VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Jnana Sangama, Belagavi - 590018

Seminar Report
on
“EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMAND AND FUTURE
REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS”
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
by

RITIKA S SHETTY
4MT18CV034

Under the Guidance of

Mrs. Anusha Jain

Assistant Professor

CIVIL ENGINEERING
(Accredited by NBA)

MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING

Accredited by NAAC with A+ Grade, An ISO 9001: 2015 Certified Institution
(A Unit of Rajalaxmi Education Trust®, Mangalore - 575001)
Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi.
Badaga Mijar, Moodabidri-574225, Karnataka
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
(An ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution, Accredited by NAAC)
(Affiliated to the Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU),
Belagavi, Karnataka) BadagaMijar, Moodbidri – 574225 Ph. 08258-
262695 to 99

Department of Civil Engineering

(Accredited by NBA)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Seminar entitled “EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMAND AND
FUTURE REQUIREMENT IN THE URBAN AREA” is presented by Ms. RITIKA S
SHETTY bearing USN: 4MT18CV034 of Eighth Semester, Civil Engineering, Mangalore
Institute of Technology and Engineering, in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Civil Engineering of Visvesvaraya Technological University,
Belagavi, during the year 2020-21. It is certified that all the corrections/suggestions indicated
for Internal Assessment have been incorporated in the report. The seminar report has been
approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in respect of Seminar on current trends
in Engineering and Technology (18CVS86) prescribed for the said degree.

Mrs. Anusha Jain Mr. Sagar S

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Seminar Guide Seminar
Coordinator

Dr. Ganesh Mogaveera

Professor and HOD
Department of Civil Engineering
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Behind every achievement there is unfathomable sea of gratitude to those who supported it and
without whom it would never have been a successful one.

My seminar guide, Mrs. Anusha Jain, Assistant Professor & Seminar Guide, Department of Civil
Engineering was the backbone for me in presenting this seminar. He guided me throughout seminar
and encouraged me with his smiling face. I extend wholehearted thanks to him.

I extend my sincere thanks to Seminar Co-Ordinator, Mr. Sagar S., Assistant Professor Department
of Civil Engineering, who always empowered my confidence and helped me in completing the
seminar with success.

I am thankful to Dr. Ganesh Mogaveera., HOD, Department of Civil Engineering for his
encouragement in presenting this seminar.

Last but not the least, I wish to thank all Faculty members of Dept. of Civil Engineering. My parents
and friends for being constant source of support & encouragement.

RITIKA S SHETTY
4MT18CV034
 Abstract

The increasing rate of private car usage in the urban areas as a result of fast-growing economy, derelict
policies and subsidies are the main causes making car parking one of the main concerns for transport
and traffic management all over the world. The coordination between parking policies and traffic
management revealed how parking is becoming a barrier to the through-traffic operation. Also, it is
responsible for the inefficient use of available resources, even the decisions are made on an ad-hoc
basis while making policy. Hence, it is necessary to understand the parking choice behavior and actual
demand of parking space. In the last three decades, ample studies have been done to evaluate parking
characteristics, to estimate the demand for parking and on driver's behavior while choosing the
parking space. This paper integrates all these aspects and presents the state-of-the-art review of
models and studies on the parking system. Problems related to and due to the parking, various parking
characteristics and their applications, parking choice behavior of drivers, development of demand
models considering various factors and review of parking policies as an integral part of the urban
transport system are discussed in detail. Whilst underdeveloped, authors found the literatures suggest
that greater attention should be given to metrics like ease of access, walk time, parking charges,
parking guidance and information system, management, etc., at all stages of planning and policy
formulation. Taken together, mentioned studies demonstrate useful information concerning the entire
parking system. It also provides useful information to the planners and policy makers for planning,
designing and evaluating parking system.

Keywords: Parking; Parking Accumulations; Parking Demand; Urban Area.

 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1. Chaotic parking 7

Fig 2. Vehicle growth in India 8

Fig 3. Composition of Vehicle population graph 8

Fig 4. Parallel Parking 10

Fig 5. Angle Parking 10

Fig 6. Multi-level parking 11

11
Fig 7. Mechanical parking system

20
Fig 8. Car pooling
 CONTENTS

Abstract i

Contents ii

List of figures iii

Chapters

1. Introduction 5

2. Parking Characteristics 7

3. Choice Behaviour Models 13

4. Evaluation of parking systems and 14
characteristics
5. Policy Suggestions and Improvements 18

6. Summary 22

7. Reference 23
 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

CHAPTER 1

Introduction
As the accelerated industrialization throughout the world led to higher growth rates of urban economy,
income as well as the living standard of the inhabitants in addition to the high growth of population, there
is continuous growth in the private vehicle ownership. Shen(1997) claimed that population growth and
increasing living standards of people are the major causes for the rise in the number of cars in the cities.
Due to the affordable price of small city cars and free or nominal charges for parking, most people prefer
to travel by private cars over public transit. New developments like multi-level parking systems provide
ample space as off-street parking scheme with subsidized parking fees. But the core or older areas of the
city, mainly central business district (CBD), fail to provide enough space for off-street parking, which tend
to increase the amount of on-street parking demand in those areas. Cruising of parking takes place due to
non-availability of enough parking space for parkers and high demand for on-street parking in such type
of areas. It has negative impact on the traffic of most of the metropolitan cities around the world, also in
India. Research indicates that the average volume of traffic related to parking during peak time can reach
30% 50% of total traffic. Hence, it is necessary to carry out the demand assessment for parking in
influenced areas of the city to frame appropriate parking policies.
Every person who owns a vehicle needs a space for parking As the number of vehicles grows, need of
space for parking increases. According to the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, there is
whooping growth in motor vehicle population of nearly 400% from 55 million in 2001 to 210 million in
2015 in India, as shown in Fig. 1.The growth rate of motor vehicles is even higher for densely populated
urban cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, etc., in India. It has surprisingly been noted that in National
Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, the growth rate of population is about 1%, but the increasing rate of
motor vehicles is around 7% shows the vehicle composition in India considering two-wheelers (TW),
car, bus, goods vehicle (GV), etc., in which it can be clearly seen that private vehicles (TW and car)
dominated throughout the period (greater than 85% in 2015). Due to this high growth rate, parking has
become integrated component of buildings as well as roadways. Hence, it creates a requirement while
planning each infrastructure. According to Young et al. (1991), car parking is an issue of significance
both at local as well as at strategic level of planning. In fact, it is one of the main concerns while planning
and designing any infrastructure project. If ignored, it contributes towards traffic congestion and
violations, accidents and injuries, wastage of time and money as well. One of the earlier researches on
parking shows that the parking problem arises mainly due to people want to park exactly in front of the
door of their destination. The behaviour of inhabitants to park as near as possible to their destination tends
to increase the cruising for parking, consequently encouraging them to use curb-side parking. On-
street/curb-side parking proves to be hazardous for through-traffic and also one of the most influencing
factors for delay. High number of on-street parking spaces along the major roads in urban areas affects
the local traffic operations, especially when traffic is dense.
Zu et al. (2014) suggested a solution of “division, construction, adjust & share” for parking
management in Wujiang district in China The reason behind illegal parking is the tendency of people to
park as near as possible to destination regardless of legal or illegal parking spaces.

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 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

The other major factors which encourage illegal parking are inadequate caacity and enforcement level.
Illegal parking seems to be one of the serious problems as the number of motor vehicle increases. Reduced
traffic speed, reduced capacity, delays and congestion, change in modal choice, loss of revenue from legal
parking lots, reduced level of respect to the law compliance, and accidents are some major effects of
illegal parking. Searching for empty parking space is also a reason for more traffic generation and
congestion. Shoup (2006) showed that even a short time for searching a parking space would generate a
considerable amount of traffic. The challenges for parking are exacerbated as parking supply in general
is determined based on parking requirement without having view on how much it will cost directly and
indirectly, now and in future as the parking spaces are built and converted on valuable lands to meet the
requirements. Hence, it is important to study each aspect related to parking, so that planners and engineers
can give a solution and make an effective policy to offset the problems. Characteristics and evaluation of
parking system, behavior of parkers and modeling parking demand are the aspects around which the
discussion has been carried out.

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 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

CHAPTER 2

Parking Characteristics

Every person who owns a vehicle needs a space for parking As the number of vehicles grows,
need of space for parking increases. According to the Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways, there is whooping growth in motor vehicle population of nearly 400% from 55
million in 2001 to 210 million in 2015 in India, as shown in Fig. 1.The growth rate of motor
vehicles is even higher for densely populated urban cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, etc.,
in India. It has surprisingly been noted that in National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, the
growth rate of population is about 1%, but the increasing rate of motor vehicles is around 7%
shows the vehicle composition in India considering two-wheelers (TW), car, bus, goods vehicle
(GV), etc., in which it can be clearly seen that private vehicles (TW and car) dominated
throughout the period (greater than 85% in 2015). Due to this high growth rate, parking has
become integrated component of buildings as well as roadways. Hence, it creates a requirement
while planning each infrastructure.

Fig 1. Chaotic Parking

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 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

Fig.2.Vehicle growth in India (MoRT&H, India, 2018).

Fig.3. Composition of vehicle population(MoRT&H, India, 2018)

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 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

It is necessary at the initial stage of study to have data regarding the availability of parking space, up to
what extent it is being used, how much is the duration of parking, assess- ment of parking demand, etc.,
for taking any effective actions for the furtherance of parking conditions. Different surveys are conducted
to derive different properties related to parking which termed as parking characteristics or statistics. In
gen- eral, following characteristics of parking are used (Gray et al., 2008; Lautso, 1981; Tong et al.,
2004).
Parking accumulation is the total number of vehicles parked at a particular interval of time. It is
generally represented by the bar graph called accumulation curve/pro- file. It shows the variation in the
parking accumulation for a given parking facility over a specified period of time or survey period. Tong
et al. (2004) developed a methodology to estimate the parking accumulation profile for whole day using
surveys at parking lots and cluster analysis which consumes less time compared to observation surveys
for whole day. Parking volume is the total number of vehicles parked through a given time duration or
survey period. It is note- worthy that it doesn't account repetition of the same vehicle. So, it only reckoned
the number of vehicles entered during the survey period. conditions. Study revealed the high parking
demand and spill-over condition throughout the survey period at the study locations. One of the major
reasons they identified for parking problem was the nominal parking charges (₹20 for each hour with
maximum of ₹100). Moreover, lack in last mile connectivity at most of the places was the identified
reason for spill-over condition at parking places. According to the past studies, it is required to set high
price for parking to reduce/stabilize the usage of private vehicle.
Capacity is the total number of parking space/bays available for parking at a particular parking lot.
Occupancy factor or parking index for particular parking facility is the total number of parked vehicles at
a specified duration, i.e., accumulation divided by the capacity. It is also obtained by dividing the parking
load by the capacity for a given time interval. It is a measure of efficiency of parking lot that how effectively
it is being utilized.
Parking load represents the total area under the accumulation curve. It is generally obtained by multiplying
the number of vehicles occupying parking space for the particular time interval with that time interval. It
is expressed as vehicle- hours.
Average parking duration is obtained by dividing parking load (vehicle-hours) by the total number of
vehicles parked during the whole survey period. It can also be obtained as sum of parking duration of all
vehicles divided by total number of vehicles parked
throughout the survey period. Parking turnover is a ratio obtained by dividing the total number of vehicles
parked for the whole duration of survey to the total number of parking

space available (i.e., capacity). It is a degree of occupancy of individual parking space in the parking lot.
It gives a view of average number of vehicles that parked in each parking space. It can be conveyed as the
number of vehicles per bay per time duration.
Peak parking saturation is the number of vehicles parked at peak time to the total number of parking space
available.
Peak parking ratio is the ratio obtained by dividing number of vehicles parked at peak time to average
number of vehicles parked at each time interval.

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 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

These different parking characteristics are used to assess an existing configuration of parking areas or
spaces and determine the adequacy and efficiency. It gives an idea about how long the parking space is
occupied. The accumulation profiles can be used to validate demand models. According to Taylor et al.
(1992), the data regarding the accumulation, duration, occupancy and parking turnover are very much useful
for making or supporting the decision making process. Apart from that, accumulation profiles can also be
used for developing real-time parking information system (Khattak and Polak, 1993; Thompson and
Bonsall, 1997) and for the evaluation of various parking management strategies and impacts of parking
restraint policies on the behaviour of travellers (Hensher and King, 2001; Hunt and Teply, 1993; Topp,
1991). Parmar et al. (2019) studied the parking characteristics at different locations in Delhi National
Capital Region (NCR) to observe the typical view of parking

Fig. 4. Parallel Parking

Fig. 5. Angle Parking

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 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

Automatic Parking Sytems (APC)

Fig.6 .Multi-level parking

Fig 7. Mechanical parking system – no driver

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 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

According to Young et al. (1991), car parking is an issue of significance both at local as well as at strategic
level of planning. In fact, it is one of the main concerns while planning and designing any infrastructure
project. If ignored, it contributes towards traffic congestion and violations, accidents and injuries, wastage
of time and money as well. One of the earlier researches on parking shows that the parking problem arises
mainly due to people want to park exactly in front of the door of their destination (Behrendt, 1940).
The behaviour of inhabitants to park as near as possible to their destination tends to increase the
cruising for parking, consequently encouraging them to use curb-side parking.On-street/curb-side parking
proves to be hazardous for through-traffic and also one of the most influencing factors for delay. High
number of on-street parking spaces along the major roads in urban areas affects the local traffic
operations, especially when traffic is dense. Zu et al. (2014) suggested a solution of “division,
construction, adjust & share” for parking management in Wujiang district in China. Box (2004) studied
the accidents caused due to curb parking, especially angled parking. Author stated that curb parking
should be delimited for major roads in cities and showed that the number of accidents associated with
angled parking is two to three times more than that is caused by parallel parking. In most of the big cities
in the world, illegal parking is also a common problem. In Greece, illegal parking in six different cities
has been studied by Spiliopoulou and Antoniou (2012). They have found legal parking spaces were under-
occupied but illegal spaces were fully saturated in many areas. For example, in Kos, they have found that
only 67% of the parking spaces were occupied while illegal parking reached the peak. The reason behind
it is, as stated earlier, the tendency of people to park as near as possible to destination regardless of legal
or illegal parking spaces. The other major factors which encourage illegal parking are inadequate capacity
and enforcement level. Illegal parking seems to be one of the serious problems as the number of motor
vehicle increases. Reduced traffic speed, reduced capacity, delays and congestion, change in modal
choice, loss of revenue from legal parking lots, reduced level of respect to the law compliance, and
accidents are some major effects of illegal parking (Cullinane and Polak, 1992). Searching for empty
parking space is also a reason for more traffic generation and congestion. Shoup (2006) showed that even
a short time for searching a parking space would generate a considerable amount of traffic. In his study
of 11 US cities, it has been shown that 30% of the traffic spend an average of 8.1 min searching for
parking spaces. Arnott and Rowse (2009) have examined the integrated model of parking and congestion
in medium-sized U.S. cities and found that cruising for parking contribute 14% of the cars on road which
generate almost 50% increase in time loss due to congestion. The challenges for parking are exacerbated
as parking supply in general is determined based on parking requirement without having view on how
much it will cost directly and indirectly, now and in future as the parking spaces are built and converted
on valuable lands to meet the requirements (Shoup and Pickrell, 1978; Tumlin, 2012). Hence, it is
important to study each aspect related to parking, so that planners and engineers can give a solution and
make an effective policy to offset the problems. Characteristics and evaluation of parking system,
behaviour of parkers and modelling parking demand are the aspects around which the discussion has been
carried out.
 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

CHAPTER 3

Choice Behaviour Models

The choice of parking type and location is a site reference decision problem tackled daily by the drivers. Accordingly,
these decisions are in fact much more complex as the parkers adopt variety of approaches with the aim of finding
suitable parking space, which requires profound study to understand the behaviour of parkers when they are off the
road. The choice of parkers for a parking space is influenced by aspects of social, economic and environmental factors
like age, income, num- ber of parking space available, parking price, accessibility, seeking time, availability of
guidance system, etc. In certain conditions, the time spent for searching parking space adds significant proportion in
the total travel time, which is why the time factor plays an important role in the choice behaviour of drivers for parking
space (Polak and Axhausen, 1990). Austin (1973) studied the model that examined driver's ultimate destination in a
CBD area using the relations of walk time from parking space to destination and parking cost to simulate the parking
choice behaviour of people. Whitlock (1973) developed a parking lot allocation model based on linear programming
which determines the choice of parking lot with maximum utility and minimum cost of travel. Both above studies
considered the parking lot capacity explicitly, but the trip makers' behaviour has not been accounted aptly due to
extreme point solutions in the model. A model based on entropy maximization methodology has been developed by
Florian and Los (1980), which can measure the impact of alterations in parking policies, such as supply of parking
space, addition or suppression in parking lots, change in parking fees, on parking lot choice. Asakura and Kashiwadani
(1994) identified the effect of parking availability information system on a driver's choice behaviour for parking
space. They formulated multinomial logit (MNL) based disaggregate choice model which can discriminate the
difference in a driver's parking choice behaviour between with and without space availability information considering
driver's prior knowledge about parking lot such as parking fare, walking distance and availability information when
it is shown to driver as effective variables. The study has shown that the drivers with incomplete information are
inclined to pay less attention to walking distance and safety and more to parking fees and other such factors. The
authors also developed a logit model considering traveller's characteristics and parking location characteristics to
estimate the probability of choosing either on-street or off- street parking. Hunt and Teply (1993) derived a nested
logit model by revealed preference survey data near central portion of the CBD area. They found that the behaviour
of people to choose the location of either on-street, off-street or employer- arranged parking in CBD is not only
influenced by cost and distance to final destination but also by other factors like position relative to the trip being
made, nature of surface of parking and willingness of parkers to spend more time in searching and/or waiting for
parking space. Chen et al. (2011) analysed the choice behaviour of people for surface parking lot considering fuzzy
multiple attribute decision making process for optimal parking space choice. They allocated the weight to each
attribute which affects the driver's behaviour. In model validation, they have shown that distance to parking space,
walking distance, status of a lane to parking spaces and status of available parking spaces are the attributes influencing
the driver's choice. One of the limitations of the previous models are that all drivers adopt the same strategy for
parking space choice. They only capture rational aspect of parking choice behaviour but do not consider the individual
psychological characteristics of drivers. In reality, each driver thinks in a different way to select a particular parking
space for the same situation based on their own requirements. As an improvement, Guo et al. (2013) compared two
choice modelsea static game theoretic model which assumes that all drivers make decisions simultaneously with
perfect knowledge of all parking characteristics without considering the varying psychological characteristics of
drivers, and a dynamic neo- additive capacity model which considers individual driver's psychological characteristics
under uncertainty. They concluded that the later has high accuracy for reproducing and predicting driver's parking
choice behaviour which in turn seems to indicate that driver's psychological characteristics, their optimistic or
pessimistic attitudes play significant roles in parking choice process. The model validation has been carried out
considering university campus parking which may have significant difference in parking behaviour from that of other
parking environments. Hence, it is required to test the adaptability of the model for different scenarios. Moreover,
Ottomanelli et al. (2011) proposed a model to study the parking choice behaviour under uncertainty. They used a
possibility theory to represent the inadequate knowledge of driver about the parking as well as transportation system
status with the inclusion of pricing structure for parking, enforcement transportation simulation toolkit (MATSim)
framework with the integration of evolutionary algorithm to include the parking attributes having influence on
decision making. Ni and Sun (2017) have also used the agent-based modelling technique to assess the impact of
parking reservation system (PRS) on parking behaviour. They have considered two vehicle categories broadly the
intelligent vehicles having facility of PRS and the regular ones that can search vacant space manually. The authors
have introduced agent- based simulation considering all parking related components as individual agent to evaluate
the performance of the scenarios with different penetration rates. Penetration rate is the ratio of the intelligent vehicles

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 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

that are able to make parking reservation decisions. Study shows that average travel time increases with the
improvement of penetration
rate for regular vehicles. Sattayhatewa and Smith Jr. (2003) derived the choice
probability model based on logit function to understand the choice behaviour of drivers for parking under special
events. They developed parking lot destination choice and network assignment model to simulate the parker's
behaviour and its impact on traffic. They found walk time to destination and driving cost as a significant parameter
for destination parking lot choice.
Since mixed land use development has commercial activities within residential building areas, there is large demand
for parking space which leads to haphazard parking around the commercial area under residential building during the
working time. Studies revealed the parking sharing policy for mixed residential and commercial land use to
accomplish the demand for parking using available resources.
Han et al. (2018) proposed a parking location choice model for mixed land use considering shared parking policy for
visitor's parking space. They developed MNL model considering age, gender, parking time, seeking/search time,
number of empty space available, total number of parking space provided and tension conditions at other parking lots
and validated it using the TransCAD software. Recently, Antol´ın et al. (2018) studied the parking behaviour
considering the driver's heterogeneities and estimated the mixed logit model to simulate the user's behaviour when
they choose a parking alternative. They considered free on-street parking (FOSP), paid on-street parking (POSP),
paid underground parking (PUP) and park & ride facility in the city of Santander. Study revealed that the users of
POSP and PUP have much lower perception on cruising for parking than those for FOSP, who are willing to spend
more time for searching free parking. policy for illegal parking, distance from parking lot to destination and
congestion level as attributes influencing the choice. As a result, they stated that the model can be used to handle the
change in numerical attributes to assess the change in the user's behaviour to choose a parking space. Waraich and
Axhausen (2012) put forward a model focused on parking space choice using an agent-based model to analyze
individual behaviour on choice. They developed a utility function for parking facility to allocate the utility/ preference
score to each attribute that a person will consider while choosing a particular parking space from a given set of choice.
The model was tested using multi agent transportation simulation toolkit (MATSim) framework with the
integration of evolutionary algorithm to include the parking attributes having influence on decision making. Ni and
Sun (2017) have also used the agent-based modelling technique to assess the impact of parking reservation system
(PRS) on parking behaviour. They have considered two vehicle categories broadly the intelligent vehicles having
facility of PRS and the regular ones that can search vacant space manually. The authors have introduced agent- based
simulation considering all parking related components as individual agent to evaluate the performance of the scenarios
with different penetration rates. Penetration rate is the ratio of the intelligent vehicles that are able to make parking
reservation decisions. Study shows that average travel time increases with the improvement of penetration rate for
regular vehicles. Sattayhatewa and Smith Jr. (2003) derived the choice probability model based on logit function to
understand the choice behaviour of drivers for parking under special events. They developed parking lot destination
choice and network assignment model to simulate the parker's behaviour and its impact on traffic.
They found walk time to destination and driving cost as a significant parameter for destination parking lot choice.
Since mixed land use development has commercial activities within residential building areas, there is large demand
for parking space which leads to haphazard parking around the commercial area under residential building during the
working time. Studies revealed the parking sharing policy for mixed residential and commercial land use to
accomplish the demand for parking using available resources (Han et al., 2018; Qin et al., 2011). Han et al. (2018)
proposed a parking location choice model for mixed land use considering shared parking policy for visitor's parking
space.
They developed MNL model considering age, gender, parking time, seeking/search time, number of empty space
available, total number of parking space provided and tension conditions at other parking lots and validated it using
the TransCAD software. Recently, Antol´ın et al. (2018) studied the parking behaviour considering the driver's
heterogeneities and estimated the mixed logit model to simulate the user's behaviour
when they choose a parking alternative. They considered free on-street parking (FOSP), paid on-street parking
(POSP), paid underground parking (PUP) and park & ride facility in the city of Santander. Study revealed that the
users of POSP and PUP have much lower perception on cruising for parking than those for FOSP, who are willing to
spend more time for searching free parking

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 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

CHAPTER 4
Evaluation of parking systems and its characteristics

At strategic level of planning it is important to evaluate the existing parking facilities to develop level of
service in order to make better future plan and operation. Several approaches have been established in the
past to evaluate the existing parking system performance (LOS) considering different parking characteristics.
At an earlier stage, Yu and Lincoln (1973) investigated various parking variables which are significant to
assess the parking service level and can measure the individual parking efficiency. Saaty and Vargas (1979)
has developed an analytical hierarchy process (AHP) which has been widely used for analytical planning.
The AHP approach has been used by several authors to evaluate parking system using predefined
characteristics (Das and Ahmed, 2018; Sun et al., 2015). Kay and Smith (2000) introduced categorized level
of service approach which is mainly focused on how easy it is to find parking space considering traffic flow
conditions. Smith and Butcher (2008) developed level of service of parking facility as a measure of walking
distance to destination from parking for performance evaluation. The fuzzy model for evaluation of parking
system performance has been used by Dong and Wang (2009). Three aspects from customer satisfaction
point of view, namely safety, convenience and efficiency, have been considered based on expert's objective
evaluation without conducting practical survey and analysis. They found positive relation between customer
satisfaction and the service level of parking area.
Moeinaddinia et al. (2013) used a practical method which can identify the service level of parking lot with
the objectives of sustainable development of the transportation facilities. They used inventory survey to
develop parking inventory level of service (PILOS) and parking demand survey to develop parking demand
level of service (PDLOS) at university area and established parking area level of service (PALOS) by taking
average of the previous two. The key factors they considered for the evaluation of LOS were space utilization
and number of legal and illegal parking as well as availability of parking shades, accessible walking routes
and accessible transit stations. This method can also be applied to other land uses by considering respective
metrics and some required adjustments.
Ye et al. (2013) estimated the level of service for curb-side parking with consideration of parking
accessibility. By conducting traffic survey and using traffic
conflict analysis technique, they defined the events of conflicts to describe the traffic block and conflicts of
parked vehicles caused by non-motorized vehicle flow. They also established a model to relate the events of
conflicts with the velocity of non-motorized vehicles and parked cars, bicycle and e-bike volume, and the
width of bicycle lane, which designated the level of service of curb-side parking facility as the higher the
number of conflict events, the lower the level of service. The study doesn't show any relation between traffic
flow speed and influence of curb parking that supports the level of service definition. Sun et al. (2015) have
used the methodology based on AHP and multi-stage fuzzy comprehensive evaluation to develop a model
which evaluates the operation efficiency, service level and combined comprehensive level of parking lots.
They considered parking utilization rate, average turnover rate, service radius of parking lot (walkability),
accessibility, parking fees and additional services like vehicle maintenance and sundry deposit. Das and
Ahmed (2018) conducted a study to develop level of service for on-street parking facilities. They defined
three categories, viz. parking characteristics (PC), design characteristics (DC) and safety characteristics (SC),
to classify different elements of parking and developed LOS equation whose coefficients (weights) were
estimated by AHP process using user's perception data. In general, still very few techniques/methods have
been developed which can firmly evaluate the parking service level. Some past studies developed an index
for evaluation but did not deliver standard measures which may apply globally.
The weight factor is necessary to apply to different parking met- rics in order to identify the influence of
each factor on the service level. It is required to study different aspects of parking facility and to develop a
methodology which can comprehensively evaluate the parking facilities with consideration of all aspects of
parking lot, parking operation as well as user's perception.
Parking policies play vital roles in developing a well-organized traffic system for an area to enhance the
driving conditions for road users. They also contribute toward optimized use of the available resources for
parking and are helpful from sustain- able transport point of view. Well-structured parking policies
contribute in various ways, to the promotion of efficient use of transport network, lower emissions, higher
densities and better urban design (Institution of Highways and Trans- portation, 2005; Shoup, 2005; Stubbs,
2002). Parking policy should be developed in integration with the local and regional spatial and transport

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE. 15

 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

planning process (Marsden and May, 2006). As discussed in the previous sections, the main concern for high
parking demand is the increasing growth rate of vehicle ownership and extensive usage of private vehicles.
Shoup (1999, 2005) studied the extent to which parking policy had lowered of the resultant density of
residential and commercial land use due to continuation of urban sprawl and encouraged the further car
dependence. Parking demand is highly sus- ceptible to the parking pricing, which can be supported by many
of the above reviewed literatures on parking demand models (e.g., Hensher and King, 2001). The most
widely accepted method for limiting car usage is parking pricing and supply restrictions (Institution of
Highways and Transportation, 2005). Earlier review on impact of parking policies done by Feeney (1986)
concluded that costs paid by drivers when “out-of-vehicle” (either time or money) are substantively more
important than “in-vehicle-cost” in estimating mode choice. For example, in Hong Kong, only 7% of the
total commuters use private cars to travel (Territory Transport Planning Division, MVA Asia, 1993) because
of the low rate of car ownership and high parking charge. Study shows that the price elasticities of trip
generated by private vehicles with respect to charges leviedfor parking is between —0.1 and —0.3, i.e., a
reduction of 1% to 3% will be there for 10% increase in the parking price for the provided conditions (Litman,
2009). Hence, it is important to design a “parking restraint policy” in such a way that it can effectively reduce
the private car usage without affecting the vitality of urban areas and do not result in dispersed development
(Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR), 1998). Also, it is important to
understand the sensitivity of activities in urban centres while making parking provisions (Still and
Simmonds, 2000). Another main concern considered in the parking policies is related to illegal parking and
enforcement to rules and regulations. It is found that almost non-existent of enforcement of the system creates
a tendency to disrespect the system's regulation and causes illegal parking since no fine levied (Spiliopoulou
and Antoniou, 2012). Hence, it is necessary to establish certain regulations for controlled parking
signs, a system to collect parking fees, suitable demarcations, etc., to have a better controlled
parking system. After studying and analysing the parking characteristics for survey area, Chen et
al. (2015) revealed that the combination of parking pricing,inconvenience, lack in ease of access
and lack of parking guidance information leads the drivers to park on curb or at illegal spaces, while
parking spaces at off-street location remain vacant even for long-term parking. They suggested
pricing differentiation a factor to rebalance the use of on- street and off-street parking. In general,
on-street parking should be charged higher than off-street parking, also the fare structure for on-
street parking should be made by duration to make on-street parking unattractive especially for
long-term parking. Study has shown that search time for parking contribute considerably to traffic
congestion (Arnott and Rowse, 2009; Shoup, 2006). Hence, it is essential to develop proper
management system and efficient guiding information system to reduce the search time for parking. The
policies should include the provision of advanced technologies and smart meter for parking systems
(Melanson, 2010; Transport Department, 2017), which efficiently guide the drivers towards right
choice of parking lot and effectively reduce the illegal as well as on-street parking. Integration of
mobile internet system with the development of application which can quickly generate a list of
available parking spaces nearby, would effectively solve the problem (Grazioli et al., 2013; Jebur
and Mahmuddin, 2009). LED street panels can also provide information about routes to the nearby
parking lots and real time status of the empty parking spaces available. In the US, Europe and some
countries in Asia, system of display panels has been installed for multi-level parking system at each
floor which effectively reduces the search time for drivers looking for parking spaces (Ji et al., 2014;
Thompson et al., 1995).
In India, policies and schemes have been scripted in context of urban development with due
provision of parking problems to encourage the use of public transport and discourage the daily use
of private vehicles. Ministry of Urban Development (2006, 2014) recognized that the uncontrolled
parking supply encourages the car dependency and therefore advocates use of parking facilities as
a restraint measure by limiting the available parking spaces and levy high parking fees. It suggested
to give preference to public transport vehi- cles and non-motorized transport modes and allocation
of parking space with easier access to work place from these spaces, which envisioned the use of
sustainable transport system. Ministry of Urban Development (2012) proposed the scheme for
modernization of cities in India, which also recommended to charge high parking fees,

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE. 16

 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

commensurate with the value of land occupied by parking lots as an effective means to reduce
private vehicle usage. Graded parking fee structure should be made to recover the cost of land.
Unified Traffic and Transportation Infrastructure (Planning & Engineering) Centre (2010) also
stressed the need for active parking management and realistic pricing based on the true value of
land to optimize the demand for parking. It endorsed the prioritization of parking of para- transit
and feeder modes over private vehicles. There should not be subsidized parking in public spaces
and users should pay the full cost for using parking facilities based on land opportunity cost, capital
cost, operation and maintenance costs and temporal demand. National Green Tribunal (NGT)
(2017) issued directions towards prohibition of on-street parking of any cars on metalled roads and
provision of strict actions with additional payment of ₹1000 plus normal fine. NITI Aayog (2018)
outlined common considerations of “shared passenger mobility” with several factors that support
and challenge the shared mobility adoption in developing countries like India, pursuing of which
can support more efficient, equitable and sustainable transportation system. Due to lack of firm
parking policy in India which can control the parking behaviour and excessive private vehicle use
in urban areas, parking and congestion are becoming one of the major transportation related
concerns that are still unresolved.

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE. 17

 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

CHAPTER 5
Policy Suggestions and Improvements

Parking policies play vital roles in developing a well-organized traffic system for an area to
enhance the driving conditions for road users. They also contribute toward optimized use of the
available resources for parking and are helpful from sustainable transport point of view. Well-
structured parking policies contribute in various ways, to the promotion of efficient use of
transport network, lower emissions, higher densities and better urban design (Institution of
Highways and Trans- portation, 2005; Shoup, 2005; Stubbs, 2002). Parking policy should be
developed in integration with the local and regional spatial and transport planning process
(Marsden and May, 2006).
As discussed in the previous sections, the main concern for high parking demand is the
increasing growth rate of vehicle ownership and extensive usage of private vehicles. Shoup
(1999, 2005) studied the extent to which parking policy had lowered of the resultant density of
residential and commercial land use due to continuation of urban sprawl and encouraged the
further car dependence. Parking demand is highly susceptible to the parking pricing, which can
be supported by many of the above reviewed literatures on parking demand models (e.g.,
Hensher and King, 2001). The most widely accepted method for limiting car usage is parking
pricing and supply restrictions (Institution of Highways and Transportation, 2005). Earlier
review on impact of parking policies done by Feeney (1986) concluded that costs paid by drivers
when “out-of-vehicle” (either time or money) are substantively more important than “in-
vehicle-cost” in estimating mode choice. For example, in Hong Kong, only 7% of the total
commuters use private cars to travel (Territory Transport Planning Division, MVA Asia, 1993)
because of the low rate of car ownership and high parking charge. Study shows that the price
elasticities of trip generated by private vehicles with respect to charges levied for parking is
between —0.1 and —0.3, i.e., a reduction of 1% to 3% will be there for 10% increase in the
parking price for the provided conditions (Litman, 2009). Hence, it is important to design a
“parking restraint policy” in such a way that it can effectively reduce the private car usage
without affecting the vitality of urban areas and do not result in dispersed development
(Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR), 1998). Also, it is
important to understand the sensitivity of activities in urban centres while making parking
provisions (Still and Simmonds, 2000). Another main concern considered in the parking policies
is related to illegal parking and enforcement to rules and regu- lations. It is found that almost
non-existent of enforcement of the system creates a tendency to disrespect the system's
regulation and causes illegal parking since no fine levied (Spiliopoulou and Antoniou, 2012).
Hence, it is necessary to establish certain regulations for controlled parking signs, a system to
collect parking fees, suitable demarcations, etc., to have a better controlled parking system. After
studying and analysing the parking characteristics for survey area, Chen et al. (2015) revealed
that the combination of parking pricing,inconvenience, lack in ease of access and lack of parking
guidance information leads the drivers to park on curb or at illegal spaces, while parking spaces
at off-street location remain vacant even for long-term parking. They suggested pricing
differentiation a factor to rebalance the use of on- street and off-street parking. In general, on-
street parking should be charged higher than off-street parking, also the fare structure for on-

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE. 18

 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

street parking should be made by duration to make on-street parking unattractive especially
for long-term parking. Study has shown that search time for parking contribute considerably to
traffic congestion (Arnott and Rowse, 2009; Shoup, 2006).
Hence, it is essential to develop proper management system and efficient guiding information
system to reduce the search time for parking. The policies should include the provision of
advanced technologies and smart meter for parking systems (Melanson, 2010; Transport
Department, 2017), which efficiently guide the drivers towards right choice of parking lot and
effectively reduce the illegal as well as on-street parking. Integration of mobile internet system
with the development of application which can quickly generate a list of available parking spaces
nearby, would effectively solve the problem (Grazioli et al., 2013; Jebur and Mahmuddin, 2009).
LED street panels can also provide information about routes to the nearby parking lots and real
time status of the empty parking spaces available. In the US, Europe and some countries in Asia,
system of display panels has been installed for multi-level parking system at each floor which
effectively reduces the search time for drivers looking for parking spaces (Ji et al., 2014;
Thompson et al., 1995).
In India, policies and schemes have been scripted in context of urban development with due
provision of parking problems to encourage the use of public transport and discourage the daily
use of private vehicles. Ministry of Urban Development (2006, 2014) recognized that the
uncontrolled parking supply encourages the car dependency and therefore advocates use of
parking facilities as a restraint measure by limiting the available parking spaces and levy high
parking fees. It suggested to give preference to public transport vehi- cles and non-motorized
transport modes and allocation of parking space with easier access to work place from these
spaces, which envisioned the use of sustainable transport system. Ministry of Urban
Development (2012) proposed the scheme for modernization of cities in India, which also
recommended to charge high parking fees, commensurate with the value of land occupied by
parking lots as an effective means to reduce private vehicle usage. Graded parking fee structure
should be made to recover the cost of land. Unified Traffic and Transportation Infrastructure
(Planning & Engineering) Centre (2010) also stressed the need for active parking management
and realistic pricing based on the true value of land to optimize the demand for parking. It
endorsed the prioritization of parking of para- transit and feeder modes over private vehicles.
There should not be subsidized parking in public spaces and users should pay the full cost for
using parking facilities based on land opportunity cost, capital cost, operation and maintenance
costs and temporal demand. National Green Tribunal (NGT) (2017) issued directions towards
prohibition of on-street parking of any cars on metalled roads and provision of strict actions with
additional payment of ₹1000 plus normal fine. NITI Aayog (2018) outlined common
considerations of “shared passenger mobility” with several factors that support and challenge
the shared mobility adoption in developing countries like India, pursuing of which can support
more efficient, equitable and sustainable transportation system. Due to lack of firm parking
policy in India which can control the parking behaviour and excessive private vehicle use in
urban areas, parking and congestion are becoming one of the major transportation related
concerns that are still unresolved.

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE. 19

 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

Introduction and Impacts of Car sharing

Fig.8.Car pooling
In last few decades, as a measure to reduce vehicle ownership and private vehicle traffic as well
as to motivate multimodal mobility, efforts have been made to provide new urban transport
alternatives. Doing so will enable accessible, equitable, efficient and safe transportation options.
Carsharing is one of these alternatives, which provides access to users of the vehicles as needed,
often renting vehicles on an hourly or daily basis or paying monthly dues for use in a network of
convenient locations-usually in dense urban environments. The concept of carsharing is based on
the notion that the number of vehicles required to accomplish the demand of group of individuals
is less when they share vehicles than when each individual has his/her own vehicle. In the last 20
years, carsharing emerged as an innovative transportation mode across the world and more broadly
has undergone an evolution in the types of operational models. There are four major forms of
carsharing currently in operation, including:
(1) round trip carsharing, which is a traditional system in which users have to return cars to
operators at the stations where they were picked up.(2) one-way or point-to- point carsharing ,
where users can pick up the vehicle from one point and leave it at another near to destination, and
if they need a car later on, they can pick another one ; (3) peer-to-peer (P2P) car- sharing which
brings privately owned vehicles into the car- sharing network and individuals can access those
vehicle fleet through the third party; and (4) fractional ownership , in which individuals, usually
three to six, depending on the carmaker or model, co-lease or buy a car.

In its young history, carsharing has grown substantially having a potential to change the face of
urban transport and mobility, to reduce the transportation-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
as well as to reduce the amount of land designated for parking. Number of studies have shown that
carsharing has benefits in lowering the car usage frequency, overall reductions in vehicle
kilometres travelled, laying of car ownership and also it can cut the CO2 emission up to 45%e 55%
per household. Earlier surveys found that the convenient neighbourhood locations and reliable
availability and economic reasons like cost saving and need for the additional vehicle are the most
important motivating factors to adopt the carsharing system. The system additionally have the
users who are sensitive to environmental and traffic congestion problems. These factors greatly
influence the mindset of middle- and lower-income group people who have major population share

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE. 20

 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

in developing countries. Hence, a concept of carsharing can easily be adopted by them. Normally,
carsharing is more likely to flourish when people are more aware of environmental concerns; when
driving impediments such as high parking costs and traffic congestion are extensive; when car
ownership costs are rather high; and when alternative modes of transportation are easily accessible.
Adequate studies have been done in last two decades showing the positive impact of carsharing on
urban mobility which has great importance to diminish the parking demand.

It can provide society with more efficient car usage and reduction in the space allocated for
transportation infrastructure (e.g., parking). In addition, it improves the quality of life and the
economic vitality of urban areas by reducing the extensive developments and traffic congestion.
As the vehicles used more intensively, the required space diminishes and there is less likely to park
unused in parking lots of various land uses. In general, the integration of carsharing into land use
and transportation policies aids in achieving overall environmental and sustainable development
goals.

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE. 21

 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

CHAPTER 6

Summary
This paper reviews the past studies emphasised on the parking characteristics and developments in
models for parking choice behaviour, both at aggregate and disaggregate level. The paper also
discusses different methods for estimating demand for parking space. Variety of approaches like
linear regression, least square regression, unit graph technique, logistic models, principal
component analysis, random utility and game theories, gaussian mixture model, and gray
correlation analysis have been used for developing parking demand forecasting models. Parking
problems are more serious in developing economies and limited research has been directed in their
context so far. As a result, urban transportation planners should thoroughly understand the
interaction of parking parameters at planning and designing stage. A number of factors play
important roles in influencing choice. Behavior and demand for parking, which can be broadly
classified as psychological and socioeconomic characteristics of drivers, characteristics of parking
facility and guidance system, characteristics of an alternative mode as well as impact of parking
policies. Literature suggests that out-vehicle costs, which may be the combination of parking
charges, cruising time and walk time, are more important to users than in-vehicle costs like fuel
cost, travel time, etc. The studies discussing the policies, which may be useful for effective
utilization of available resources and having positive impact on the sustainable transportation
concept, have been reviewed. It is remarkable that parking policy should be considered as an
integral part of transport planning and management. In general, to freeze or reduce the private
vehicle traffic in urban areas, car-restrained parking policy and improvements in public transit have
key roles. Private vehicle traffic restriction can be achieved through parking restrictions, which are
more environmentally favorable because they produce less noise, air pollution and driver stress. In
addition, parking restraint policy affects different users, including residents, commuters, customers,
visitors and commercial traffic, in different ways which reflects easy access to residents and
commercial traffic against commuters who can most easily shift to public transit and park-and-ride.
It should be noted that, increasing parking supply is not a solution of parking problems.
Improvement in the parking performance and attention to sustainability will help trans- port
planners to develop sustainable parking eco-system. At last, the major impact of introduction of
carsharing have been discussed in brief, which has the potential to provide significant economic,
social and environmental benefits. Taken together, all these studies present useful information to
readers for the entire parking system.

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE. 22

 EVALUATION OF PARKING DEMANDS AND FUTURE REQUIREMENTS IN URBAN AREAS

REFERENCES
.

[1] Aderamo, A.J., Salau, K.A., 2013. Parking patterns and problems in developing
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Department of Civil Engineering, MITE. 23