25-Aug-19

PART 2

LIGHT AND OPTICS

Chapter 1: Wave Optics
Chapter 2: Diffraction Patterns and Polarization

CHAPTER 1

Wave Optics
1.1 Young’s Double-Slit
Experiment
1.2 Analysis Model: Waves in
Interference
1.3 Intensity Distribution of
the Double-Slit
Interference Pattern
1.4 Change of Phase Due to
Reflection
1.5 Interference in Thin Films
3.6 The Michelson Interferometer

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CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 3

1.1. Young’s Double-Slit Experiment

interference
pattern of
water waves

Light waves also interfere with one another, like mechanical waves
Conditions for interference in light waves
• The sources must be coherent; that is, they must maintain a
constant phase with respect to each other.
• The sources should be monochromatic; that is, they should
be of a single wavelength.

CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 4

1.1. Young’s Double-Slit Experiment

Interference in light waves from two sources was first
demonstrated by Thomas Young in 1801.

two fringes:
slit + bright
S1 fringe
and + dark
S2 fringe

viewing
screen

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CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 5

1.2. Analysis model: Waves in interference

Linear positions of bright and dark fringes

CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 6

1.2. Analysis model: Waves in interference

EX1:
Which of the following causes the fringes in a two-slit
interference pattern to move farther apart?
(a) decreasing the wavelength of the light
(b) decreasing the screen distance L
(c) decreasing the slit spacing d
(d) immersing the entire apparatus in water.

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CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 7

1.2. Analysis model: Waves in interference

EX2:
A viewing screen is separated from a double slit by 4.80
m. The distance between the two slits is 0.030 0 mm.
Monochromatic light is directed toward the double slit
and forms an interference pattern on the screen. The first
dark fringe is 4.50 mm from the center line on the screen.
(a) Determine the wavelength of the light.
(b)Calculate the distance between adjacent bright
fringes.

CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 8

1.2. Analysis model: Waves in interference

EX3:
A light source emits visible light of two wavelengths:
 = 420 nm and ’ = 510 nm. The source is used in a
double-slit interference experiment in which L = 1.50 m
and d = 0.025 mm.
a) Find the separation distance between the third-order
bright fringes for the two wavelengths.
b) Find the locations on the screen where the bright
fringes from the two wavelengths overlap exactly.

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CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 9

1.3. Intensity Distribution of the Double-Slit

Interference Pattern
Two separated waves at point P:
𝐸 = 𝐸 sin 𝜔𝑡 , 𝐸 = 𝐸 sin(𝜔𝑡 + Φ)
where the phase difference

Resultant wave at point P:

→ The light intensity at P → The average light intensity

CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 10

1.3. Intensity Distribution of the Double-Slit

Interference Pattern

Light intensity
versus 𝑑 sin𝜃 for a
double-slit
interference pattern
when the screen is
far from the two slits
(L≫d).

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CHAPTER 3 – WAVE OPTICS 11

1.4. Change of Phase Due to Reflection

Interference pattern with a single light source
(Lloyd’s mirror)
 Light waves can reach point P
on the screen either directly
from S to P or by the path
involving reflection from the
mirror
 The reflected ray can be
treated as a ray originating
from a virtual source S’
Note: An electromagnetic wave
undergoes a phase change of 180°
upon reflection from a medium that
has a higher index of refraction than
the one in which the wave is traveling.

CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 12

1.4. Change of Phase Due to Reflection

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CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 13

1.5. Interference in Thin Films

Consider a film of uniform thickness
𝒕 and index of refraction 𝒏. The
difference of optical path between ray
1 and ray 2 is Δ𝐿 ≈ 2𝑡𝑛 −
 Condition for constructive
interference:

 Condition for destructive

interference

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1.5. Interference in Thin Films

Newton’s rings
 The interference effect is due to the
combination of ray 1, reflected from
the flat plate, with ray 2, reflected
from the curved surface of the lens.
 Because ray 1 undergoes a phase
change of 180° upon reflection,
whereas ray 2 undergoes no phase
change, the difference of optical path
between the two rays Δ𝐿 = 2 𝑅 −
𝑅 −𝑟 + ≈ +
→ the dark rings have radii

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CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 15

1.5. Interference in Thin Films

EX4.
Calculate the minimum thickness of a soap-bubble film that
results in constructive interference in the reflected light if the
film is illuminated with light whose wavelength in free space is 
= 600 nm. The index of refraction of the soap film is 1.33.

CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 16

1.5. Interference in Thin Films

EX5.
Solar cells devices that generate
electricity when exposed to sunlight
are often coated with a transparent,
thin film of silicon monoxide (SiO, n =
1.45) to minimize reflective losses
from the surface. Suppose a silicon
solar cell (n = 3.5) is coated with a
thin film of silicon monoxide for this
purpose Figure. Determine the
minimum film thickness that
produces the least reflection at a
wavelength of 550 nm, near the
center of the visible spectrum.

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CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 17

1.5. Interference in Thin Films

EX6.
An air wedge is formed between two glass plates separated at
one edge by a very fine wire of circular cross section as shown
in Figure. When the wedge is illuminated from above by 600-nm
light and viewed from above, 30 dark fringes are observed.
Calculate the diameter d of the wire.

CHAPTER 4 – WAVE OPTICS 18

1.6. The Michelson Interferometer

The interferometer, invented

by American physicist
A. A. Michelson (1852–1931),
can be used to measure
wavelengths or other lengths
with great precision.

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CHAPTER 2

Diffraction Patterns and Polarization

2.1 Introduction to Diffraction

Patterns
2.2 Diffraction Patterns from
Narrow Slits
2.3 Resolution of Single-Slit and
Circular Apertures
2.4 The Diffraction Grating
2.5 Diffraction of X-Rays by
Crystals
2.6 Polarization of Light Waves

CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 20

2.1. Introduction to Diffraction Patterns

The diffraction pattern that appears on a screen when

light passes through a narrow vertical slit. The pattern
consists of a broad central fringe and a series of less
intense and narrower side fringes.

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CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 21

2.1. Introduction to Diffraction Patterns

Light from a small source passes by the edge of an

opaque object and continues on to a screen. A diffraction
pattern consisting of bright and dark fringes appears on
the screen in the region above the edge of the object.

CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 22

2.1. Introduction to Diffraction Patterns

Diffraction pattern created by the illumination of a

penny, with the penny positioned midway between the
screen and light source.

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CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 23

2.2. Diffraction Patterns from Narrow Slits

Fraunhofer diffraction pattern

(a) Geometry for

analyzing the Fraunhofer
diffraction pattern of a
single slit, which shows
light entering a single slit
from the left and
diffracting as it propagates
toward a screen.
(b) Simulation of a single-
slit Fraunhofer diffraction
pattern.

CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 24

2.2. Diffraction Patterns from Narrow Slits

Explaination of
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
Considering waves leaving the slit as
waves coming from various portions
of the slit:
 Each portion of the slit acts as a
source of light waves.
 Light from one portion of the slit
can interfere with light from
another portion
→ a diffraction pattern is actually
an interference pattern in which
the different sources of light are
different portions of the single slit

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CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 25

2.2. Diffraction Patterns from Narrow Slits

Condition for destructive
interference for a single slit
+ Let’s divide the slit into 𝑛 halves,
the path difference between two
adjacent portions of the single slit is
𝑎
sin𝜃 (𝑎: the width of slit)
𝑛
+ If 𝑛 is an even number (𝑛 = 2𝑚)
and waves from adjacent portions of
the single slit cancel each other,
which is sin 𝜃 = or
𝝀
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒎 𝑚 = ±1, ±2, … ,
𝒂
we observe dark fringes.

CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 26

2.2. Diffraction Patterns from Narrow Slits

Condition for intensity minima for a single slit:

𝝀
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒎 𝑚 = ±1, ±2, ±3, …
𝒂

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CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 27

2.2. Diffraction Patterns from Narrow Slits

Two-Slit Diffraction Pattern

The diffraction
pattern is produced
when 650-nm light
waves pass through
two 3.0-mm slits
that are 18 mm
apart.

CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 28

2.2. Diffraction Patterns from Narrow Slits

Diffraction Patterns from various slits

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CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 29

2.2. Diffraction Patterns from Narrow Slits

EX 2.1:
Light of wavelength 587.5 nm
illuminates a slit of width 0.75
mm.
(a) At what distance from the
slit should a screen be
placed if the first minimum
in the diffraction pattern is
to be 0.85 mm from the
central maximum?
(b) Calculate the width of the
central maximum.

CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 30

2.2. Diffraction Patterns from Narrow Slits

EX 2.2:
A beam of monochromatic light is incident on a single slit of
width 0.600 mm. A diffraction pattern forms on a wall 1.30 m
beyond the slit. The distance between the positions of zero
intensity on both sides of the central maximum is 2.00 mm.
Calculate the wavelength of the light.

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CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 31

2.3. Resolution of Single-Slit and Circular Apertures

+ If the two sources which

are not coherent are far
enough apart (Fig. a) to keep
their central maxima from
overlapping → their images
are said to be resolved.
+ If the sources are close
together (Fig. b), the two
central maxima overlap →
the images are not resolved.
Rayleigh’s criterion of resolution
When the central maximum of one image falls on the first
minimum of another image, the images are said to be just
resolved.

CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 32

2.3. Resolution of Single-Slit and Circular Apertures

The limiting angle of resolution
 for a slit of width 𝑎:
𝝀
𝜽𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝒂
 for a circular aperture of diameter 𝐷
𝝀
𝜽𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐
𝑫

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CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 33

2.4. The Diffraction Grating

𝒅: slit spacing

CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 34

2.4. The Diffraction Grating

EX 2.3.
A helium–neon laser ( = 632.8 nm) is used to calibrate a
diffraction grating. If the first-order maximum occurs at 20.5°,
what is the spacing between adjacent grooves in the grating?

EX 2.4
Three discrete spectral lines occur at angles of 10.1°, 13.7°, and
14.8° in the first-order spectrum of a grating spectrometer. (a) If
the grating has 3660 slits/cm, what are the wavelengths of the
light? (b) At what angles are these lines found in the second-
order spectrum?

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CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 35

2.4. The Diffraction Grating

EX 2.5.
A grating with 250 grooves/mm is used with an incandescent
light source. Assume the visible spectrum to range in wavelength
from 400 nm to 700 nm. In how many orders can one see
(a) the entire visible spectrum,
(b) the short-wavelength region of the visible spectrum.

CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 36

2.5. Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals

The condition for constructive interference

(maxima in the reflected beam) is

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CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 37

2.5. Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals

EX 2.6
Monochromatic x-rays ( = 0.166 nm) from a nickel target are
incident on a potassium chloride (KCl) crystal surface. The
spacing between planes of atoms in KCl is 0.314 nm. At what
angle (relative to the surface) should the beam be directed for a
second-order maximum to be observed?

EX 2.7
The first-order diffraction maximum is observed at 12.6° for a
crystal having a spacing between planes of atoms of 0.250 nm.
(a) What wavelength x-ray is used to observe this first-order
pattern?
(b) How many orders can be observed for this crystal at this
wavelength?

CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 38

2.6. Polarization of Light Waves

+ An ordinary beam of light
consists of a large number
of waves emitted by the
atoms of the light source.
+ Each atom produces a wave
having some particular
orientation of 𝐸.
→ The direction of polarization
of each individual wave is defined to be the direction in which 𝐸 is
vibrating.
+ All directions of vibration from a wave source are possible.
→ the resultant electromagnetic wave is a superposition of waves
whose 𝐸 vibrate in many different directions.
→ Resultant electromagnetic wave is called an unpolarized wave.

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CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 39

2.6. Polarization of Light Waves

+ Unpolarized light beam: Figure a

(A representation of an unpolarized
light beam viewed along the
direction of propagation. The
transverse electric field can vibrate
in any direction in the plane of the
page with equal probability.)

+ Linearly polarized light beam:

Figure b (A linearly polarized light
beam with the electric field
vibrating in the vertical direction.)

CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 40

2.6. Polarization of Light Waves

Polarization by Selective Absorption

Malus’s law:

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CHAPTER 5 - Diffraction Patterns and Polarization 41

2.6. Polarization of Light Waves

Polarization by Reflection

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