IP2: Artificial Intelligence

Question 1
Who were these people, and how did/does each contribute to the development of
artificial intelligence? How did/does each think “intelligence” could be identified? (~50
words each)

Alan Matheson Turing (1912-1954):

Alan Turing was a British mathematician who contributed significantly to crypt analysis
and is now regarded as the founder of computer science and artificial intelligence. He drew up
a blueprint for store-program computers, which influenced the design of the world‘s first
computer. He proposed that a learning machine capable of simulating human behaviors can be
made and described the training process.

John McCarthy (1927-2011): 

John was the professor of Emeritus of Computer Science at Stanford University, and he
has published a few papers about AI. He claimed that computational intelligence can be
defined as computer programs with a lot of speed and memory and that their ability is
determined by the intellectual mechanism designed by the programmers.

Herb Simon (1916-2001):

Being a Nobel prize winner in Economics, he proposed that machines can do what a
human can do using data. His research on humanity and social science, especially the human
decision-making process, has become the foundation of AI. He suggested that scientists
should start building a mathematical structure by first collecting data, analyzing the
phenomenon, and then modeling the decision-making process.

Marvin Minsky (1927-2016):
As an AI expert who continued to build and improve AI systems, Marvin is the first to
propose that a machine can have an intelligent thorough replicating the functions of human
brains. He has published two books that explored the relationship between intelligence and
thought of the mind and influenced computational linguistics.

Timnit Gebru (1982): 
Timnit was the co-lead of Google's ethical AI team, calling on people to pay attention to
the ethical issues of AI and the risks of AI models. She argued to improve the accuracy of
facial recognition in identifying the race and color of people which will reduce the machine
discrimination.
Question 2
How do “machine (programming) languages” differ from human (natural) ones? (~100
words).

Programming language doesn't have morphology, whereas human language emphasizes

the formation of words, sentence structure, and language context (Harris, 2018). A word of a
programming language has a fixed meaning but a word of a human language can have various
meanings as well as synonyms. Unlike human language, the programming language has very
strict rules that will not naturally evolve. Furthermore, computer languages do not allow
errors, while human languages can be imperfect but still understandable (Harris, 2018).
Combining with body language and other unique variables, human language can be both
emotional and logical. Programming language, on the other hand, is always logical and
precise.

Question 3
How does “machine (artificial) intelligence” differ from the human version? (~100
words).

Humans are born with many foundations of cognition, including objectiveness, goal-
directedness, natural numbers and elementary arithmetic, and elementary geometry and
topology (Chollet, 2019, p.26). Whereas, the general AI systems should be hard-coded to
equip with these core fundamental knowledge principles.

As human intelligence is comprised of cognitive ability, AI only focuses on reasoning

and abstraction. The human can accumulate knowledge via absorbing real-world objects,
language, and common sense, or gain skills through specific task practice (Chollet, 2019,
p.51). On the other hand, the intelligence of a system is defined as skill-acquisition efficiency,
considering priors, experience, and generalization difficulty (Chollet, 2019, p.27). When an
intelligent system meets a problem, it will generate a skill program to deal with the task. The
skill program is established by training and evaluation. The training phase generates a high-
skill skill program that will generalize to future situations; the evaluation phase assesses the
capability to handle new situations (Chollet, 2019, p.27).

Question 4
How does “machine learning” differ from human learning? (~100 words) 

The process of machine learning is actually machine training. Machines are trained by
being exposed to large amounts of data, after which they learn to make judgments, or
predictions, about the information they process based on the patterns they see (Heilweil,
2020).
The algorithmic bias occurs when the data used to train decision-making algorithms is
not complete, balanced, or adequately selected (Heilweil, 2020). There are two types of
algorithmic bias: accuracy and impact. Bias can sometimes be reduced through trials of
testing and refining; but, if engineers are biased, it is difficult for AI systems to be not
discriminate.

In contrast, human has more dimensions of learning, such as societal and historical
aspects of learning. Using a wider spectrum of information, some humans can discover the
issues, including racial bias, that machines are overlooked.

Question 5

And for your LAST challenge, a version of the Turing Test: how do YOUR answers to
these questions differ from what a machine could generate? (~200 words)

For this last question, think about whether your responses only reported information derived
from online searches? In your responses to these questions, what transformative kinds of
thinking and/or reasoning processes have you engaged to formulate your answers, that exceed
or differ from what artificial intelligence can do? Do you think ANY distinguishing features
would identify your responses as having been formulated by a human, and not a machine,
intelligence? What and why?

Our responses do not solely depend on the online searches, but instead, we output
answers that are incorporated with our thoughts and understanding, past experience, human
intelligence and emotions, and training of skills. Machines, on the other hand, generate output
by manipulating all their inputs using algorithms. In addition, when we develop our
responses, we utilized critical thinking and creative writing skills where we seek to draw a
comprehensive and rational conclusion using a wide range of ideas. Therefore, the products of
human thoughts are influenced by multiple factors such as culture, language, and insights.
More importantly, humans can easily process partial truths, while machine learning can exist
with algorithmic bias.

Compared to machine responses, human responses are unique, sometimes emotional, and
imperfect. Since we naturally think human performs better than machines, our responses have
included some emphasis on human advantages of learning. Machine responses probably have
perfect grammar and a fixed structure of responses, while human responses are changing over
time and can contain some typos. Moreover, machines rarely make emotional judgments,
while human thinking can investigate intricacies such as feelings and provide critiques. All of
the points mentioned above summarized the distinctions between human responses and
machine ones.
 References

Biography. (2020, July 22). Alan Turing (Links to an external site.).

Buolamwini, J. (2019, February 7). Artificial Intelligence Has a Problem With Gender and
Racial Bias. Here’s How to Solve It (Links to an external site.). Time. 

Chollet, F. (2019). On the measure of intelligence. https://arxiv.org/abs/1911.01547

Hao, K. (2020). We read the paper that forced Timnit Gebru out of Google. Here’s what it
says (Links to an external site.). MIT Technology Review.

Harris, A. (2018). Languages vs. Programming languages. (Links to an external site.)

Heilweil, R.  (2020 ). Why algorithms can be racist and sexist. A computer can make a
decision faster. That doesn’t make it fair. (Links to an external site.)

McCarthy (2007). What is Artificial Intelligence? (Links to an external site.) 

UBS (n.d.).  Meet the Nobel Laureates in Economics: Do we understand human behaviour 

(Links to an external site.).