. (A) Relative proportion of secondary structure. (B) Breakdown of ordered
and unordered
Figure structures
5. Structural in gluten
properties protein.
of gluten (C) The
protein. (A)free sulfhydryl
Relative contentofofsecondary
proportion frozen dough. (D) Overview
structure. of some
(B) Breakdown ofcommon
ordered
and unordered structures in gluten protein. (C) The free sulfhydryl content of frozen dough. (D) Overview bar
reactions in or between amino acid chains which are enhanced by alkaline conditions. Different letters in the same chart
of some
represent significant differences (p < 0.05).
common reactions in or between amino acid chains which are enhanced by alkaline conditions. Different letters in the
same bar chart represent significant differences (p < 0.05).
Figure 5B displayed the changes in the ordered and unordered portions of the pro-
tein. Figure
The ordered structure
5B displayed consisted
the changesofinthe orderedand
theβ-sheets andα-helixes
unorderedportions of protein,
portions of the
while the unordered structure involved β-turns and random coils [34]. The
protein. The ordered structure consisted of the β-sheets and α-helixes portions of protein,control had
57.92% ordered structure and 42.08% unordered structure. The addition
while the unordered structure involved β-turns and random coils [34]. The control had of 1% kansui
increased
57.92% the ordered
ordered structure
structure and of doughs
42.08% by 12.22%,
unordered with a corresponding
structure. The additiondecrease in the
of 1% kansui
unordered structure by 19.13%. This could mainly be attributed to their
increased the ordered structure of doughs by 12.22%, with a corresponding decrease in higher content
of α-helixes
the unordered (33.73%) and
structure 19.13%. (32.25%)
byβ-sheets This couldconformation, which contributed
mainly be attributed to inducing
to their higher content
stronger intramolecular hydrogen bonds and leading to a more compact and
of α-helixes (33.73%) and β-sheets (32.25%) conformation, which contributed to inducing stable dough
structure [14]. Based on the stable and tough nature of the α-helix structure,
stronger intramolecular hydrogen bonds and leading to a more compact and stable dough its increased
content also
structure [14].played
Basedan onimportant
the stable role in improving
and tough thethe
nature of hardness
α-helix of dough [35].
structure, Further-
its increased
more, according to Belton et al. (1995), β-sheets depended on the hydration of glutenin [36].
content also played an important role in improving the hardness of dough [35].
The higher β-sheets further confirmed the contribution of kansui to the water retention
Furthermore, according to Belton et al. (1995), β-sheets depended on the hydration of
capacity of gluten in FCNs. These results might suggest that appropriate levels of kansui
glutenin [36]. The higher β-sheets further confirmed the contribution of kansui to the
water retention capacity of gluten in FCNs. These results might suggest that appropriate
levels of kansui induced greater unfolding and aggregation of polypeptides than NaCl,
leading to more order and dense gluten protein network.

3.6. Changes of Free Sulfhydryl (-SH) Contents

Foods 2021, 10, 3132 11 of 15

induced greater unfolding and aggregation of polypeptides than NaCl, leading to more
order and dense gluten protein network.

3.6. Changes of Free Sulfhydryl (-SH) Contents

From Figure 5C, disulfide bonds are essential for maintaining the gluten proteins
structure during freezing, and their integrity is reflected in the content of free -SH. The
addition of NaCl or kansui reduced the -SH content of doughs significantly (p < 0.05)
compared with the control. With increasing NaCl, the minimum free sulfhydryl content
(6.19 µmol/g) of FCNs was reached at the level of 2% NaCl. At 1% and 3% concentrations
of NaCl, the interactions between the gluten proteins are too weak or strong to aggregate
in a rigid form, making the reorientation of the sulfhydryl group contacts difficult and
the dough had a higher content of -SH. However, 2% NaCl caused local fluctuations in
the relative orientation of the glutenins, contributing to the sulfhydryl groups contacts
and providing for their subsequent cross-linking, which was fundamental to the glutenin
network formation [8]. Overall, the -SH content of the frozen dough showed a wavy trend,
with a minimum value (5.53 µmol/g) achieved at the 1% kansui level. Theoretically, the
free -SH underwent two chemical changes in wheat gluten with kansui increasing (Figure
5D), (i) oxidation of the free -SH and SH-SS interchange reactions consume part of the free
-SH groups and produce SS cross-linking, and (ii) the β-elimination reaction, which is more
likely to occur under high alkali conditions, causes a significant increase in -SH content,
which fitted well with our results [5,12].

3.7. Quality Characteristics

3.7.1. Cooking Properties
As summarized in Table 2, the WS and CL of noodles varied from 132.95% to 135.28%
and 4.77% to 4.89% with increasing NaCl, respectively, which were slightly higher than
those of the control (130.73% and 4.49%), but these variations were not significant (p > 0.05).
However, kansui increased the WS and CL of recooked FCNs significantly, and with kansui
increasing, the WS (146.35–155.87%) and CL (5.92–7.88%) increased significantly (p < 0.05).
The higher WS induced by kansui was related to their stronger penetration effect, which
might lead to a faster water absorption capacity of doughs during mixing and sheeting,
thereby developing a stronger gluten network [8]. Moreover, the CL of noodles with 1.5%
kansui approached twice that of the control. This may be because kansui promoted faster
heat transfer by raising the boiling point of the cooking water, resulting in more soluble
substances (such as some α- and γ-gliadins) dissolving into the cooking water and thus
increasing the solids loss [28].

3.7.2. Texture Properties

The NaCl and kansui played different roles in alleviating the decline in hardness and
tensile properties of FCNs (Table 2), NaCl resulted in superior dough extensibility, such as
tensile strength and breaking distance increased by at least 20.62% and 27.49%, respectively,
while kansui increased noodle hardness (52.74–64.00 N) and chewiness (183.35–282.48)
more significantly. The maximum values of tensile strength (90.35 g) and breaking distance
(61.94 mm) were reached at 2% NaCl addition, while higher levels resulted in a signifi-
cant decrease in the tensile properties of the FCNs (p < 0.05). This might be due to the
appropriate levels (2%) of NaCl could shield the charges on the proteins and contribute to
the elongation of the gluten network [20]. However, the lower tensile capacity of FCNs at
higher concentrations of NaCl might be related to the excessive water intake of noodles
during the steaming process, yielding noodles with softened and less recoverable texture
as more starch granules are swelled.
With increasing kansui levels, the noodle hardness and chewiness, which were related
to gluten strength, showed a concentration-dependent upward trend, while no significant
differences were observed after the 1% kansui level (p > 0.05). Kansui could form a tighter
and more rigid network structure by promoting protein cross-linking, which might limit
 Foods 2021, 10, 3132 12 of 15

the collapse of starch molecules and increase the dough strength [5]. Notably, the tensile
strength (78.79–72.56 g) and breaking distance (52.32–48.56 mm) of the FCNs decreased
significantly (p < 0.05) as the kansui levels increased from 1% to 1.5%, which could be
Foods
Foods
Foods 2021,
Foods2021,
2021, 10,
10,xxxxFOR
2021,10,
10, FOR
FOR PEER
FORPEER
PEER REVIEW
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW explained as the gluten network in alkaline noodles was already too strong or too 13
REVIEW 13 of
13of
13 16
of16
of
firm 16
16
to
Foods 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16
maintain sufficient springiness to cushion the expansion of the starch granules produced
during cooking before the starch granules were fully pasted, resulting in a less tensile
Table
Table
Table capacity
2.
Table2.
2. Quality
2.Quality
Quality of FCNs [28].of
characteristics
Qualitycharacteristics
characteristics
characteristics of
of frozen
offrozen cooked
frozencooked
frozen noodles
cookednoodles
cooked with
noodleswith
noodles NaCl
withNaCl
with or
NaClor
NaCl kansui.
orkansui.
or kansui.
kansui.
Table 2. Quality characteristics of frozen cooked noodles with NaCl or kansui.
Cooking
Cooking Properties
CookingProperties
Properties
Table 2. Quality characteristics of frozen cooked Textural Textural
Textural
noodles Properties
Properties
Properties
with NaCl or kansui.
Samples
Samples Cooking Properties
Samples Textural Properties
Samples WS
WS (%)
WS (%)(%) CL
CL
CL (%)(%)
(%) HardnessHardness
Hardness (N) (N) Chewiness
(N) Chewiness
Chewiness Tensile Tensile Strength
Strength(g)
Tensile Strength (g) Breaking
(g) BreakingDistance
Breaking Distance(mm)
Distance (mm)
(mm)
WS (%) Cooking CL (%)
Properties Hardness (N) Chewiness Tensile Strength
Textural (g)
Properties Breaking Distance (mm)
Control 130.73
130.73±±±5.40
Control 130.73
Control 5.40
5.40 c 4.49
4.49
ccc 4.49 ± ±±0.16
0.16
0.16 c 52.74
52.74
ccc 52.74 ±±±3.81
3.81
3.81 c 183.35
183.35
ccc 183.35 ±±±15.96
15.96
15.96 c
ccc 66.82
66.82
66.82 ±±±2.64
2.64
2.64 e
eee 43.03
43.03
43.03 ±±±5.00
5.00
5.00 ddd
d
Control
Samples 130.73 ± 5.40 c ccc4.49 ± 0.16 c cccc52.74 ± 3.81 c cccc183.35 ± 15.96 c cccc 66.82 ± 2.64 e bc Tensile 43.03 ± 5.00 d
Breaking
N-1
N-1
N-1 132.95
132.95±±±WS
132.95 3.22
3.22
3.22
(%)
c 4.77
4.77
4.77 ±±±0.07
0.07
0.07 CL 55.89
55.89
55.89
(%) ±±±3.57
3.57
3.57 208.70
Hardness208.70
208.70 ±±±11.94
(N) 11.94
11.94 80.60
80.60
80.60
Chewiness ±±±1.18
1.18
1.18 bcbc
bc 57.18
57.18
57.18±±±2.19
2.19
2.19 ab
abab
ab
N-1 132.95 ± 3.22 c ccc4.77 ± 0.07 c cccc55.89 ± 3.57 c cccc208.70 ± 11.94 c bc 80.60 ± 1.18 bc aaaa Strength (g) 57.18 ± Distance
2.19 ab aaaa (mm)
N-2 133.37
133.37±±±2.73
N-2 133.37
N-2 2.73
2.73 4.82
c 4.82
4.82±±±0.22
0.22
0.22 56.94
56.94±±±1.59
56.94 1.59
1.59 216.81 216.81
216.81±±±19.63
19.63
19.63 bc
bc bc 90.35
90.35±±±2.81
90.35 2.81
2.81 61.94
61.94±±±2.75
61.94 2.75
2.75
N-2
Control133.37130.73
± 2.73±c 5.404.82c ± 0.224.49 c 56.94 ±c 1.59 c 216.81 ± 19.63
cccc±56.14
0.16 ±±±2.52 52.74 ± 3.81 c bc 90.35
183.35 ± ± 2.81
15.96 c a b 66.82 ± 2.64 61.94
e ± 43.03
2.75 a±bbbb5.00 d
N-3
N-3 135.28
135.28±±±2.57
N-3 135.28 2.57
2.57 4.89
cccc 4.89
4.89 ± ±±0.36
0.36
0.36 56.14
56.14 2.52
2.52 211.89
cccc 211.89
211.89 ±±±17.85
17.85
17.85 bc
bc
bc bc 82.96
82.96
82.96 ±±2.87
± 2.87
2.87 bbb 54.86
54.86
54.86 ±±±3.03
3.03
3.03
N-3N-1 135.28132.95
± 2.57±c b3.22
bb4.89
c ± 0.36 c 56.14 ±c 2.52 c 211.89 ± 17.85
4.77bbbb± 0.07 ± 4.26 55.89 ± 3.57± c21.87 bc 82.96
bbb208.70
± 2.87
± 11.94 c b 54.86
bc
cd80.60 ± 1.18 46.45
±57.18
3.03 b±dddd2.19 ab
K-0.5
K-0.5 146.35
K-0.5 146.35±±±1.24
146.35 1.24
1.24 b 5.92
5.92
5.92 ±±±0.24
0.24
0.24 58.89
58.89
58.89 ± ± 4.26
4.26 bc
bc
bc bc 246.83
246.83
246.83 ±± 21.87
21.87 b 74.88
74.88
74.88 ±±±1.58
1.58
1.58 cd
cd
cd 46.45
46.45 ±±±1.52
1.52
1.52
K-0.5N-2 146.35133.37
± 1.24±b b2.73 c ± 0.24 ± 0.22±c4.26 bc56.94 c bc cd 90.35 ± 2.81 a 2.75 a
bb5.92
b 58.89
4.82 246.83 ± 21.87
± 1.59 b 216.81 74.88 ± 1.58
± 19.63 46.45 ± 61.94
1.52 d±
K-1
K-1
K-1 146.42
146.42
146.42 ±±1.75
± 1.75
1.75 6.35
6.35
b 6.35
c ±±±0.24
0.24
0.24 65.55
bbbb 65.55
65.55c±±±3.83
3.83
3.83 296.04
aaaa 296.04
296.04 ±±±c28.52
28.52
28.52 aaaa 78.79
78.79
78.79 ±±±6.13
6.13
6.13 bcd
bcd
bcd
bcd
bc bcd 82.96 ± 2.87 b
52.32
52.32
52.32 ±±± 3.91
3.91
3.91 bc
bc
bc
bc
b
K-1 N-3 135.28 ± 2.57
146.42 ± 1.75 aaa6.35
b 4.89 ± 0.36
± 0.24 aaaa65.55 ± 3.83 ab
b a56.14 ± 2.52 211.89 ±
296.04 ± 28.52 aaaa 78.79 ± 6.13 de
a 17.85 54.86
52.32 ± 3.91 cd ±
bc 3.03
K-1.5
K-1.5
K-1.5
K-0.5
155.87
155.87
155.87 ±±±5.36
146.355.36
5.36
±
a 7.88
1.24 b ±
7.88
7.88 ±± 0.09
0.09
0.09
5.92 ±
64.00
64.00
64.00
0.24 b±
± ± 3.62
3.62
3.62 ab
ab
58.89
ab 282.48
282.48
282.48
± 4.26
±±±bc23.47
23.47
23.47 246.83
72.56
72.56
72.56
±
±±±4.89
21.87 4.89 de
b4.89 dede
74.88 ± 1.58
48.56
48.56
48.56
cd ±±46.45
± 2.37
2.37
2.37 ±
cdcd
cd
1.52 d
K-1.5 155.87 ± 5.36 a 7.88 ± 0.09 a 64.00 ±b3.62 superscripts
WS, water absorption. CL, bcooking loss. Different
ab 282.48 ± 23.47 a 72.56 ± 4.89
ina the same column indicate a
de 48.56
significant difference
± 2.37 cd
(p < 0.05). bc
WS,
WS,
WS, waterabsorption.
water
K-1water absorption.
absorption. CL,cooking
CL,
CL,
146.42 ± 1.75 cooking
cooking loss.
loss.
loss.
6.35 Differentsuperscripts
Different
Different
± 0.24 superscripts
superscripts
65.55 ± 3.83ininthe
in thesame
the same
same column
column
column
296.04 indicatesignificant
indicate
indicate
± 28.52 significant
significant difference
difference
difference
78.79 ± 6.13 (p<<<0.05).
(p
(p
52.32 0.05).
0.05).
± 3.91 bcd
WS, water absorption. CL, cooking loss. Different superscripts in ab the same column indicate significant difference (p < 0.05).
K-1.5 155.87 ± 5.36 a 7.88 ± 0.09 a 64.00 ± 3.62 282.48 ± 23.47 a 72.56 ± 4.89 de 48.56 ± 2.37 cd
3.8. 3.8.
3.8.Organoleptic
3.8. OrganolepticProperties
Organoleptic
Organoleptic
3.8.cooking
Organoleptic Properties
Properties
Properties
Properties
WS, water absorption.3.8.
CL, loss. Different
Organoleptic superscripts in the same column indicate significant difference (p < 0.05).
Properties
As
As shown
As shown
shown in ininFigure
Figure6,
Figure 6,as
6, asthe
as thelevels
the levelsof
levels ofNaCl
of NaCland
NaCl andkansui
and kansuiincreased,
kansui increased,the
increased, theimprovement
the improvement
improvement
As
effect shown
on the in Figure
organoleptic 6, as the
propertieslevels of
of NaCl
noodles and kansui
became increased,
more the
significant. improvement
In particular,
effect onthetheorganoleptic
3.8. Organoleptic
effect on organoleptic propertiesof
Properties properties ofnoodles
noodlesbecame becamemore moresignificant.
significant.In Inparticular,
particular,
effect
noodleson the
with organoleptic
1% kansui properties
had the best ofsensory
noodles became
scores in moreofsignificant.
terms appearance, In taste,
particular,
flavor,
noodles
noodles As with
with
shown 1%
1% in kansui
kansui
Figurehad had
had
6, asthethe
the
thebest best
best
levels sensory
sensory
of NaCl scores
scores
and kansui in
in terms
terms ofof
increased, appearance,
appearance,
the improvement taste,
taste, flavor,
flavor,
effect
noodles
texture, with
and 1% kansui
overall acceptability, sensory
indicating scores
that in terms
consumers of appearance,
preferred noodles taste,
withflavor,
aafirm
firm
texture,
texture,
on the and
and overall
overall
organoleptic acceptability,
acceptability,
properties of indicating
indicating
noodles that
that
became consumers
consumers
more preferred
preferred
significant. In noodles
noodles
particular, with
with a firm
noodles
texture,
texture and
and overall
high acceptability,
chewiness. The indicating
cooked that
noodlesconsumers
with preferred
kansui in noodles
the with a firm
formulation had
texture
texture
with 1% and
and
kansuihigh
high chewiness.
chewiness. The
The cooked
cooked noodles
noodles ofwith
with kansui
kansui in in the
theflavor,
formulation
formulation had
had
texture
enhanced and high had
aroma
the best sensory
chewiness. The scoresnoodles
cooked in termswith appearance,
kansui in taste,
the formulationtexture,
aaa had
and
enhanced
enhanced
overall aroma compared
aroma
acceptability, compared
compared
indicating to
to the
to the NaCl,
the
that NaCl, indicating
NaCl,
consumers indicating
indicating
preferred that
that kansui
thatnoodles
kansui
kansuiwith could
could
could a impart
impart
impart
firm texture more
more
more
and
enhanced
desirable aroma
flavor compared
to FCNs. to the
This might NaCl, be indicating
related to thethatfactkansui
that could could
kansui impartinhibit
a more the
desirable
desirable flavorto
flavor
high chewiness. to FCNs.
FCNs.
The cooked This
This mightwith
might
noodles beberelated
related
kansuito to the
inthe fact
thefact thatkansui
that
formulation kansui could
hadcould
enhanced inhibit
inhibit aroma the
the
desirable
formation flavor
of to FCNs.
non-aroma This
flavor might
compoundsbe related to
caused theby fact
fat that kansui
oxidation by could
adjustinginhibitthe thepH
formation
formation of
of non-aroma
non-aroma flavor
flavor compounds
compounds caused
caused byby fat
fat
compared to the NaCl, indicating that kansui could impart a more desirable flavor to FCNs. oxidation
oxidation by
by adjusting
adjusting the
the pHpH
formation
of the of non-aroma
dough [37]. flavor compounds
Moreover, the addition caused
of 2% by fatimproved
NaCl oxidation the by adjusting
appearance, the taste,
pH
ofof
Thisthemight
the dough
dough [37].
be[37].
related Moreover,
Moreover,
to the fact the
thethat addition
addition
kansui could of2%
of 2%inhibit
NaClimproved
NaCl improved
the formation theof
the appearance,
appearance,
non-aroma taste, taste,
flavor
oftexture,
the doughand [37].
overall Moreover,
acceptabilitythe addition
of the of
noodles 2% NaCl
markedly, improvedwhich the
couldappearance,
be explained taste,
texture,
texture,
compounds and
and overall
overall by
caused acceptability
acceptability
fat oxidation of
of the
theadjusting
by noodles
noodles markedly,
markedly,
the pH of the which
which could
doughcould be explainedby
beMoreover,
[37]. explained by
by
the
texture,
the and overall
appropriate acceptability
levels of NaCl of the the
induced noodles markedly,
superiority in which
dough could be explained
extensibility and by
the
the appropriate
appropriate
addition of 2% NaCl levels
levelsimproved
of
of NaCl
NaCl induced
induced the
the appearance,the superiority
superiority in
in dough
taste, texture, doughandextensibility
extensibility andrecovery
and
overall acceptability recovery
recovery
of the
the appropriate levels of NaCl induced the superiority in dough extensibility and recovery
ability.
ability.
ability.
noodles markedly, which could be explained by the appropriate levels of NaCl induced the
ability.
superiority in dough extensibility and recovery ability.
Overall
Overallacceptability
Overall acceptability
acceptability
Overall acceptability
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
Appearance
Appearance

7.5
Appearance

Texture
Texture
Texture

7.0
7.0
7.0
Texture

7.0
7.0
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0

Taste
Taste
Taste Flavor
Flavor
Flavor
Taste Flavor
Figure
Figure
Figure 6.
Figure6.
Figure 6. Organoleptic
Organoleptic evaluation
Organolepticevaluation
6.Organoleptic evaluation parameters
parameters
evaluationparameters
evaluation parametersof
parameters of frozen
offrozen
of cooked
frozencooked
frozen cooked noodles.
cookednoodles.
noodles.
noodles. Control,
Control,
Control,
Control,
Figure
N-1, 6. Organoleptic
N-2, evaluation
N-3, parameters
K-0.5, of frozenK-1,
cooked noodles.
K-1.5. Control,
N-1,
N-1,
N-1,
N-1, N-2,
N-2,
N-2, N-3,
N-3,
N-3, K-0.5,
K-0.5,
K-0.5, K-1,
K-1,
K-1,
K-1, K-1.5.
K-1.5.
K-1.5.
N-1, N-2, N-3, K-0.5, K-1, K-1.5.
3.9. Network
3.9.Network
3.9. Reinforcement
NetworkReinforcement Mechanism
ReinforcementMechanism by
Mechanismby NaCl
byNaCl and
NaCland Kansui
andKansui after
Kansuiafter Freezing
afterFreezing
Freezing
3.9. Network Reinforcement Mechanism by NaCl and Kansui after Freezing
A
A model
Amodel
modeltoto explain
toexplain the
explainthe mechanism
themechanism whereby
mechanismwhereby NaCl
wherebyNaCl and
NaCland kansui
andkansui affect
kansuiaffect gluten
affectgluten proteins
glutenproteins
proteins
A model
network to explain
formation the
after mechanism
freezing was whereby NaCl
proposed in and kansui
Figure 7. affectstudies
Previous glutenconfirmed
proteins
networkformation
network formationafter
afterfreezing
freezingwas
wasproposed
proposedin inFigure
Figure7.7.Previous
Previousstudies
studiesconfirmed
confirmed
network formation after freezing was proposed in Figure 7. Previous studies confirmed
Foods 2021, 10, 3132 13 of 15

3.9. Network Reinforcement Mechanism by NaCl and Kansui after Freezing

Foods 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW

A model to explain the mechanism whereby NaCl and kansui affect gluten proteins 14 of 16
network formation after freezing was proposed in Figure 7. Previous studies confirmed
that frozen storage mainly led to the disaggregation of protein aggregates by destroying the
disulfide cross-links between gluten proteins [38]. In our study, 1% kansui induced more
more
stable stable intermolecular
intermolecular disulfidedisulfide
bonding inbonding
the dough in during
the dough during
freezing, whichfreezing, which
contributed to
contributed to the more
the more complete glutencomplete
structuregluten structure
and stronger andretention
water stronger capacity
water retention
of FCNs.capacity
Kansui
of FCNs.
could Kansui
induce couldhydrophobic
stronger induce stronger hydrophobic
interactions between interactions between
gluten proteins gluten proteins
compared to NaCl
compared to NaCl has also been confirmed [9]. In summary,
has also been confirmed [9]. In summary, NaCl and kansui exerted different NaCl and kansui exerted
effects on
different effects on the stability of the gluten network structure of FCNs
the stability of the gluten network structure of FCNs after freezing. Kansui stimulated after freezing.
Kansui stimulated
the conversion the sulfhydryl
of free conversion groups
of free sulfhydryl
to disulfidegroups
bonds to disulfidegenerating
obviously, bonds obviously,
denser
generating denser
crosslinks based oncrosslinks
the original based on the
network. original
Thus, network.
a greater Thus, aforce
mechanical greater
wasmechanical
required to
force
breakwas requireddough.
the alkaline to breakIn the alkaline
contrast, NaCldough.
tended In to
contrast,
enhanceNaCl tended gluten
the original to enhance
networkthe
original
structure,gluten network structure,
but contributed but contributed
to the extensibility of the to the extensibility
frozen dough, which of the
couldfrozen
also dough,
explain
which could also
the difference explainofthe
in quality thedifference
recookedin quality of the recooked FCNs.
FCNs.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. The
The proposed
proposed mechanism
mechanism for
for NaCl
NaCl and
and kansui
kansui to reinforce the gluten networks in frozen dough.

4.
4. Conclusions
Conclusions
There is
There is no
no doubt
doubt that the quality of frozen cooked noodles with NaCl or kansui
showed a significant difference, as
showed a significant difference, as explained
explained by by the
the variation
variation in in rheological
rheological behavior,
behavior,
microscopic morphology, water distribution, and protein structure
microscopic morphology, water distribution, and protein structure of dough. Both of dough. Both the addi-
the
tion of NaCl
addition and kansui
of NaCl and to the dough
kansui to the formulation improved the
dough formulation organoleptic
improved properties of
the organoleptic
FCNs. NaCl
properties ofincreased
FCNs. NaCl the increased
tensile strength and breaking
the tensile strength distance of FCNs
and breaking by at least
distance 20.62%
of FCNs by
and
at 27.49%,
least 20.62% respectively;
and 27.49%,the 2% NaCl level
respectively; the 2%especially
NaCl level hadespecially
the best tensile
had the properties of
best tensile
FCNs, which corresponded to the more elongated fibrous protein
properties of FCNs, which corresponded to the more elongated fibrous protein network. network. NaCl had
no significant
NaCl effect on the
had no significant cooking
effect on the quality
cookingof frozenofcooked
quality frozen noodles. However,
cooked noodles. kansui
However,
increased the water absorption of recooked FCNs significantly
kansui increased the water absorption of recooked FCNs significantly (p < 0.05),(p < 0.05), corresponding to
the lower freezable water content and higher binding capacity for
corresponding to the lower freezable water content and higher binding capacity for deeply adsorbed water.
The maximum
deeply adsorbed hardness
water. (65.55 N) and chewiness
The maximum hardness(296.04)
(65.55 N)were
andreached at 1%(296.04)
chewiness kansui levels,
were
which was consistent with the denser membrane-like protein structures,
reached at 1% kansui levels, which was consistent with the denser membrane-like protein the strongest
intermolecular
structures, disulfide bonds
the strongest and the highest
intermolecular disulfideprotein
bonds ordered
and thesecondary structure.
highest protein Rheo-
ordered
logical results further confirmed that the resistance to deformation
secondary structure. Rheological results further confirmed that the resistance to and recovery ability of
thawed dough were improved significantly at 1% kansui level.
deformation and recovery ability of thawed dough were improved significantly at 1% The experimental results
obtained
kansui in this
level. Thestudy may give the
experimental noodles
results industry
obtained morestudy
in this fundamental
may give insight into the
the noodles
effect of NaCl or kansui on the quality attributes of frozen cooked
industry more fundamental insight into the effect of NaCl or kansui on the quality noodles.
attributes of frozen cooked noodles.
Author Contributions: J.W. and J.C. conceived and designed the experiments and reviewed and
edited the manuscript; J.W., Y.D., M.W., T.C. and Z.P. contributed materials, analytical tools and
Author Contributions: J.W. and J.C. conceived and designed the experiments and reviewed and
participated in the experiments; J.W. analyzed the data; and J.W. and J.C. wrote the manuscript. All
edited the manuscript; J.W., Y.D., M.W., T.C. and Z.P. contributed materials, analytical tools and
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
participated in the experiments; J.W. analyzed the data; and J.W. and J.C. wrote the manuscript. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors thank the financial support received from the Major Science and Technology
Projects in Heilongjiang Province (Project No. 2021ZX12B06).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors have declared no conflict of interest.
Foods 2021, 10, 3132 14 of 15

Funding: The authors thank the financial support received from the Major Science and Technology
Projects in Heilongjiang Province (Project No. 2021ZX12B06).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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